COST Action E27 - BFW - der forstliche Partner für Praxis ...bfw.ac.at/020/profor/pdf/country/coste27_Slovenia.pdfforests has changed as well (Anko & Golob & Smolej 1985,Anko 1987)

1. Introduction

Slovenia lies in the southern part of Central Europebetween Austria, Italy, Hungary, and Croatia. TheRepublic of Slovenia was established in 1991 andprior to that was a republic within the Socialist Fede-rative Republic of Yugoslavia. It covers 20,273 km2

and has a population of 1.9 million.Forests cover 57 % of the land area (Figure 1). The

basic characteristic of Slovenian forests is its extreme

diversity of flora and fauna. Within a relatively smallsurface area are found the Alps, the Mediterranean,the Dinara Mountain massif, and the PannonianBasin (Boncina & Winkler 1999). The altitude variesfrom 2864 m above sea level (Triglav in the JulianAlps) to zero (at the Adriatic Sea); most of Sloveniaconsists of mountain ranges of medium height. Therelief varies considerably as do the climate condi-tions: mediterranean in the west, temperate humidin the central part, and continental in the east. Muchof Slovenia is characterized by a temperate humid

Country Report - Slovenia 325

COST Action E27Protected Forest Areas in Europe – Analysis and Harmonisation

(PROFOR)

Country Report - Slovenia

Working Group 1 – Task 1.1.Description of the historical background that has led to the development of particular national

Protected Forest Area frameworks

ANDREJ BONCINA*

*Corresponding author: [email protected] of Ljubljana, Biotechnical Faculty,

Department of Forestry and Renewable Forest Resources, Ljubljana, Slovenia

Abstract. The basic characteristics of Slovenian forests are their extreme diversity of flora and fauna, hugeforest area (57 % of the land area) and well preserved natural forests. There is a long history of protectedforests in Slovenia: some documents indicate that by the 17th century some forests were already protected, in1852 the Forest Act was passed introducing the category of protection forests, and in 1892 some forests wereprotected as virgin forests. Today, categories of protected forest areas (PFA) are regulated by the Forest Act andNature Conservation Act; they are partly harmonized and overlapping. The main categories under the first actare protection forests and special purpose forests, covering 6.5 % and 5.4 % of total forest area, respectively.The main categories under the second are parks, nature reserves and monuments; there is one national (83,800ha), three regional (44,000 ha) and 41 landscape (106,000 ha) parks, including forest and non-forest areas.PFA categories can be declared mainly by government regulations. It is expected that the area of protectedforest areas will increase in the future. Natura 2000 sites potentially represent 35 % of the Slovenian territory.In addition to PFAs (area, proportion, regime), the management regime across the whole forest area is evenmore important in relation to nature conservation and biodiversity.

Any views or opinions expressed in this document are those of the authors and not necessarily those of anyofficial body within the signatory states.

Keywords: protection forest, forest reserve, multipurpose forest management, forest planning, natureconservation, Slovenia

climate with an average annual temperature of 6-9°Cand well-distributed precipitation (1100-1400mm/year) over the whole year with a maximum insummer and autumn. Soil types are very diverse.Karstic terrain covers 44 % of Slovenian territory.The rest is covered by clastic sedimentary rock, andto a lesser extent (<10 %) by felsic, igneous andvarious metamorphic rocks. The predominant soilsare cambisols and leptosols (Vidic et al. 1998). Froma phytogeographic point of view Slovenia is dividedinto six highly different regions: the alpine, pre-alpine, dinaric, submediterranean, pre-dinaric, andsubpannonian. Zonality of vegetation is clearlydefined due to distinctive orographic factors, diffe-rent soil substratum and the well-preserved foreststructure.

The main forest types are the following (% of totalforest area): mixed hornbeam-oak forests andcommon oak forests (8.2 %), flood plain forests,maple and ash forests (0.7 %), acidophilous andthermophilous oak forests (2.8 %), beech forests ofhill and sub-montane belts (18.2 %), beech forests ofmontane and alti-montane belts (15.1 %), thermo-philous beech forests (6.0 %), acidophilous beech

forests (18.9 %), silver fir-beech forests (14.4 %),silver fir-spruce forests (6.5 %), pine forests (3.5 %),hop-hornbeam and manna ash woods (5.2 %) andsub-alpine forests (0.6 %). (Boncina et al. 2001). InEU terminology the forest types mentioned abovecan be classified as mixed oak hornbeam forest (8%), montane beech and mixed beech-fir-spruceforest (41 %), lowland and submontane beech forest(30 %), and mixed spruce and fir forest (7 %). Otherforest types cover less than 5 % of the total forestarea.

