This is a peer-reviewed, post-print (final draft post-refereeing) version of the following published document, The final publication is available at Springer via https://doi.org/10.1007/s12117-016-9285-0 and is licensed under All Rights Reserved license:

Phillips, Amber ORCID: 0000-0003-3227-7672 (2017) Corrado Alvaro and the Calabrian mafia: a critical case study of the use of literary and journalistic texts in research on Italian organized crime. Trends in Organized Crime, 20 (1-2). pp. 179-195. doi:10.1007/s12117-016-9285-0

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1

CorradoAlvaroandtheCalabrianMafia:acriticalcasestudyoftheuseof

literaryandjournalistictextsinresearchonItalianorganizedcrime

Abstract

TheCalabrianmafia,or’Ndrangheta,isahugelypowerfulinternationalcrime

syndicate,withoriginsthatcanbetracedbacktothelatenineteenthcentury.By

fartheleaststudiedofItaly’s‘bigthree’mafias,socio-historicalresearchonthe

earlierstageoftheorganisation’shistoryhastendedtomakeextensiveuseof

literaryandjournalistictextsassourcematerial(seeArlacchi(1983),Ciconte

(1992),Paoli(2003)).Thispaperwillpresentacautionaryexampleofthe

importanceofinterrogatingliteraryandjournalisticrepresentationsofItalian

organizedcrimesensitivelyandwithincontext,takinganarticlewrittenby

celebratedCalabrianwriterCorradoAlvaroasacasestudy.Itarguesthat

academicperceptionsoftheearly’Ndranghetaare,throughtheirrelianceon

culturalproducts,impactedbythenarrativescontainedwithinsuchtexts;a

phenomenonwhichmeritsfurtherinvestigation.Further,drawingoncultural

memorystudies,itarguesthat,whiletheaccuracyoftherepresentationsofthe

’Ndranghetacontainedwithinthesetextsmaybecalledintoquestion,theydo,

throughtheirabilitytobothreflectandshapepublicopinion,haveavaluable

contributiontomaketoourunderstandingofperceptionsofCalabrianorganized

crimeinitsnativeregion.

Introduction

Despitebeingrecognizedasoneoftheworld’smostpowerfulcriminal

organizations(Europol2013),withoriginsthatcanbetracedbacktothelate

nineteenthcentury,theCalabrianmafia,or’Ndrangheta,hasonlyinthelastfew

decadesbeguntodrawsubstantialattentionfromthescholarlycommunity.

Muchliketheremote,economicallydepressedItalianregionthatproducedit,

thismafiahasbeenignoredbygovernmentandmediaalikeformuchofits

history,withthebulkofattentionbeingdevotedinsteadtoitsSiciliancousin,

2

CosaNostra.1Ofcourse,the’Ndranghetadidnotemergefullyformedinthe

1880s,anditisgenerallyagreeduponbyscholarsthataroundthemid-twentieth

centurytheorganisationbegantoundergoakindoftransformation,aggressively

expandingitsareasofactivityandtakingruthlessadvantageofopportunities

offeredbyItaly’seconomicmiracle(Ciconte1992,298).Sinceitremainedunder-

noticedandunder-researchedfordecadesevenafterthisboominactivity,itis

perhapsunsurprisingthatresearchontheearlierphaseofitshistoryhassofar

beenrelativelyscarce;Calabria’sremotenessandmarginality,anexceptionally

highilliteracyrate,andtheinherentlysecretivenatureoftheorganizationitself

allposeuniquechallengestotheresearcherhuntingformaterial.

Perhapspartlyforthisreason,historicalandsociologicalresearchonthe

pre-1950s’Ndranghetahastendedtomakeuseofanunusualcombinationof

sources.Literaryandjournalistictexts,includingnewspaperarticles,novels,and

shortstories,arefrequentlyinterspersedwiththemoretraditionalmainstaysof

thesocialhistorian(i.e.courtandpolicearchives).Unfortunately,however–

withthenotableexceptionofrecentworkbyJohnDickie(2012;2013)andFabio

Truzzolillo(2013)–theseliteraryandjournalistictextsareveryoftencitedwith

littletonoacknowledgmentoftheirprovenanceorgenre,norofthepresence(or

potentialimpact)ofanauthorialvoiceoragenda.2AsShawhasnoted,although

historianshave,sinceHaydenWhite,increasinglyrecognised‘thecentralityof

theroleoftheauthorinimposinga,sometimesartificial,narrativeonreallife

events’–somethingwhich,asLupo(1993,31)observes,mustalsobeappliedto

judicialdocumentsinthefieldofmafiastudies–attentionshouldbe‘extendedto

theroleoftheliteraryauthorintheirshapingofhistoricalfiction’,3particularly

given‘theauthorityoftheliteraryforminthere-writingofhistory’(Shaw2012,

146;7).Whilethelinkbetweenhistoricalfictionandjournalistictextsmay

appearobscureatthisstage,aswillbecomeclear,inthecaseofrepresentations

ofthe’Ndrangheta’spast,theliteraryformisbothprevalentandinfluential,and

therearenumeroussignificantparallelstobedrawn.

1Athoroughexaminationofthehistoriographyofthe’NdranghetaisprovidedbyTruzzolillo,2011.2See,forexample,Arlacchi(1983,2010),Ciconte(1992),andPaoli(2003).3ShawisparaphrasingtheworkofLindaHutcheonhere.

3

Recentstudiesofmediarepresentationsoforganisedcrime(DiRonco

andLavorgna2016)haverightlystressedthesignificanceoftheimpactofthe

perceptionsandnarrativestheypresentonbothpolicy-makersandthepublic,

andalsonotedthatthesenarratives‘maynotfullycorrespond’with‘current

academicviewsonOrganisedCrime’(Ibid.,2).However,theabilityofmedia

representations(andotherculturalrepresentationsofthephenomenon,

includingliterature)tointeractwith,andtoinfluence,academicperceptionsof

OC,remainsunder-explored,particularlywithregardtohistory.Drawingon

culturalmemorystudies,thispaperwillassertthatliteraryandjournalistic

representationsoftheearly’NdranghetaactaswhatWelzer(2010,287)refers

toasa‘structuringmatrixfortheprocessingofinformation’,formingpartofa

complexnetworkofrepresentations,whicharecapableofinfluencingone

another.Academicperceptionsofthe’Ndrangheta’shistoryare,throughtheir

relianceonculturalproductsincludingliteratureandjournalism,necessarily

impactedbythenarrativescontainedwithinsuchrepresentations,andthis

phenomenonmeritsfurtherinvestigation.

