Course 2 Irregular Plurals and Word Formation

8/2/2019 Course 2 Irregular Plurals and Word Formation

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Irregular plural of nouns and word formation

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Many medical terms do not follow the simple rule of pluralisation,that is, adding -s or -es . They have specialised forms due to their Latin or Greek origin. However, despite having an irregular plural form, many Englishnouns also have a regular one. This may be the case of carcinoma or serum .Here are some examples:

SINGULAR PLURAL EXAMPLE

-a -ae gingiva/ gingivae

-en -ina foramen/ foramina

-ex, -ix, -yx -ices appendix/ appendices

-is -es thesis/ theses

-ma -mata stigma/ stigmata

-nx, -anx, -inx, -ynx -nges larynx/ larynges

-on -a spermatozoon/spermatozoa

-um -a ovum/ ova

-us -i embolus/ emboli

1. Fill in the missing singular or plural forms in the table below:

Singular Plural

1. alga2. apices3. appendix4. atrium5. axes6. bacterium7. bases8. bronchi9. calyx10. cervix

11. chorda12. conchae13. condylomata14. corneae15. corpora16. cortex17. criterion18. datum19. diagnosis

20. diverticulum21. embolus22. fibulae23. foramina24. fungi25. ganglion26. genera27. gingiva28. glomerulus29. humerus30. hypothesis31. irides32. larva33. medium34. naris35. omenta36. ova37. phalanx38. pharynx39. radius

40. schemata41. septum42. serum43. spermatozoon44. stimuli45. stratum46. synthesis47. testes48. thesis49. vertebra50. villi




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2. Use the nouns in the box to fill in gaps 1-10:

The body can be studied from its simplest to its most complex level, beginning with the cell. The cell is the functional basic 1. ...... of life. Cells arethe functional units of all living organisms. There are many different types of cells in the human body. They carry out 2. ......, the sum of all of the physicaland chemical activities which occur in the body. The chemical ATP(adenosine triphosphate) provides the energy for metabolic 3. ......, generallydescribed as the energy compound of the cell.

A cell has several components:- nucleus- nucleolus- genetic material- nuclear membrane- endoplasmic reticulum

- ribosome- cytoplasm- mitochondrion- lysosome- centriole- Golgi apparatus- plasma membrane

The nucleus is a highly specialised 4. ...... which serves as theinformation processing and administrative centre of the cell. It has two major functions: it stores the hereditary 5. ...... of the cell, that is the DNA, and itcoordinates the activities of the cell, which include growth, intermediarymetabolism, protein synthesis, and reproduction.

The nucleolus is a prominent sub-nuclear 6. ...... that is not bound bya membrane and resides within the nuclear matrix. It is composed of proteinsand nucleic acids found within the nucleus.

Genetic material is used to store the genetic 7. ...... of an organic lifeform. For all known living organisms, the genetic material is almostexclusively deoxyribonucleic acid, that is, DNA. On the other hand, someviruses use ribonucleic acid, RNA, as their genetic material.

The nuclear membrane is a double lipid 8. ...... that encloses thegenetic material. It serves as the physical barrier separating the contents of the

nucleus from the cytosol. The nuclear membrane has many nuclear poreswhich facilitate and regulate the 9. ...... of materials between the nucleus andthe cytoplasm.

The endoplasmic reticulum is an organelle which forms aninterconnected 10. ...... of tubules, vesicles, and cisternae within cells. Throughthese cisternae synthesised proteins are transported.

Verbs can be changed into nouns through suffixation. Some such commonsuffixes are:

SUFFIX VERB NOUN

-age pass passage

-al arrive arrival

-ance insure insurance

-ation investigate investigation

-ence depend dependence

-ing read reading

-ion select selection

-ment develop development-our behave behaviour

-sion (verbs ending in -d or -t ) expand expansion

-sis emphasise emphasis

-tion compete competition

-ure fail failure

-y discover discovery

3. Change the word in brackets to make a noun that fits in the gap:

Ribosomes are the 1. ...... (COMPOSE) of cells that make proteinsfrom amino acids. They are made from complexes of RNAs and proteins.

The cytoplasm is enclosed within the cell membrane. It containsorganelles such as the endoplasmic reticulum and the mitochondria, eachnecessary for the 2. ...... (REPRODUCE) and survival of the cell. The area of the cytoplasm outside the individual organelles is called the cytosol. Since itcomposes 54% of the total volume of the cell, it is the largest structure in thecell. The cytosol contains thousands of enzymes responsible for the 3. ......(CATALYSE) of glycolysis and gluconeogenesis and for the biosynthesis of sugars, fatty acids, and amino acids. The cytosol breaks molecules down inorder for the individual organelles to use them.

bilayer exchange information materialmetabolism network organelle reactions

structure unit




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A mitochondrion is a membrane-enclosed organelle. Mitochondriasupply cellular energy. In addition to this, they are involved in a range of other processes, such as 4. ...... (SIGNAL), cellular 5. ...... (DIFFERENTIATE), celldeath, as well as the control of the cell cycle and cell growth. They also play arole in the aging process.