According to Slovenian Forest Service (SFS) data,the average growing stock (volume) amounts to 241m3/ha (SFS Report 2003), the highest proportion ofthe total growing stock going to Picea abies (32 %)and Fagus sylvatica (32 %). They are followed by:Abies alba (8.32 %), Quercus petraea (6.22 %), Pinussylvestris (4.83 %), Carpinus betulus (2.56 %), Acerpseudoplatanus (2.53 %), Castanea sativa (1.66 %),Ostrya carpinifolia (1.31 %), Larix decidua (1.21 %),Pinus nigra (1.20 %). The proportions for other treespecies are lower than 1 % per species. The treespecies mentioned are a component part of thenatural vegetation.

COST Action E27 – Protected Forest Areas in Europe – Analysis and Harmonisation (PROFOR)326

Figure 1: Forested area of Slovenia (SFS 2001) with distribution of protection forests and forest reserves

The forests of Slovenia cover 1,149,633 ha (SFSReport 2003). According to the Forest Act, Paragraph2: “A forest is an area of land, covered with forest treesin the form of stands or other forest growths whichprovide any of the functions of a forest. Forest, accor-ding to this law also includes overgrown plots of landwhich are defined as forest in the spatial part of theforest management plan. The forest infrastructurewhich is apportioned to individual plots is an integralpart of the forest. The following are not forest withinthe meaning of this law: individual forest trees; groupsof forest trees up to an area of 0.05 ha; non-autochtho-nous riverine and windbelt trees; avenues; pasturesovergrown with forest trees if they are used for pastu-ring, irrespective of how they are described in the landregister.”

Approximately one quarter of forests are stateowned, three quarters are owned privately. Small-scale forest properties prevail with the average size ofa private forest property being about 2.4 ha.

2. History

2.1. Forests, forestry and protected forest areasin Slovenia

Palynological research illustrates early forest deve-lopment. Sercelj (1996) concluded that in Slovenia inthe period up to 10,000 – 7,000 years before present,the primary forest phases in mountainous areasfollowed a forest succession pattern of: Pinus-Betula-Picea > Quercetum mixtum > Corylus > Fagus >Abieti-Fagetum.

The primary forest use was gathering and huntingand forests probably covered more than 90 % of thetotal area. Early herdsmen and farmers started clea-ring forested land by burning. In antiquity andRoman times, settlements and roads were built anddeforestation was more intensive in the Mediterra-nean part of Slovenia. Slavs settled this region in the7th century. Land colonisation in the lowlandsreached its maximum in the 10th century and latercolonisation continued in hilly and mountainousregion. The forest was important as a source of fuelwood, pasture and raw material for differentmedieval crafts. Forest use was partially regulatedthrough medieval land registers. However, there werehuge differences between the various regions. TheMediterranean region was deforested around the

year 1000. In the Dinaric Mountain massif which wasunsuitable for settlements and agricultural use, vastvirgin forests were preserved until the 19th century.In the 15th, 16th, 17th and 18th centuries many forestordinances were issued for individual areas whichnow form Slovenia, in an attempt to prevent devasta-ting forestry practices and to direct inhabitants tomore rational use of forests. In some of these, e.g. inthe Teresian forest ordinance (1771) the protectionof forests was mentioned. The oldest known forestregulation dates back to 1406 and was passed byFrederick of Ortenburg for the Kocevje region;however, it regulated hunting rights (birds, dormice)much more than timber use. Some documents (e.g.the Annex to the Ortenburg Forest Regulation from1614) indicate that already at that time some forestswere protected because of their role in defenceagainst Turkish invasions (Mohoric 1958). Mostregulations (forest ordinances, mine ordinances) forforest-use were applied in the regions wheredemands for timber were the largest, e.g. within thevicinity of coal mines, ironworks and larger towns. In1724, the first yield regulation (plan) for forestsbelonging to the mining industry in Idrija was issued(Gaspersic 1995). In 1771, the Forest Ordinance forCarniola and Istria was passed, regulating forest use(silviculture, protection). In 1853, the former servi-tudes were bought out and farmers became ownersof the forests and often degraded them.

In the18th and 19th century forest use intensified.With the development of industry and railwayconstruction (Vienna – Ljubljana – Triest in1857),timber became a valuable market product. In 1860the successful afforestation of barren karst landstarted. To ensure sustainability (i.e. sustained yield)forest management plans were drawn up for state(and some feudal) properties. In 1771, the first forestmanagement plan was issued. In 1852 the Forest Actwas passed introducing the category of “protectionforests”. Since 1852 the legislative criteria for the desi-gnation of “protection forests” and the understan-ding of the protection function of forests in generalhave changed. As a result, the area of protectionforests has changed as well (Anko & Golob & Smolej1985, Anko 1987). Zumer (1976) analysed the area ofprotection forests in Slovenia in the years 1885, 1900,1910 and 1937. Protection forests covered the largestportion in 1900 when they encompassed 30.2 % ofthe total forest area.