ThispaperwillfurtherarguethatItalianjournalisticrepresentationsof

organisedcrimeneedtobetreatedparticularlycarefully,assuchtextsare

subjecttoanumberofculture-specificconventionswhichmustaffectour

interpretationoftheircontent:inthiscase,theirportrayalofthecharacteristic

natureoftheearly’Ndrangheta.IwillarguethatthefeaturesofcertainItalian

journalistictextsmeanthattheyshouldbeconsideredas‘semi-literary’,andas

such,mustbecontextualisedbyanunderstandingnotjustoftheindividual

writer’sliteraryoutput,butalsoofthesignificanceofliteratureasaconveyor

andinfluencerofculturalattitudes.Neumann(2010)hashighlightedthehuge

significanceofliteratureasacarrierandinfluencerofwidespreadcultural

attitudestopastevents,whileErll(2010,389)pointstothepoweroffictional

mediato‘generateandmouldimagesofthepastwhichwillberetainedbywhole

generations.’AfurtherconsiderationliesinthespecificityoftheItalian

journalistictradition,describedbyMurialdias‘ajournalismimbuedwithgreat

literarytraditionsandstrongpoliticalpassions’asopposedtotheAnglo-Saxon

4

predilectionfor‘factualjournalism’(Murialdi1998,13).4Thisfactorisworth

pointingouteventhoughthemajorityofhistoriansandsociologistscitedareof

Italianorigin,andarethuslikelytobeimplicitlyawareofit.

Thecasestudytakenforthisarticlepresentsacautionaryexampleofthe

importanceofinterrogatingliteraryandjournalisticrepresentationsofthe

’Ndranghetasensitively,andwithintheirculturalandhistoricalcontext.While

thereiscertainlynoshortageofCalabrianwriterswhoseworkmightbe

analysedtothisend,5IhaveselectedCorradoAlvaro(1895-1956),duetohis

uniquepositionamongCalabrianwritersintheItalianculturalimaginary.

ArguablyCalabria’smostcelebratedliteraryexport,Alvaroisalsobecomingan

increasinglyfrequentpresenceindiscoursesurroundingtheanti-’Ndrangheta

movement,quotedbybloggers,campaigners,andeveninrapsongs,aswellas

appearinginanumberofbooksonthemafia.Themostfamousquotation

attributedtotheauthorhasaparticularresonancefortheanti-mafiamovement:

‘thedeepestdespairthatcantakeholdofasocietyisthefearthatlivinghonestly

isfutile’(Alvaro1959,8).6However,thisquotationisinitselfastrongindicator

ofAlvaro’ssuitabilityasanexemplarofthemisappropriationofcultural

products:theauthor’soriginalwordshavebeensubjectedtoakindofChinese-

whisperseffect,frequentlymisquoted,andretrospectivelyimbuedwithananti-

mafiasentimentwhichisnotpresentintheoriginalcontext(anisolatedthought

inadiaryentryfrom1948).7

ThecentralcasestudyofmyarticleisapiecewrittenbyAlvaroin1955

fortheItaliannationalnewspaperCorrieredellaSera.Thispiecehasbeen

referencedextensivelyby’Ndranghetascholarsoverthelastfewdecadesasan

4“ungiornalismofattuale”and“ungiornalismocherisentedigranditradizioniletterarieedifortipassionipolitiche”(Murialdi1998,13).Alltranslations,unlessotherwisestated,aremyown.5ThenovelsofCalabrianwritersSaverioStrati,LucaAsprea,andSaverioMontaltohaveallfeaturedextensivelyinhistoricalandsociologicalresearchontheearly’Ndrangheta.MycurrentPhDthesisfocusesinpartontheinterpretationofthesetextsbyvariousdifferentactors.6“Ladisperazionepiùgravechepossaimpadronirsid'unasocietàèildubbiochevivererettamentesiainutile.”(Alvaro1959,8).ThisquotationfeaturesonthetitlepagesofGratteriandNicaso(2010,1),andDickie(2013,v);andismisquotedbydiGirolamo(2012,209).Italsofeaturesonthehigh-profilesiteWikimafia.ithttp://www.wikimafia.it/la-ndrangheta-in-ottima-salute/andGustavoGesualdo’s‘CittadinoAntimafia’,http://www.ilcittadinox.com/blog/cittadini-antimafia.html,aswellasintherapvideoDallemieparti,LoopLoona,November2014.7N.B.Withregardtothemisquotingoftheauthor’soriginalwords,theword‘rettamente’hasbeenchangedto‘onestamente’inanumberofcases.

5

authoritative,first-handdescriptionoftheorganization,andasasourceitis

frequentlycitedalongsidepolicerecordsandcourtdocumentation,asifto

indicatethatitscontentshouldbeinterpretedaccordingtothesamecriteria

(See:Ciconte1992,42,57,72,214and221;GratteriandNicaso2010,22,27;

GratteriandNicaso2012,70;Paoli2003,183).Whileitiscertainlynotmy

intentiontosuggestthattherepresentationofItalianorganisedcrimeincourt

documentationshouldeverbeconsideredtobefreeofsubjectivebias(seeLupo

1993,31)thereisnoquestionthatthefunction,purpose,andaudienceofsuch

documentsaresubstantiallydifferenttothoseofjournalisticandliterarytexts,

andthatwheretheyarequotedalongsideoneanotherwithoutdistinction,the

latterriskbeinginterpretedasimpersonalrelayersofhistorical‘fact’.Few

scholarswhociteAlvaro’sarticleconsiderthepresenceofasubjectivenarrative

voicewithinthetext,northepotentialforanauthorialagenda–indeed,asthe

contemporaryusesoftheauthor’swordsindicate,heisrarely,ifever,assumed

tobeanythingotherthanentirelycriticalofthemafia.Additionally,littlerigour

isgenerallyappliedtoestablishingthegenreof‘Lafibbia’,particularlythe

literarynatureofthetext,norofthepotentialofthistoimpactuponour

understandingofthecontent.Thecrucialelementsofmemoryandnostalgiaare

alsoignored,thoughthetextisrichwiththeauthor’spersonalrecollectionsand,

asBirgitNeumann(2010,33)hasobserved,‘therenderingofmemories

potentiallytellsusmoreabouttherememberer’spresent,hisorherdesireor

denial,thanaboutactualpastevents.’