Lysosomes are the garbage disposal system of the cell. They are usedfor the 6. ...... (DIGEST) of macromolecules or foreign bacteria that invade acell. Lysosomes also help to repair damage to the plasma membrane byserving as a membrane patch, sealing the wound.

A centriole is a barrel-shaped cell structure. Its position determinesthe position of the nucleus and plays a crucial role in the spatial 7. ......(ARRANGE) of the cell.

The primary function of the Golgi apparatus is to process and package macromolecules, such as proteins and lipids, after their synthesis. Italso plays a particularly important role in the processing of proteins for 8. ......(SECRETE).

The plasma membrane, also called cell membrane or plasmalemma, isa thin and structured bilayer of phospholipid and protein molecules thatenvelopes the cell. It separates the interior of a cell from its surroundings and

controls the exchanges that take place. Cell surface membranes often containcell adhesion proteins and receptor proteins. Apart from these, there are other proteins with a 9. ...... (VARY) of functions. Membrane proteins are importantfor the regulation of cell 10. ...... (BEHAVE) and the organisation of cells intissues.

Nouns can be formed from adjectives as well through the same process of suffixation. Here is a list of suffixes:

4. Use suffixes from the table above to make words that fit in the gaps:

1. Undesirable reactions produced by the normal immune system mayeasily lead to ...... (HYPERSENSITIVE).

2. Lack of iron in haemoglobin results in iron-...... (DEFICIENT)anaemia.

3. The method used to trace the ...... (INHERIT) of a gene throughout afamily is called gene tracking.

4. Anarthria is the condition when the patient loses the ...... (ABLE) tospeak words properly.

5. The ...... (INCOMPETENT) of the nurse was something I foundshocking.

6. Anaemia is often associated with ...... (WEAK).7. There are patients who cannot recognise their body image and cannot

tell the ...... (DIFFERENT) between right and left.8. The cellular intricacy of the endothelium is evidenced by the ......

(MULTIPLE) of cell types participating after injury.9. Ultraviolet rays can cause temporary ...... (BLIND).10. Eustachian tube ...... (PATENT) refers to how much the Eustachian

tube is open.11. There are numerous disorders that have their roots in childhood or

...... (ADOLESCENT).12. The patient is suffering from a renal .... .. (INSUFFICIENT).13. Put in layman’s terms, myopia means ...... (NEARSIGHTED). 14. A frozen shoulder is characterised by a period of ...... (IMMOBILE)

of the joint.15. Pneumonia may occur if a person’s ...... (RESISTANT) is lowered by

a bout of flu.16. During general anaesthesia the patient loses...... (CONSCIOUS).17. Glucose ...... (TOLERANT) test is carried out to test a patient for

diabetes mellitus.

18. The ...... (COMPLEX) of the tumour puzzled the scientists.19. Multiple sclerosis gets progressively worse and causes ...... (NUMB)

in the limbs.20. Nature is a person’s genetic make-up which directly affects ......

(PERSONAL), behaviour or risk of diseases.

SUFFIX ADJECTIVE NOUN

-ance important importance

-cy malignant malignancy

-ence present presence-ion perfect perfection

-ness sick sickness

-ity alkaline alkalinity

-y modest modesty




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Nouns can be suffixed in order to form adjectives. Some such suffixes can befound in the table below:

SUFFIX NOUN ADJECTIVE

-able reason reasonable

-al structure structural

-ant brilliance brilliant-ary heredity hereditary

-ful harm harmful

-ic cyst cystic

-ical period periodical

-ish fever feverish

-ive expense expensive

-less harm harmless

-ly day daily

-ous poison poisonous

-ular tube tubular

-y fault faulty

5. For gaps 1-10 make an adjective from the noun in capitals:

Tissues are 1. ...... (CELL) organisational levels intermediate betweencells and a complete organism. The cells that make up a tissue are notnecessarily 2. ...... (IDENTITY), but together they carry out a specificfunction. The organs are formed by the 3. ...... (FUNCTION) groupingtogether of multiple tissues.

The human body comprises four primary tissue types:- 4. ...... (CONNECTION) tissue- 5. ...... (EPITHELIUM) tissue- muscle tissue

- nerve tissue.The cells of the epithelial tissue are closely knit together to form

continuous sheets that function as linings in different parts of the body. Thishelps to keep the organs of the body separate, in place and protected. There aremany types of connective tissue in the body. Connective tissue adds supportand structure to the body. Most types of connective tissue contain 6. ......(FIBRE) strands of the protein collagen that add strength to connective tissue.

Muscle tissue is a specialised tissue which can contract. It containsthe specialised proteins actin and myosin which slide past one another and

allow movement. Nerve tissue contains two types of cells: neurons and glialcells. Nerve tissue has the ability to generate and conduct 7. ......(ELECTRICITY) signals in the body. The nerve tissue in the brain thenreceives these electrical messages and transmits them down the 8. ......(SPINE) cord to the body. The simplest tissues are membranes. 9. ......(MUCUS) membranes secrete mucus, a thick fluid that lubricates surfaces and protects the underlying tissue. Serous membranes line body cavities and cover organs. They secrete a thin, 10. ...... (WATER) fluid. In their turn, tissues arearranged into organs which serve specific functions. The organs themselvesare grouped into body systems. These systems function as a whole, they arenot independent of the others, in order to maintain the stability of the body,called homeostasis.