In 1892, Leopold Hufnagl introduced an originalselective forest management method in the Kocevjeregion and only a few years later Heinrich Scholl-


mayer included the “control method” (permanentcontrol and monitoring) in forest management inPostojna region. Both strongly influenced futuregenerations of foresters in Slovenia. Their workrepresents an example of forest protection throughappropriate nature-based forest management.Hufnagl protected some compartments in theKocevje region as virgin forests through forestmanagement plans and also some areas as protectionforests (FMP 1892, FMP 1893a, FMP 1993b). In 1912Schollmayer defined a specific forest type (manage-ment class) – “protection forest” (FMP 1912). At thattime the private forests had no regular forestmanagement and at the end of 19th century, whenmany people abandoned their property due toeconomic hardship, forest succession started onabandoned land (Table 1).

In the period between WWI and II, forest manage-ment plans were obligatory for forest propertieslarger than 300 ha. In the years following WWIImore intensive harvesting occurred. In 1948/49, theForestry Institute and the Forestry Faculty were esta-blished and in 1949 clear-cutting as a managementmethod was prohibited by law. Since 1945 sustai-nable, multipurpose and close-to-nature concepts offorest management have been implemented. In 1947the Forest Act was declared, making forest planningobligatory for the whole forest area. Forest Manage-ment Organisations were regionally organised,taking care of both private and state-owned forests.In the fifties, forest management planning was intro-duced for the whole forest area irrespective of owner-ship and financial assistance for forest investmentswas established. The condition of the forests wasgreatly improved and harvesting in private forestswas strongly supervised and regulated. In the sixties,phytocoenology was broadly introduced into Slove-nian forestry. In the seventies, the concept ofmultiple forest use, respecting public and privatedemands, was put forward.

In the late 1970s the forest reserves network wasimproved by the Forest Faculty and the Forest Insti-tute. Many new reserves were established, primarilyfor their forest plant associations, but also based on

naturalness criteria, research goals etc. Altogether173 forest reserves encompassing approx. 9,000 hawere protected. In 1985 the Forest Act dividedprotected forests into two categories: “protectionforests” (serving as protection against erosion, wind,avalanches etc.) and “special purpose forests” (urbanforests, hydrologically important forests, researchareas, etc.).

Protected forests were proposed by foresters andsystematically protected by regulations (obligations,restrictions, prohibitions) at community level and amanagement regime was determined. Some of theforest reserves were included in the inventory of“natural heritage” undertaken by the nature conser-vation organisations.

In 1991 Slovenia gained its independence, afterbeing a part of Yugoslavia. In 1993 a new Forest Actwas passed, providing for nature-based, multipur-pose (forest functions were proposed) and sustai-nable forestry. The Slovenian Forest Service (SFS)was established as a public institute. Among othertasks, it is responsible for monitoring, planning andcontrolling the whole forest area in Slovenia.

In recent years new protection forests and specialpurpose forests have been proposed but the futuredevelopment of the protected forest area is notcompletely clear. The area of protected forests willprobably increase as a large proportion of forests arepart of the SPA and pSCI areas, already designated bythe Slovenian Government, and also due to proposalsabout future regional and landscape parks in Slovenia.However, the need to legally protect forests in order tomeet the requirements of the Habitats Directive is indispute, since the existing legal instruments in place inSlovenia, enable the long term maintenance of thefavourable conservation status of forests.

2.2. Protected forest areas and nature conservation

In the history of nature conservation different formsof protection have been established - ranging fromprotection for a special tree or habitat, a part of a

Table 1: Increasing forest area in Slovenia in the period 1875 – 2002

1875 1947 1961 1970 1980 1990 2000 2002

Forest area (000 ha) 737 879 961 1026 1045 1077 1134 1150

Forest coverage (%) 36 43 48 51 52 53 56 57


nature park or forest reserve, or the condition of(nature) biodiversity etc. Some milestones include:• In 1892 some forest compartments were protected

as virgin forests by the first forest managementplans made for Kocevje region. Any use wasforbidden.

• In 1920, a Memorandum of The Section for NatureMonuments Conservation was issued (Skoberne1995), setting out proposals to conserve the naturalheritage. It suggested that new parks be esta-blished, endangered species protected and that thepublic be made more aware of nature conserva-tion. Large forest areas and special trees were to beprotected. Overall, the Memorandum was notsuccessful but it was partially respected in forestmanagement.

• In 1944, during WWII, an inventory of naturalheritage conservation was made. Protected forestswere mentioned in connection with proposedparks, virgin forests, monument trees, mountainpine vegetation etc. (Sivic 1944).

• After WWII nature conservation areas were regu-lated through numerous legislative regulations.

• In 1962, the results of the first survey of the naturalheritage were published. Some forests, trees andparks were identified for their natural heritage. Thelegislative basis was improved, some sites wereprotected by regulations at community level. Allforest reserves were suitably regulated by forestmanagement planning.

• The Environment Protection Act (1993) andNature Conservation Act (1999) were passed.