Inthispaper,IofferareadingofAlvaro’sarticlewhichchallengesthe

prevailingcontemporaryperceptionoftheauthor’sattitudetothe’Ndrangheta,

insistingthatthegenreandcontextofliterary-journalisticsourcesare

fundamentaltoourinterpretationoftheircontent.Informedbyanumberof

otherworksbyAlvaro,Iarguethatthetextshouldnotbeciteduncriticallyasa

sourceofsocio-historicaldataonthe’Ndrangheta,andthat,infact,onecanraise

substantialquestionsregardingtheaccuracyofthepictureitpaintsofthe

organisation;aportraitwhichisdistortedbysentimentandnostalgia,andwhich

constructsanidealisedvisionofa‘traditionalmafia’graduallysupplantedbya

morenefariousmodernincarnationfollowingtheSecondWorldWar.

6

Itshouldbenotedthatthisseparationbetweenatraditionalanda

modern’Ndranghetacomplementstheviewoftheorganisation’sdevelopment

putforwardbythesociologistPinoArlacchiintheearly1980s(Arlacchi1983),

whichitselfdrawssubstantiallyonviewsoftheSicilianmafiaprevalentinthe

1970s(Hess1973,andBlok1974).Arlacchiidentifiedtwoseparateincarnations

ofthe’Ndranghetaphenomenon;an‘entrepreneurialmafia’,whichemergedin

thepost-warboomyears,and,beforeit,a‘traditionalmafia’,whichessentially

representedasetofvaluesandbehaviourstypicaltothesocio-economic

conditionsofcertainareasoftheregion.AccordingtoArlacchi,the’Ndrangheta

wasnot,andisnot,astructured,formalcriminalorganization,andpriortothe

mid-twentiethcentury,itwasapurelysocio-culturalphenomenon.This

hypothesishasbeenconvincinglyoverturnedinrecentyears,particularlyinlight

ofLupo’sworkontheSicilianmafia(1992)andresearchbyDickie(2012)and

Truzzolillo(2013),whichhasuncoveredsignificantevidenceofcontinuityinthe

organisation’shierarchyandstructurefromthelatenineteenthcenturytothe

presentday.

However,themyththattheearly’Ndranghetawasessentiallyaloose

bandofindividualdelinquentsratherthanahierarchicalcriminalorganization,

isapersistentone,andhasasignificanceandimpactwhichgoesfarfurtherthan

theacademicsphere.Itbothreflectsandcontributestothehistorictendencyof

theItaliangovernmentandmediatoprofoundlyunderestimatetheextentof

organisedcriminalityinCalabria–atendencywhichhasallowedittothrive

(Dickie2013).Throughcarefulanalysisoftherepresentationofthe

’Ndrangheta’spastinAlvaro’sarticle,wecangainsignificantinsightintothe

factorsthathavecontributedtothistendency,andraiseinterestingquestions

regardingperceptionsoftheorganisationinitsnativeregion(drawingparallels

withthephenomenonofSicilianismoinSicily).8Keytothisistheunderstanding

that‘mediaproductsdonotjustdeliverversionsofthepast;theyalsodetermine

theperceptionofthepresent’(Welzer2010,287).

8SicilianismoreferstoaculturalphenomenondefinedbyFarrell(1995,32)asa‘complexofprejudicesandattitudes’manifestedas‘ahystericalrejectionofallcriticismsofSicily,whetherwellfoundedandhowevermotivated,aslèse-majesté’.Withregardtothemafia,thisinvolveseitherdenyingitsexistenceoutright,orinterpretinganti-mafiameasuresasanattackontheregion.

7

IntroducingCorradoAlvaro

ItisnecessarytobeginbyaddressingexactlywhyCorradoAlvaroandhis

writingshouldbeofsuchinteresttoresearchersoftheearly’Ndrangheta.Alvaro

wasbornin1895inthevillageofSanLuca,afactwhichstraightawaysignalsa

strongpotentialconnectionwithCalabrianorganizedcrime.Thenameofthis

tinymountainvillagehasbeensynonymouswiththe’Ndranghetafromthelate

nineteenthcenturyrightuptothepresentday–theDuisburgmassacrein

Germanyin2007wastheculminationofabloodfeudthatbeganinSanLuca

(Badolati2014,15).JustasimportantashisbirthplaceisAlvaro’srarityasa

nativeCalabrianwriterwhorosetogaincelebratedstatusatanationallevelin

Italy.AlthoughhespentmostofhiscareerlivingawayfromCalabria,Alvaro

consistentlyreferredbacktoitinhisfictionandinhisjournalism,depicting

scenesoftraditionalCalabrianpeasantcultureandfrequentlycallingtheItalian

statetoaccountforitsneglectoftheregion.Dickie(2013,83)hasreferredto

himas‘theunofficialspokesmanforthevoicelesspoorofhishomeregion’,and

whileitisimportantnottooverstatehiscontemporaryfameorinfluence,Alvaro

doesstandoutasrarevoiceofinformedauthorityonCalabrianorganizedcrime

atacrucialtimeinitshistory,makinghimanattractivepotentialsourcefor

scholars.

Thearticlewhichformsthecasestudyforthispaperwaspublishedon17

September1955,ayearwhichmightbedescribedasthewatershedmomentfor

nationalpublicawarenessofCalabrianorganizedcrime.9Thelaunchofthe

MarzanoOperation,thefirstmajornationalpolicecrackdownonorganized

crimeinCalabria,provokedanunprecedentedclamourofpressinterestinthe

region,muchofwhichwascharacterisedbyitsuseofwell-establishednegative

stereotypesoftheSouthaslawless,savage,andbackward.10Alvaro’spiece

9Foranin-depthanalysisofthesignificanceof1955,seeDickie2013,67-91,andCiconte1992,244-294.BothhistoriansidentifyitasthefirstyearinwhichCalabrianorganizedcrimewasmeaningfullyacknowledgedanddiscussedonanationalscale.10TheresponseofthenationalpresstotheMarzanoOperationisoutlinedbyCiconte(1992,287-288).FormoreonthetraditionofnegativestereotypingoftheSouthintheItalianpress,seeDickie,1992;Gribaudi,1996;Moe,2002.