Apart from nouns, verbs can also be suffixed to become adjectives. Here aresome such suffixes:

SUFFIX VERB ADJECTIVE

-able rely reliable

-ible respond responsible

-ive abuse abusive

-ate consider considerate

-ent refer referent

6. Make adjectives from the verbs in brackets:

1. A ...... (CONCLUDE) diagnosis has not been made yet.2. The patient refused the dinner saying that it was not ... ... (EAT).3. Teens who are drug ...... (DEPEND) are at risk for less achievement

socially and economically when they become adults.4. Old Mrs Sanders is not vey ...... (COOPERATE) today, she keeps

refusing to eat.5. The explanation of the procedure did not prove to be ......

(COMPREHEND) to the patient.6. There are several hospital ...... (MANAGE) jobs in today’s paper. 7. Are these treatments any ...... (DIFFER)?8. There are two main varieties of rabies in humans: the furious one

with an extremely ...... (REST) patient or the paralytic one.9. I am afraid that the treatment has not been very . ..... (EFFECT) so far.




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10. Please find the list of ...... (ACCEPT) medication on the back of your referral.

Adjectives can become verbs if certain suffixes are added to them. Here is alist of such verbal suffixes:

SUFFIX ADJECTIVE VERB

-ate active activate

-en dark darken

-ise popular popularise

-ify ample amplify

7. Make verbs from the adjectives in brackets, paying attention to verbforms:

1. It would ...... (SAD) me to hear that poor old Mr Jefferson passedaway.

2. Failure to ...... (INTENSE) the therapy may lead to suboptimalcontrol of the patient’s condition.

3. The intention is to ...... (PRIVATE) as many clinics as possible.4. In patients with a disc prolapsed, the back may ..... . (STIFF).5. The hospital has been closed down to be ...... (MODERN).6. The easiest way to ...... (PURE) water is to boil it for 10 minutes to

kill any disease-causing bacteria.7. I went to the chemist’s to ask for something to ...... (THICK) my hair.8. Dora intends to ...... (SPECIAL) in endocrinology.9. Apply the plaster cast as quickly as possible as the cement may ......

(SOLID) and become completely unusable.10. Put a compress on that eye of yours if you don’t want it to ......

(BLACK).

Suffixes can be added to nouns in order to form verbs.

SUFFIX NOUN VERB

-en strength strengthen

-ify class classify

-ate chlorine chlorinate

-ise priority prioritise

8. Change the nouns in the box into verbs and use them in the sentences below:

1. We will need to ...... the cause of the infection.2. There are several causes of having to ...... frequently.3. Potassium iodide and potassium iodate ...... at different temperatures.4. A sliding buccal gingival flap is elevated from around the teeth and

advanced forward, leaving the posterior defect to ...... . 5. Please ...... the surgeon about the availability of the theatre.6. I would like to .... .. the importance of the post-surgical follow-up.7. When the doctor saw the consultant, he started to ..... . the nurses.8. Have your boil seen by a dermatologist if you do not want it to ... ... .9. I know you would like to have been discharged already but

unfortunately we will need to ...... the period of your treatment.10. This waiting room looks awful, we will need to ...... a little.

Roots describing diseases

ROOT MEANING EXAMPLE

alg(o); algi(o);algesi(o)

pain algophobia

carcin(o) cancer, carcinoma carcinogenesis

cyst(o); cyst(i) unusual growth in the body shaped like a pouch

cystadenoma

lith calculus, stone enterolith

onc(o) tumour oncology

path(o) disease pathology

py(o) pus pyogenic

pyr(o); pyret(o) fever, fire pyretic

scler(o) hard sclerosis

tox(o); toxic(o) poison toxicology

crystal decor emphasis granulehaste identity length note

pustule urine




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9. Use the following words to complete the sentences below:

1. Any infected mucocele is known as a ...... .2. ...... is the presence of poisonous substances in the blood.3. Use a(n) ...... in order to measure the sensitivity of the skin to pain.4. If too many fats and minerals are deposited on the walls of an artery,

the patient will inevitably develop ...... .5. A(n) ...... is a crystalline body formed within the body by accretion or

concretion of normal or abnormal bile components.6. ...... of unknown origin is a condition in which the patient has a high

temperature but despite investigations physicians cannot find anexplanation.

7. ...... is the study of unusual or diseased organs.8. Most current ...... viruses are engineered for tumour selectivity.

9. ...... , also known as bile duct cancer, is a malignant growth in one of the ducts that carries bile from the liver to the small intestine.

10. ...... is an accumulation of pus in the pleural cavity.

algesimeter atherosclerosis cholangiocarcinomacholelith oncolytic pathophysiology pyocele pyothorax pyrexia

toxaemia

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Course 2 Irregular Plurals and Word Formation