• In 2001, the biodiversity conservation strategy waspublished, affirming the value of nature-basedforestry in Slovenia.

• In 2004 full adoption and implementation of theHabitats Directive and the Birds Directive wasachieved through several Governmental decrees andan amendment of the Nature Conservation Act.

3. Current state

3.1. Main types of protected forest areas (PFA)and responsible organizations

PFAs fall within the domain of different acts anddifferent Offices in the field of forestry (Ministry ofAgriculture, Forestry and Food) and environment(Ministry of Environment, Spatial planning andEnergy) (Appendix 1 and 3).

3.1.1 Categories of protected forest area according to the Forest Act

The area of protected forests and their status isviewed within the wider framework of forests andforestry. The following facts are of importance inorder to understand Slovenian forestry:• Nature conservation has traditionally been an

important and constituent part in forestry (seechapter 2). The concept of nature-based, sustai-nable and multifunctional forestry is regulated bythe Forest Act (1993).

• Since the 1950s and 60s forest plans have beenprepared for all Slovenian forests irrespective oftheir ownership. As a consequence, all forests arecovered by plans and included in the forestry infor-mation system. The Slovenian Forest Service (SFS)is responsible for planning and monitoring for thewhole forest area (see chapter 3.3). The manage-ment regime in managed forests of Slovenia corre-sponds to the IUCN protected area Category VI(MOP 2002). The natural structure and composi-tion of forest stands are well preserved. The forestsin the southern part of Slovenia form the largestforest complex in Central Europe.

According to the Forest Act, forests are divided intothree main categories (Table 2, Figure 1):

Table 2: Areas of main forest categories in Slovenia (according to SFS 2001)

According to forest plans in 2001Proposal of SFS in 2004(http://www.zgs.gov.si)

Forest categories Forest area (ha) % of total forest area Forest area (ha)

Total forest area 1,142,126 100.0%

Multifunctional forests 1,006,811 88.1%

Protection forests 74,054 6.5% 95,950

Special purpose forests 61,261 5.4%

- with interventions (50,960) (4.5%)

- no interventions (forest reserve) (10,301) (0.9%) 13,461


• Multifunctional forests.• Protection forests.• Special purpose forests (SPF), - which are further

divided in two sub-categories:• SPF with no intervention (forest reserves), and • SPF with intervention.

Protection forests (PF) and special purpose forests(SPF) can be a part of landscape, regional or nationalparks (see 3.1.2).

Protection forests (PF)The category “Protection Forests” is defined by theForest Act, paragraph 43: »Forests in a critical ecolo-gical situation which protect themselves, their land andlower lying land, and forests in which there is a parti-cular stress on any other ecological function shall bedeclared as protection forests«. The Slovenian ForestService proposed areas of protection forests (PF),which should then be declared as such by theGovernment. PFs are incorporated into forestmanagement plans, and a suitable managementregime is set out. According to SFS data (Table 2)there are 74,054 ha of PF, representing 7 % of thetotal forest area. The proposed areas of PF are now inthe process of being declared. “Protection forests(Forest Act, paragraph 45) shall be declared bynational government regulation, which shall determinethe regime of management for such forest, the executorof this regime and those responsible for providing fundsfor the costs related to the special regime of manage-ment. If this declaring restricts the enjoyment of owner-ship or the exercise of ownership rights to a forest, theowner shall have the right to demand suitable tax reliefor the right to compensation according to regulationson dispossession, or may demand that the Republic ofSlovenia buy this forest. If the owner so demands, thebody responsible for declaring it so shall be bound tobuy the forest.”

Special purpose forests (SPF)Special purpose forests (SPF) are defined by theForest Act, paragraph 44 as follows:(a) Forests in which there is a particular emphasis on

research or a hygiene-health function or foreststhat play a role in the protection of the naturaland cultural heritage shall be declared as specialpurpose forests.

(b) Forests in which there is a particular emphasis onprotection, recreation, tourism, education,defence or aesthetic functions may be declared asspecial purpose forests. Special purpose forests

shall also embrace forest land on which there aredepots or training facilities intended for defenceneeds. The Ministry of Defence shall deal withthem in accordance with this law.

(c) Special purpose forests shall also include forestsin areas which have been declared naturalfeatures of interest according to regulations onthe protection of the natural heritage.

SPF can be declared in two different ways:• SPF under (a) are declared by national government

regulation.• SPF under (b) can be declared either by a munici-

pality or by a national government regulationdepending on the level of public interest in them.

The regulations mentioned above shall determine theregime of forest management, the executor of thisregime and those responsible for providing funds for thecosts relating to the special regime of management orspecial regime of arranging and equipping a specialpurpose forest (Forest Act, Paragraph 46). If declaringa forest to be a SPF restricts the enjoyment of owner-ship or the exercise of ownership rights to a forest, theowner shall have the right to demand suitable tax reliefor the right to compensation according to regulationson dispossession, or may demand that the Republic ofSlovenia or the local community which has declared theforest to be SPF buy this forest. If the owner sodemands, the body responsible for declaring it so shallbe bound to buy the forest.