8

appearedinItaliannationalnewspaperCorrieredellaSeraattheheightofthis

mediastorm.Crucially,thetextwaspublishedonthepaper’sterzapagina(page

three),aspacewhichincontemporaryItalianpublishingtraditionwasreserved

foreliteculturalpersonalities,literature(includingraccontiorshortstories),

opinion,andtravelwriting(Ceccuti1978,177).Thelocationofthepiece,andthe

highprofileofitsauthor,wouldimmediatelyindicatealiteraryqualitytothetext

tothecontemporaryreader;asignificantcontextualconsiderationwhichis

unacknowledgedbythevastmajorityofthosewhociteitinahistoricalor

sociologicalcapacity.

Itstitleis‘Lafibbia’(literallytranslatedas‘thebuckle’),whichistaken

fromalistofseveraldifferentnamesfortheCalabrianmafiaintheopening

sentence,alongside‘ndranghita’and‘OnorataSocietà’[honouredsociety].Inthe

text,Alvaropaintsapictureofamafiawhichhasemergedasaresultofthe

failureoftheItalianstatetoimposeanykindoforderorjustice,andwhichis

deeplyconnectedtothesocio-economicsituationoftheregion.Thepersonal

memoriesandexperiencesoftheauthorareakeyelementofthetext,including

detailssuchasthetypicalbehavioursandprioritiesofmafiaaffiliatesandtheir

particulartasteinclothes.ThereisalsoanemphasisontheideathatlaFibbiaor

themafiaformsanacceptedpartofeverydaylifeinAlvaro’sregion,whichthe

authorillustratesinthefirstparagraphwithaparticularlystrikingrecollection;

arrivinghomeforthe(school?)holidaysoneday,hismotherinformshimthat

hisfatherisupstairswith‘thepeoplefromtheassociation’–whichshethen

clarifiestotheconfusedAlvaroas‘thedelinquentassociation’(i.e.themafia).11

Alvaroisneithersurprisednorfrightenedbythis.Hehasknownofthe

’Ndrangheta,heclaims,‘daquandoebbil’etàdellaragione’–sincehewasold

enoughtounderstand.

Despitethelongstandingfamiliaritywiththe’Ndranghetawhichthe

authordeclaresinthearticle,however,fewofthehistorianswhoreference‘La

fibbia’acknowledgeacuriousfact:thereseemstobeconsiderablevariationin

scholarlyopinionastowhetherornotAlvaromentionedtheCalabrianmafiaat

allinanyofhisworkpriortothepublicationofthisarticlein1955.Some,

includingPasquinoCrupi(1992)andAntonioNicaso(2007)suggestthat‘La11“quellidell’associazione”;“l’associazioneadelinquere”(Alvaro,1955a).

9

fibbia’representsAlvaro’ssoleacknowledgmentoftheexistenceofthe

’Ndranghetainhisentireforty-yearwritingcareer.Giventheauthor’s

commitmenttoportrayingthepovertyandhardshipssufferedbytheinhabitants

ofhisnativeregion,itisreasonableheretodrawcomparisonswiththeSicilian

context,andconcludethatAlvarowasguiltyofwhatLeonardoSciasciasawasa

kindofliteraryomertàamongSicilianrealistwriters;thatis,afailuretoconfront

theexistenceofthemafia(Farrell1995,14).12Beforepursuingthislineof

argument,however,itisvitaltopointoutthatthepremiseitrestsonis

contested;thesociologistLetiziaPaoli(2003,17)statesthatAlvaromentioned

the’Ndranghetain‘severalshortstories’.Thisveryfundamentaldisagreement

onsuchanapparentlybasicpointshouldstraightawayraisesomeimportant

questionsfortheresearcher,anditisclearthatthetwopositionscannotbothbe

accurate.Asitturnsout,however,neitherisstrictlycorrect.

ThetwostoriesofferedasexamplesbyPaoli(2003,256)inher

bibliographyactuallycontainnoreferencetothe’Ndrangheta,noranything

resemblingacriminalorganisation–andindeed,theirdatesofpublication(1929

and1930)wouldmakethemsubjecttothebanimposedbythefascist

governmentinthelate1920swhichforbadeanymentionofthemafiainprint

(Crupi,1992,64).CrupievenusestheverysamestoriescitedbyPaolias

examplestosupporthisexplanationforAlvaro’sfailuretoacknowledgethe

’Ndranghetainanyofhisworkpriorto‘Lafibbia’.ForCrupi,thesestoriesare

symptomaticofAlvaro’stendencytoidealiseandromanticizeCalabrianpeasant

culture.Alvaro’sfailuretodepictthemafiais,Crupisays,connectedtothe

author’sinabilitytodistinguishbetweenthevaluesofthemafia,andthevalues

ofCalabriantraditionalsociety;hecannotcriticiseonewithoutcriticisingthe

other(Ibid.,p.70).ThecomparisonwiththeSiciliancontextthusseemsasound

one,particularlyinlightofoneofthemotivesFarrell(1995)suggestsforthe

reticenceoftheSicilianrealiststoaddressthemafiaintheirwork;aformof

Sicilianismo,whichrejectedanyrepresentationofthemafiaasadangerous

criminalphenomenon,inordertostaveoffprejudicedattacksontheregion.This

ismanifestedsignificantlyintheworkofnineteenthcenturyfolkloristGiuseppe12InSciascia’sview,influentialSicilianliteraryfiguressuchasGiovanniVergaandLuigiCapuanahad,despitetheirrealistprinciples,‘collaboratedinaconspiracyofsilencewhichworkedtotheadvantageofthemafia’(Farrell1995,14).

10

Pitrè,who‘sawtheessenceofmafiaconductasagrand,RobinHoodresistance

tobullyingandoppression’(Farrell1995,18),situatingitaspartofthe

traditionalcultureoftheregion.