SPF with no interventionA Forest Reserve (Anko 1978, 1988, Diaci 1999a,Hartman 1992, Mlinsek 2000), is an area of forestwhich is left to develop naturally in order to protectnatural processes, a cultural legacy or to provide forresearch.

The first forest reserves were established in 1892(Diaci 1999b, Hartman 1999). During the 1970s thenetwork was expanded to 173 forest reserves (9,040ha) (Anko & Mlinsek & Robic 1976, Mlinsek 1980).By 1995 the total area of forest reserves amounted to10,420 ha (186 forest reserves) representing approxi-mately 1 % of the total forest area. The total area offorest reserve proposed by the Slovenian ForestService is 13,403 ha.

SPF with interventionsDifferent protected areas are included in this cate-gory; mostly forest areas in the buffer zone of theTriglav national park (Solar 1998), forests in land-


scape parks, some urban forests, or forests in areaswhich have been declared natural features of interestaccording to regulations on the protection of thenatural heritage etc.

Forest functionsThe SFS is responsible for planning and monitoringthe whole forest area. A forest inventory is carriedout every ten years and this details forest function (ormanagement objective) (Table 3). A digitised map ofthese functions is made as a part of the forestryinformation system (Veselic & Matijasic 2002).

The forest function map and some parts of themanagement plans are prepared according to regionalland-use planning regulations. The map of forestfunctions provides a framework for multiple usemanagement. It is respected in land use planning atnational and local (regional) levels. Forest owners andthe public participate in forest planning. Drafts ofmanagement plans are presented by SFS and discussedby stakeholders. In addition, local communities andorganisations responsible for the protection of naturaland cultural heritage give their opinion on draftswhich must be discussed and considered.

3.1.2 Categories of protected (forest) area according to the Nature Conservation Act(NCA)

Protected (forest) areas are regulated by the NatureConservation Act (paragraph 53), which defines»small« and »large« protected areas. Small protectedareas are natural monuments, strict nature reservesand nature reserves; large protected areas arenational parks, regional parks or landscape parks(Table 4).

The national, regional and landscape parks cover4.1 %, 2.2 % and 5.2 % of the country respectively(Figure 2). Forests are included in the parks.Protected (forest) areas according to the NatureConservation Act (NCA) (Table 5) and protectedforest areas according to the Forest Act are harmo-nised; e.g. when a new park is established accordingto the NCA, the forest area included in the park ispre-classified into a special purpose forest (SPF) orprotection forest (PF) according to the Forest Act.

Table 4: Definitions of protected categories according to NatureConservation Act

A natural monument shall be an area containing one or morevaluable natural features which have an outstanding form,size, content or location or are a rare example of a valuablenatural feature.

A strict nature reserve shall be an area of naturally preservedgeotopes, habitats of endangered, rare or representative plantor animal species or an area important for biodiversity conser-vation where natural processes take place without humaninfluence.

A nature reserve shall be an area of geotopes, habitats ofendangered, rare or representative plant or animal species oran area important for biodiversity conservation which is main-tained through sustainable human activity.

A national park shall be a large area possessing numerousvaluable natural features and great biodiversity. Nature in itsoriginal state, with preserved ecosystems and naturalprocesses, is present in the major portion of the national park.In the smaller portion of the park there may be areas wherehuman influence is relatively large, but in harmony withnature.

A regional park shall be an extensive area of ecosystems andlandscapes characteristic of the region with large portions ofnature in its original state and areas of valuable naturalfeatures interwoven with parts of nature where human influ-ence is relatively large, but in harmony with it.

A landscape park shall be an area with emphasised, high-quality and long-term interaction of people and nature andwith a high ecological, biotic and landscape value.

Table 3: Percentage of forest area by forest function (I= very impor-tant; II = important) (according to SFS 2001)