Crupi’stheoryisaninterestingone,particularlyinlightofthefactthata

numberofscholarshaveidentifiedtheappropriationoftraditionalcultureasa

tactichistoricallyemployedbythe’Ndranghetatobuildconsensusinthe

communitiesinwhichitoperates(Ciconte,1992,77-78;Paoli,2003,183-186).

However,thepremisewhichitrestsonisunsound:the’Ndranghetaisnot

entirelyabsentfromAlvaro’sworkpriorto‘Lafibbia’.Itistrue,asfarasmy

researchhasfound,thatAlvaromakesnoreferencetothe’Ndranghetainany

workpublishedpriorto1955.Itdoes,however,appearinanumberofother

articlespublishedbytheauthorin1955,andinatleastoneshortstoryfromthe

sameyear,asDickie(2013,490)haspointedout,andasCrupieventuallybriefly

acknowledges(2013).13Aswillbecomeclear,despitetheinaccuracyofhisinitial

observation,Crupi’sideascanstillbeappliedsuccessfullytotheanalysisof

Alvaro’sotherrepresentationsofthe’Ndrangheta.ByanalysingAlvaro’s

depictionoforganisedcrimeinasampleofthesetexts,weareabletogaina

widerunderstandingofthecontextinwhich‘Lafibbia’waswritten,openingthe

waytoaninterpretationwhichchallengesthewidely-heldassumptionthatthe

authorwasentirelyhostiletothe’Ndrangheta.

Agoodstartingpointforestablishingcontextistheshortstory,‘Angelino’,

since,aswillbeexplained,itcontainsmanythemesprevalentinAlvaro’s

previousliteraryportrayalsofCalabriaanditsinhabitants.Publishedaspartofa

collectionin1955,andsetjustaftertheSecondWorldWar,thenarrative

describesthetitlecharacter’sreturnfromtheUnitedStatestohisnativevillage.

Uponhisreturn,wordspreadsinthevillagethatAngelinowasdeportedasa

criminal,whichleadstotheyoungmanbeinginvitedtojointhe‘onoratasocietà’

[honouredsociety],acommonalternativetermforthe’Ndrangheta:

13Inthislater,revisededition,Crupibrieflyacknowledgestheexistenceoftheshortstory‘Angelino’,butsincethevolumeismoreofananthologythanananalyticalwork,thereislittlespaceforhimtoamendhisoriginalanalysis,andnoadditionalthoughtsareofferedontheabsenceofthe’NdranghetafromAlvaro’sworkpriorto1955.

11

Angelino’sdeedcausedhimtobeinvitedtojointheHonouredSociety,otherwise

knownasthedelinquentassociation,whichexiststoavengeyoungwomenwho

havebeenwronged,andtheftswhichhavebeencommittedunjustly(sothey

say),andanykindofbullyingbythepowerful.14

Theinclusionof‘sotheysay’withinthisquotationisworthnoting,implyingasit

doesalevelofdistancebetweenthenarratorandthebeliefsthatheisrelaying.

Thenarrator,whointroduceshimselfasAngelino’scousin,ishimselfanativeof

thesamevillage,butexplainsthathenowlivessomedistanceaway,perhaps

reflectingAlvaro’sowngeographicaldistancefromhishomeland.Thereisthusa

tensionbetweenthenarrator’snativefamiliaritywiththeculturehedescribes,

andhiscurrentgeographical(andcultural?)detachmentfromit.AsIwill

indicate,however,wherethehonouredsocietyisconcerned,thevoidinattitudes

impliedbythisinitial‘sotheysay’istoagreatextentclosedbythenarrator’s

descriptionsofboththeassociationitselfandtheculturalcontextinwhichit

operates.

Angelino’sinvitationispromptedbythecrimehecommittedinAmerica:

attemptingtoblowuphisfather’shouse,withhisfatherandtheoldman’snew

loverinsideit.However,the’Ndranghetainthisstoryisnobandofmurderous,

hard-heartedcriminals.Instead,Alvarodepictsanassociationthatis

fundamentallytiedtothevaluesandcustomsofCalabrianpeasantsociety,witha

particularlystrongemphasisontheimportanceofreligionandfamily.The

affinitybetweenthehonouredsocietyandthecommunityisdemonstratedmost

clearlybythefactthatAngelino’scrimenotonlywinshimtheadmirationofthe

mafia,butalsothatofthewomenofthevillage,whoseehisattempttomurder

hisfatherasanactindefenceofhisdeadmother’shonourandmemory.The

statusthatthedeedconfersuponhimevengrantsAngelinothehonourof

accompanyingthelocalbishoponhispastoralvisits,andthenarratorpointsout

thatthehonouredsocietyisreligious.

14“UnatalecapacitàhaprocuratoadAngelinol’offertadiaffiliarsiall’OnorataSocietà,altrimentidettal’associazioneadelinquere,cheècostituitaalloscopodiriparareitortifattialleragazzeeifurtisubitiingiustamente(cosidicono),eognisortadiprepotenzedapartedichièpotente”(Alvaro1955b,487).

12

JustasinmanyofAlvaro’sotherstoriesfeaturingCalabrianpeasant

protagonists,crimeispresentedin‘Angelino’asanentirelyjustifiableresponse

totheinjusticesperpetratedbystateauthority,whichhasfosteredthe

developmentofadistinctmoralcode.Indeed,ashedescribesembracing

Angelinouponhisreturnhome,thenarratorexplicitlystatesthat‘wherewe’re

from,someoneisn’tacriminaljustbecausethelawsaystheyare.Themoralityof

poorvillageshasnothingtodowiththemoralitywhichexistsonthebasisof

everythingbeingfair’.15Alvarointroducesthestorybypragmaticallyexplaining

thatfortheyoungmaleinhabitantsofthisvillage,stealingisasensiblefinancial

choicegiventhelackofotheroptions,butemphasizesthatthisdoesnotequate

toalackofscruples:themenmaysteallivestockfromneighbouringvillages,but

donotstooptopickpocketingorburglary.Thiscomfortablecoexistenceofcrime

withinanacceptedmoralcodeismirroredwithinthemafia,asevidencedbythe

criteriaforselectingthecapooftheorganisation.Inthestory,thehonoured

societyisunabletofindacandidatewiththenecessaryqualificationstofillthe

role(measured,reportedly,bythenumberofcriminalconvictionsoneholds).