Forest function I II total

Ecological functions

Protection 13.3 21.6 34.9

Habitat (biotopic) 0.5 12.8 13.3

Hydrological 2.7 41.1 43.8

Climatic 2.0 3.7 5.7

Social functions

Protective 0.1 0.1 0.3

Natural heritage protection 3.3 9.5 12.8

Cultural heritage protection 0.3 0.7 1.0

Hygiene-health 1.6 4.1 5.7

Tourism 1.3 1.8 3.1

Recrecation 2.3 0.6 2.9

Education 0.4 0.4 0.8

Aesthetics 2.2 4.6 6.8

Research 1.4 0.0 1.4

Defense 0.3 0.1 0.4

Production functions

Timber production 50.9 28.8 79.6

Wildlife management 0.8 0.0 0.8

Non-timber products 2.1 0.0 2.1


Natura 2000Slovenia has taken on those conventions adopted bythe European Union (e.g. Ramsar 1975, Rio deJaneiro 1992, Bonn 1983, Bern 1982). At themoment, two EU Directives are significant for forestmanagement: the Council Directive 79/409/EEC –Directive on the Conservation of Wild Birds (the socalled Birds Directive) and the Council Directive92/43/EEC – Directive on the Conservation ofNatural Habitats and of Wild Fauna and Flora (theso called Habitats Directive). In addition to specialareas of conservation of the chosen habitat types andspecies habitats (SAC), Natura 2000 also includes theSPAs of the Birds Directive. The Natura 2000 areaswere designated by Government decree (under theNCA) as special protected areas (SPA) and asproposed sites of importance for the Community(pSCI). Forests are only one of many types of ecosy-stem to covered by Natura 2000 areas but, in manyareas of Slovenia, forests are the dominant habitat.

Research has shown (Robic 2002) that Slovenia has14 of the forest habitat types listed in Appendix 1 tothe Habitats Directive. These are more thoroughlydescribed in the Interpretative Manual of the EUHabitats. An overview of the forest habitat types hasbeen prepared and the area that might potentially beimportant to the Community is relatively large.Special Protected Areas in Slovenia cover 25 %, andpotential Sites of Community Interest, 32 % of thetotal land area. Taking into account considerableoverlapping, Natura 2000 sites potentially (as long asthe pSCI sites are approved) represent 35 % of Slove-nian territory. Two thirds of the forests are withinthese sites, meaning that a half of the forest area inSlovenia falls within Natura 2000 sites as declaredand proposed by the Government.

OthersSome biosphere reserves are (partly) located in forestareas and can overlap with other PFAs or Natura

designations. Similarly somesites proposed in accordancewith the Ramsar Convention(1971), also lie in the forestarea. A network of forestgene reserves with the areaof approx. 2,800 ha has alsobeen established within theframework of the Sloveneforest gene bank (Kraigher &Cerne 1996). To conserveand increase the biodiversity

of forests “eco-cells” (small forest areas and indivi-dual trees) have been designated, usually within theforest planning framework.

3.2. Selection criteria and representativity

Selection criteria and representativity are describedin Table 6.

Table 5: Categories of protected areas (according to Environmental Agency of the Republic ofSlovenia, http://www.arso.gov.si, state January 2005)

Category IUCN Founder Number Area (ha)National park II / V Republic of Slovenia 1 83808

Regional park V / III Republic of Slovenia 3 43971

Landscape park V Local community / Republic of Slovenia 41 105599

Natural reserve I / IV Local community / Republic of Slovenia 52(* approx.

6600)

Natural monument III Local community / Republic of Slovenia 1216 (*)

Total 233378

* no exact data or area not relevant


Table 6: Selection criteria and representativity of protected forestareas

Category of protected (forest) area: Criteria and represen-tativity

Protection Forests: The main criteria for selection areextreme site conditions, which are defined indirectly by plantcommunities (syntaxon) or by some abiotic site conditions,(e.g. tree line, slope, shallow soil, very rocky terrain, etc.).Some areas with an important ecological function can also beincluded (e.g. riverine belts and bear dens fall in this category).

SPF with no intervention (Forest reserves): The main criteriafor establishing the forest reserve network were the following:• phytogeographical division of Slovenia;• distribution of important forest sites in Slovenia;• intact forest sites and stands (except alterations for special

research goals); • future long-term research goals, including research into

human impact on the forest ecosystem and its natural waysof regeneration.

FSP with interventions: Criteria for the selection of forests inthis group were very diverse.

The protected areas according to NCA: See 3.1.2. Somenew (mostly regional) parks are planned. The main criteria fornew parks (MOP-ARSO 2001) are the following: • high level of natural conservation, rarity, exceptionality, typi-

calness, complexity, diversity of natural phenomena; • landscape types (characteristics, rarity, the level of preser-

vation);• endangeredness, vulnerability of ecosystems and landscape

types;• representativity; • local community initiative.

See also Appendix 2!

3.3. Inventories

Forestry planning in Slovenia is organised on differentspatial levels (Boncina 2001): (1) National level, (2)Regional level, (3) Forest management unit level, (4)Detailed level. There are 245 forestry managementunits (FMU) in Slovenia. An inventory of forest standsat FMU level is carried out every ten years (Table 7). Adigitised map is produced at 1:10,000 or 1:5,000 aspart of a forestry geographic information system. Themap is based on field observation of forest stands,orthophotography and other available sources. Manystand parameters are assessed: stand type, tree speciescomposition, growing stock (volume), vitality,damage, natural regeneration etc. Some parametersare estimated and refined through objective methods(e.g. by means of permanent sampling plots) on largerspatial levels. Some stand parameters, e.g. dead wood,are only measured on permanent sampling plots.

Other parameters of the forest ecosystem, such assite condition, are surveyed within the forest inven-tory. Information is also obtained from other organi-sations e.g. hunting organisations, nature conserva-tionists, water supply organisations etc. All relevantfeatures of the forest area are registered and mappedas GIS layers e.g.: bear dens, location of rare andendangered species, nesting-places of particular birdspecies, Capercaillie leks, springs and streams, caves,special habitats, rare ecosystems etc. Likewise, forestlocations and features important for recreation andother social services are registered and mapped.

Protected forest areas can also be inventoriedthrough periodical special research projects. This isoften the case for virgin forest remnants and someother forest reserves.

3.4. Landscape, spatial and other considerations

The whole forest area is important in providinggoods, services and nature conservation. Forestmanagement is regulated by the Forest Act. Itsupports nature-based, multipurpose forestry andstrongly emphasises the public interest (Boncina &Winkler 1999), e.g.:• The public forest service (SFS - Slovenian Forest

Service) is financed by government.• There is free access and movement in all forests.• Actions which would endanger forest function and

sustainability are prohibited.• Some of the forests are designated as protection

forests and special purpose forests.• Clear-cutting is prohibited.• Forest management planning, wildlife manage-

ment planning, and silvicultural planning are obli-gatory regardless of ownership.

• The maximum allowable cut based on forestproductive capacity is defined by SFS.

• The use of chemicals in forests is only permitted inexceptional cases.

• The forest owner is obliged to take every possibleprecaution to protect the forest against fire,diseases and insect or other damage etc.

Other landscape and spatial considerations:• Special purpose forests and protection forests (see

3.1.3) are regarded as special spatial categories inland-use planning.

• Mountain forests predominate in protected forestareas.

• There are some conflicts of interest relating toprotected areas (especially parks) – mostly betweenlocal communities, nature protection organisations,NGOs and governmental organisations. However,mechanisms (e.g. public participation) exist whichcan help achieve a solution to such problems.

• In the National Forest Development Programme,adopted in 1996, the conservation of biodiversityand the concept of sustainable forest managementare strongly emphasised.

4. Future development

As a first step, all protection forests and forestreserves need to be declared by government regula-tion. It is expected that the area of special purpose

Table 7:Schematic overview of the nation-wide forest survey

Name ofinventory

Forest inventory

Description Combination of systematic sampling onpermanent plots (500 m2 plot, plot density:usually 250x250m or 250x500m, rarely1000x1000m.) and ocular assessment offorest ecosystem parameters based onfield observation and photography at thescale 1:10,000 or 1:15,000.

Inventoried data Forest stand parameters, site parameters,forest function, etc.

Spatial data Different GIS layers (stands, functions,compartments, etc.)

Responsible organisation

Slovenian Forest Service

First survey After WW II

Frequency 10 years


forests will increase in the future. Proposals for newregional and landscape parks and natural monu-ments have been prepared at national level. Six newregional parks and four landscape parks have beensuggested covering an area of 4640 km2 and 702 km2,respectively (http://www.arso.gov.si/). Forests repre-sent the majority of the area.

The declaration of these parks depends on politicalwill and there remain many open questions concer-ning aspects of protected forest areas. These include;the management regime, the managers of PFAs,responsibility, harmonisation of different legislation,and the issue of excessive legal regulation (also in thefield of forestry). In particular, the classification(compartmentalisation) of forest areas within diffe-rent spatial categories often leads to overlappingdesignations with (many) different responsible orga-nisations etc. We expect some of the problemsmentioned to be resolved in the near future.

It is recognised that PFAs are of importance formany reasons. However nature conservation andbiodiversity should not be limited just to PFAs and

the “black and white” division of forests intoprotected and unprotected zones is not ecologicallydesirable. The unprotected forest area is of the sameor even greater importance for biodiversity andnature conservation. The management regime in thewhole forest area is therefore important.

When compared to other European countries, theproportion of the total forest area protected is nothigh. However, the current state of Slovenian forestsin respect of age structure, diameter structure, treespecies composition, amount of dead wood, amountof large dimension trees, the total area of Natura2000 sites, etc. indicates that forests in general arewell preserved, especially when compared to otherEuropean countries (FAO 2000).


Figure 2: Current and proposed parks in Slovenia (htpp://www.arso.gov.si, state 2004)

Acknowledgements I would like to thank BostjanAnko, Aleksander Golob, Tomaz Hartman, DraganMatjasic, Ursa Mezan, Rok Pisek and Ales Poljanec.