Despitehissubstantialcriminalrecord,however,theincumbentboss,Macrino,is

alsopresentedasanembodimentofwholesome,traditionalvalues;heisafamily

manwhowantstoretiresothathecanspendmoretimewithhischildren.

Theantagonisticforceinthestoryisnot,asonewouldexpect,the

honouredsociety,butthemorallycorrosiveinfluenceofmodernconsumer

capitalism.Angelinohimselfembodiesthistoanextent;thenarratorinformsus

thatAngelino‘hadpickeduptheAmericanobsessionwithbusiness,andwas

dedicatedtopursuingit.’16Thisleadshimtosetupasomewhatunsavoury

enterprise;shippinginsingleforeignwomenunabletofindahusbandathome,

andofferingthemaswives-cum-work-permitsforyoungmalevillagersinsearch

ofatickettoprosperityabroad.Thehonouredsocietythusseemsalignedwitha

civilizationandawayoflifewhichareunderthreat,withAngelinoperhaps

representinganew,moreambitiousbreedofcriminal.

15“danoiuncriminalenonètalesoltantoperchéleleggilodefiniscono,lamoraledeipaesipoverinonhanientedavedereconquantoèuniversalmenteaccettatocolpresuppostochetuttosiagiusto.”(Alvaro1955b,486).16“avevaacquistatoinAmericailcultodegliaffarieaquestisivolevadedicare.”(Alvaro1955b,488).

13

Though‘Angelino’isuniqueamongAlvaro’sfictioninitsexplicit

referencetothehonouredsociety,initscriticalportrayalofstateauthority,its

idealisationofpeasantculture,anditsrationalisationofcrime,itisverymuch

typicaloftheauthor’sdepictionsofCalabriaelsewhereinhisfiction,including

thenovelconsideredtobehismasterpiece,GenteinAspromonte(1930).While

Alvaro’scommitmenttoforegroundingtheharshconditionsanddesperate

povertyinhisrepresentationsoftheregionensuresthatheisacknowledgedasa

realist,theserepresentationsarealsoconsideredtobecharacterizedbytheir

sentimentalityandatendencytowardtheromantic(DeBella1973,31-2;

Piromalli1977,206-8).ThisextendsinparticulartoAlvaro’sdepictionof

Calabria’sdistinctvaluesandtraditions-identifiedbyCrupi(1992,69-70)as

‘thecultofthefamily,honour,blood,pride,totaldisregardfor[state]authority,

personalvengeanceasanalternativetoaloftyidealofjusticewhichhasbeen

foundwanting’.17Thejustificationand,toanextent,glorificationofcrime,are

partoftheauthor’sinsistenceontheuniquenessofthevaluesandworldviewof

theregion,whichheviewsasattributabletocenturiesofsubjugation.

Publishedaspartofacollectionofshortstories,thegenreof‘Angelino’is

easytopindownasliteraryfiction,andithasnottomyknowledgebeencitedin

anysociologicalorhistoricalworksonthe’Ndrangheta;18thoughitisimportant

tonotethatthishasbynomeanspreventedtheextensiveandundiscriminating

inclusionoffictioninhistoricalandsociologicalresearchonthe’Ndrangheta

(see,inparticular,Arlacchi’streatmentofnovelsbyLucaAspreaandSaverio

Montalto(Arlacchi,2010)).Thebriefinterrogationofthetextofferedabove

does,however,providevaluablecontextwithwhichtointerpretAlvaro’s

treatmentoforganisedcrimeinhisjournalisticwriting.AsIhaveindicated,and

willdemonstratebelow,theseparationbetweenfictionandjournalisticwriting

isbynomeansclearordistinctinAlvaro’scase,andanunderstandingofhis

literaryportrayalsofcrimeandCalabrianpeasantcultureisofsubstantial

relevancetoourinterpretationof‘Lafibbia’.

Tohighlightthepotentialambiguityofthelinebetweenfactandfictionin

Alvaro’sjournalisticwriting,Iwillnowbrieflyexamineanarticleofhis17“ilcultodellafamiglia,l’onore,ilsangue,lafierezza,ladisistimatotaledeipoteri,lavendettaprivatadeitorticomeequivalentediunaltoidealedigiustiziadeluso”(Crupi1992,69-70).18WiththeexceptionofDickie(2013,490)whoacknowledgesitinafootnote.

14

publishedseveralmonthsbefore‘Lafibbia’,whichalsomentionsthehonoured

society.Entitled‘Ibriganti’[thebandits],thetextappearedinCorrieredellaSera

inMay1955,anddescribesatriptoCalabriaundertakenbythenarratoranda

foreignfemalecompanion.Interestingly,althoughthenarratorishimself

Calabrianandreferstohisownrecollectionsoftheorganizationlaterinthetext,

the‘onoratasocietà’isinitiallyintroducedandexplainedtothepairthrough

theirlocalguide,Romeo;mirroringthedistancebetweenthenarratorandthe

honouredsocietyin‘Angelino’.WhenRomeodescribestheessentialfunctionof

theorganisation,hesuggeststhatitsroleisto‘putthingsintheirrightful

place’,19stressingthatitseesnodistinctionbetweenthepowerfulandthelowly

initspursuitofjustice.Heusestheexampleof‘forcingaseducertomarrythe

girlhewouldhaveabandoned’,20thusestablishingalinkbetweenthehonoured

societyandtheenforcementoftraditionalvalues.Justasin‘Angelino’,thetext

indicatestheexistenceofadistinctlyCalabrianmoralcode,whichhasevolvedin

theabsenceofthestate;Romeoappearstohavegreaterfaithinthemafia’s

abilitytometeoutjusticethanhedoesinthatoftheofficialauthorities,and

whentheorganisationwrongshiminerror(burningdowntenofhisolivetrees)

hecalmlyrecountsthatthemistakewashonourably(andgenerously)rectified.