5. References

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htpp://www.arso.gov.si

http://www.zgs.gov.si/

http://www.sigov.si/tnp/

author: Andrej BoncinaUniversity of LjubljanaBiotechnical FacultyDepartment of Forestry andRenewable Forest ResourcesVecna pot 83, 1000 Ljubljana, SloveniaE-Mail: [email protected]

PFA code PFA nameprime motivation

(1, 2 or 3)

A Protection forest 3

B Forest reserve 1

C National park 2

D Regional park 2

C Landscape park 2

E Nature reserve 1


Appendix 1

Main local types of PFAs primarily dedicated to the conservation of forest

biodiversity

1 = mainly a conservation target2 = mainly a naturalness target (restoration of dynamic natural

processes)3 = both of them

Type of organisation Name of organisation Responsibility for PFAs Web-link

Governmental National Assembly Designation http://www.sigov.si/

GovernmentalMinistry of Agriculture, Forestry andFood

Designationhttp://www.sigov.si/http://www.gov.si/mkgp/slo/index.php

GovernmentalMinistry of Environment, Spatial Plan-ning and Energy

Designationhttp://www.sigov.si/http://www.gov.si/mop/

Governmental Slovenian Forest Service Selection, Monitoring http://www.gov.si/zgs/

GovernmentalNature Protection Institute of theRepublic of Slovenia

Selection, Monitoring http://www.zrsvn.si/slo/

Governmental Agencija Republike Slovenije za okolje Selection, Monitoring http://www.arso.gov.si/

Nongovernmental Different NGOsMonitoring(e.g. bird monitoring)

Appendix 3

Organisations responsible for selecting, designating and enforcing the protection of“Protected forest areas” in Slovenia

Importance Method for quantitative assessment

1 Composition

1.1 Habitat representativity 1 It is the crucial criterion for designation of forest reserves and partlyfor designation of regional parks. National vegetation classificationbased on Braun-Blanquet approach is used. A habitat typology wasdetermined according to Physis, Corine Landcover (Hlad & Skoberne2001).

1.2 Rare and threatened habitats 2 Rare and threatened habitats are important criteria for designation ofsome PFAs, e.g. (strict) nature reserves and forest reserves, e.g.frost hollows, wetlands.A frame assessment of threatened habitats was made (Hlad &Skoberne 2001); most of them are located in non-forest areas.Rare and threatened habitats are assessed by using differentmethods - combination of terrestrial survey, aerial-photos, and satel-lite images (see also Skoberne Peterlin 1988, 1991)

1.3 Phytocoenotic integrity 1-2 It is the important criterion for designation of forest reserves. Vegeta-tion classification based on Braun-Blanquet approach is used.

1.4 Presence of signal species 2-3 -

1.5 Presence of red listed species 2 Approx. 22000 species have been registered in Slovenia. Survival ofendangered plant and animal species (overview in Hlad & Skoberne2001 based on different sources) depends on habitat conservation.According to assessment of Nature Protection Institute of the Republic of Slovenia (1995) the number of endangered species inforest habitats and endangered species overall is the following (Hlad& Skoberne 2001): plants (47/330), amphibians (11/18), reptiles(10/20), birds (46/116), mammals (25/29).

2 Structure/Functioning

2.1 Vertical and age structure 2 In general, forests with well preserved natural (vertical and age) struc-ture were included in PFAs.The structure is assessed by using a combination of terrestrialsurvey, aerial-photos, and satellite images.

2.2 Natural regeneration 1-2 Natural regeneration of forest stands is the general principle in allforests – therefore it is not a crucial criterion for PFA designation.Natural regeneration is assessed by terrestrial survey.

2.3 Old-growth stages 1-2 In general, forests with well preserved natural structure wereincluded in PFAs. Therefore growth stages are also an importantcriterion for most of the PFAs. It is assessed by terrestrial survey atstand level, measures of diameter structure, dead wood etc.

2.4 Soil and hydrology integrity 2 -

3 Landscape ecological context

3.1 Forest cover continuity over time 1-2 In general, forests with well preserved natural (vertical and age) struc-ture were included in PFAs. Therefore forest cover continuity repre-sents an important criterion for PFA designation. It is assessed byusing old maps and other historical sources.

3.2 Old-growth continuity over time 2 Continuity in over-mature tree and dead wood is assessed by peri-odical forest inventory on stand level and on permanent plots.

3.3 Minimal area for PFA designation 2-3 The size of the area for PFA designation is taken into consideration; ingeneral there are no demands for a minimum area, except for forestreserves.

3.4 PFA environment and buffer area 2 It has to be considered, esp. in the case of national park(s) and forestreserves (virgin forest remnants).

3.5 Habitat diversity within individual PFA 3 -

3.6 Landform and topography 2-3 That could be an additional criterion for designation of regional andlandscape parks.


Appendix 2

Main selection criteria for PFA

1 = primary importance - 2 = incidental importance - 3 = not taken into consideration

Documents

COST Action E27 - BFW - der forstliche Partner für Praxis ...bfw.ac.at/020/profor/pdf/country/coste27_Slovenia.pdfforests has changed as well (Anko & Golob & Smolej 1985,Anko 1987)