ThroughRomeo,thetextalsooffersabenign,idealizedvisionofthe

’Ndrangheta’spast.Helamentsthatattributessuchasbraveryanddaring,which

wereonceprizedbythemafia,havesincetheSecondWorldWargivenwaytoa

newsetofprioritiesbasedonwealthandacquisition:‘Money’,hesays,‘has

takenprecedenceovercourageandboldness.Positionsofpower[withinthe

honouredsociety]havebeentakenoverbypeoplelookingaftertheirmoney,

whichleadstocorruption…thecorruptionofthemodernworld,wheremoney

getsyoueverywhere’.21Thehonouredsocietyisthusagainalignedwiththe

preservationoftreasuredtraditionalvalues,whiletheantagonistsofthepiece

areconsumercapitalismandthedistantauthorityofthestate.

19“metterealloropostolecose”(Alvaro,1955c).20“costringereunseduttoreasposarelaragazzaabbandonata.”(Alvaro,1955c).21“Ildenaroebbelaprevalenzasulcoraggioelatemerarietà.Ipostidicomandofuronoassuntidagentechedovevadifendereilsuodenaro;chepoiricorseallacorruzione[…]lacorruzionedelmondomodernoincuituttosiottienecoldenaro.”(Alvaro,1955c).

15

AlongsideRomeo’sopinions,thetextalsofeaturesabriefglimpseintothe

narrator’spersonalmemoriesofthehonouredsociety.Asthenarratorandhis

companionencounterthelocalcapoinacafé,theman’sbehaviourand

mannerismsstrikethenarratorasfamiliar,andherecallsthelanguidmanner

and‘touchofdecadence’22whichindicateanindividual’spowerandcriminality.

Heremembersthephysicalappearanceofmembersofthe‘lowerranks’,

describingthecolourfulhandkerchiefstheyworeknottedaroundtheirnecks,

andalsotheswaggeringgaitofthe‘higherranks’.23Itisnotable,however,that

thenarrator’srecollectionsandobservationsareofferedwithoutanymoral

judgment,andnoneofthehonouredsociety’sactivities(asidefromtherighting

ofwrongs)areacknowledgedinanydetail.Asthearticledrawstoaclose,

Romeorelaysthefactthatthenewcapoisaself-appointed,wealthyman,with

thereaderthuscompelledtofeelsympatheticnostalgiaforadisappearing

traditionalinstitution.

Basedonitscontent,althoughitiscitedfarlessfrequentlythan‘Lafibbia’,

itwouldappearreasonableforthehistorianorsociologisttoconsider‘Ibriganti’

anequallyrelevant,accuratesourceofdataontheearly’Ndrangheta:thetwo

textsare,afterall,strikinglysimilarinmanyrespects,publishedonthesame

pageofthesamenewspaper,onlyfourmonthsapart.However,whenitcomesto

assessingpreciselywhatkindofdocument‘Ibriganti’is,therearesome

complications.Anumberofcrucialcontextualconsiderationsraisesignificant

questionsregardingthegenre(thatis,theextenttowhichthetextisfictional)

andcontentofthetext,whichmustbefactoredintoanyinterpretationofits

representationofthe’Ndrangheta.Giventhesimilarityofthedocuments,these

complicationshavesignificantimplicationsforourunderstandingof‘Lafibbia’.

Firstofall,itisnotatallcleartothecontemporaryreaderwhether‘I

briganti’isastraightforwardaccountofanactualencounter-withAlvaro

himselfasthenarrator-orastylisedpiece,subjecttoadegreeofartisticlicence,

asCiconteacknowledgesinhissinglereferencetothearticle(Ciconte1992,

22“unchedidecadente”(Alvaro,1955a).23“[i]piùbassi”and“glialtigradi”(Alvaro,1955a).

16

240).24AnawarenessoftheconventionsofItaliannewspapersisofcrucial

importanceinthisregard.Justasinthecaseof‘Lafibbia’,thephysicallocationof

thetextinthenewspaper(thethirdpage)istelling;immediatelyindicatingthat

itmaybeaworkofliteratureratherthanjournalism.Basedonitsnarrativestyle

andtheambiguityofthenarrator,itisreasonabletoassumethatthetextis

actuallyaraccontoortale,whichwerearelativelyfrequentfixtureonItalian

terzapagineatthetimeofpublication(Ceccuti1978,235).Theextenttowhich

thefirst-personobservationsandrecollectionscontainedwithinthetextare

thoseoftheauthor,orthoseofaninventedpersona,isthusopentoquestion,

andtheinclusionofaforeignfemalecompanionevokesearliernineteenth

centurypicturesqueliteraryrepresentationsofSicily,particularlytheworkof

GiovanniVerga(seeMoe,2002).

Asecondkeyconsiderationrelatestothecontentofthetext,which

appearstocombinefactualandfictionalelements.AsDickie(2013,490)notes,‘I

briganti’featuresadescriptionofthemafia’sdifficultyelectinga‘capodella

provincia’[regionalboss]in1948,whichmirrorsaverysimilareventinthe

story‘Angelino’.Furthermore,Alvaro’sposthumouslypublisheddiariesinclude

anumberofbriefentriesfrom1952and1953innoteform,whichappearto

containtheseedsformanyoftheideasandeventsdescribedin‘Angelino,‘I

briganti’,and‘Lafibbia’,butwithonlyvagueindicationsastothesourcesofthe

information.One,from1953,includesreferencestotheshiftinthe

organisation’sprioritiesawayfromitstraditionalvaluesandtowardsprofit,a

descriptionoftheclothingpreferredbyaffiliates,andthespecificrevelationthat

followingthefailuretoelectacapoin1948,theorganisationwassplitintothree

distinctzones(Alvaro1959,126).25Withintheentry,Alvaromentions

‘childhoodmemories’,butalsomakesreferencetoaconversationwithan

unknownindividual,whoclearlyformsthebasisforRomeo–amanwhoregards

themembersofthehonouredsocietyasagentsofsocialjustice,havingbeen

handsomelyrepaidwhenhistenolivetreeswereburnedbymistake.

24WhileCiconteconcedesthatAlvaro’sinterlocutormayormaynotbebasedonarealfigure,thisdoesnotdetractfromhiswillingnesstoquotethecharacter,nortoelaborateuponthevalidityofthepointitismaking.25N.B.Thelatterpointissupportedbyjudicialevidencefromthesameperiod.SeeCiconte1992,5-215;Dickie2013,165-196.

17

Thenoteformatofthisdiaryentry,whichischaracterisedbytheabsence

offullyformedsentencesandparagraphs,hindersinterpretation,andthelackof

contextprovidedbytheauthorisfrustrating.Itseemsclear,however,fromthis

evidencethatthearticle‘Ibriganti’isastyliseddevelopmentofastorytoldto

Alvarobyanunnamedsourceseveralyearspreviously.Furthermore,giventhat

variousdifferentcomponentsofthestory‘Angelino’arespreadacrossanumber

ofdifferententriesinthediary,itisnottoogreatastretchtoinferthatthe

authordevelopedideasforshortstoriesinmuchthesamemannerashedidfor

hisjournalisticarticles.Crucially,however,withtheexceptionofDickie(2013),

noneofthescholarscitingeither‘Ibriganti’or‘Lafibbia’acknowledgethe

existenceofthisdiarymaterial,despiteitsclearimplicationsforourreadingand

understandingofthearticles.Nor,furthermore,doanymakereferencetothe

Italianpublishingcontextortheconventionsoftheterzapagina;norAlvaro’s

well-documentedtendencytoromanticiseinhisliteraryrepresentationsof

Calabriaelsewhere.

Evenregularnewspaperreports,ostensiblyconcernedwithreportingthe

factsofanevent,shouldbeapproachedwithcautionbyhistoriansand

sociologists.Evenifnoexplicitopiniononeventsisofferedbytheauthor,

reportsaresubjecttoarangeofpolitical,socialandculturalbiases,whichare

manifestedbyprocessesincludingtheforegroundingofcertainfeaturesofa

storyattheexpenseofothers,andtheuseoflanguage,amongothers(see

CapecchiandLivolsi1971).Astheanalysisabovehasindicated,however,‘I

briganti’and‘Lafibbia’areexamplesofadistincttypeofnewspapertext,witha

clearanddistinctnarrativevoiceandamuchgreaterpotentialforauthorial

agenda,aswellasamarkedtendencytocombinetheauthor’sownexperiences

withborrowedones,andeven,potentially,elementsoffiction.Further

investigationisrequiredintothediversityofItaliannewspapertextsassources,

andthedifferingwaysinwhichtheyareinterpretedbycontemporaryaudiences

andhistorians,particularlyinthecontextoforganisedcrime.Fornow,itmust

sufficetopointoutthattheterm‘newspaperarticle’insocio-historicalresearch

onthemafiaappearstoencompassarangeofdifferinggenres,andthatthis

genreambiguity,anditsimpact,aretoorarelyacknowledgedbyresearchers.

Thisincludes‘Lafibbia’,whichiscitedsimplyasan‘article’(ifitsgenreis

18

acknowledgedatall)bythemajorityofthescholarstowhomIhavereferred

(includingCiconte1992,GratteriandNicaso2010,GratteriandNicaso2012),

butidentifiedbyCrupi(1992,69)asa‘racconto-saggio’(literallytranslatedas

‘story-essay’),whichintroducesmuchgreaterroomforartisticlicenseonthe

partoftheauthor.

Reinterpreting‘Lafibbia’

Itisclear,basedonthefactorsoutlinedabove,thatthetendencyofhistorians

andsociologiststotacitlyassumetheportrayalofthe’Ndranghetawithin‘la

Fibbia’tobeastraightforwardreflectionofhistoricalfactisflawed,and

potentiallymisleading.However,theaimofthispaperisnottodiscountthe

valueofthistext,andotherslikeit,associo-historicalsources.Instead,I

advocateare-interpretationoftherepresentationofthe’Ndranghetawithin

thesetexts,which,ratherthanacceptingtheportrayalatfacevalue,analysesthe

specificvisionofthemafiawhichtheyoffer,andconsidersitsrelationshipwith

previousandsubsequentrepresentations.Theymightbeinterpretedaswhat

Neumann(2010,334)hasreferredtoas‘fictionsofmemory’;contributingtothe

‘negotiationofculturalmemory’byofferingan‘imaginative(re)constructionof

thepastinresponsetocurrentneeds.’

Basedontheanalysisabove,itispossibletotracerecurringthemesin

Alvaro’streatmentoforganisedcrime;particularlyhisdepictionofthediffering

meaningsofjustice,andhisnostalgiafortraditionalpeasantcultureinhishome

region,whichleadhimtopaintthe’Ndranghetainasympatheticlight–an

observationwhichisnotableforitsabsenceintheworkofthevastmajorityof

scholarswhocitethearticle,andrunscountertothemodernperceptionofthe

authorasentirelycriticalofthemafia.In‘Lafibbia’,itisnotablethatAlvaro

holdsbackfromcriticisingthe’Ndranghetainanyexplicitterms.Criticisminthe

textisreservedalmostentirelyforthestate,andtheexistenceofthe

’Ndranghetaisthustacitlyjustified,mirroringtheapproachtocrimewehave

seenelsewhereinAlvaro’swork.Inthearticle,hemakestheentirelyvalid

argumentthatthe’Ndranghetaisaresultofdecadesofnegligencebythe

authorities,andthatthishascreatedconditionswhichhaveallowedpositionsof

responsibilitytobeassumedbythoseabletowinthemthroughviolenceand

19

intimidation:‘Whenasocietyoffersfew,orno,opportunitiesforupward

mobility,inspiringfearinothersbecomesameansofachievingstatus’(Alvaro,

1955a).26

However,theviolenceperpetratedbythe’Ndranghetareceiveslittle

acknowledgmentbeyondthisinAlvaro’stext,andalthoughtheauthorrecallshis

ownfathersufferingablowtotheheadfromoneoftheaffiliatesononeoccasion

whilewalkinghomeatnight,theincidentisdescribedinoddlydetachedterms,

removedofanyfearormenace.Indeed,theauthordisplaysamarkedreticence

toidentifymafiosiasviolentkillers,withindividual,humanvictims.In‘Lafibbia’,

Alvaroconsistentlyplaysdownthethreatposedbythe’Ndrangheta,positioning

itasanacceptedpartofsocietywhichrepresentsnodangertothemajorityof

people:speakingofthemafiosi,Alvarostatesthat‘nobodyinthevillage

consideredthempeopletoavoid’(Alvaro,1955a).27Theauthorseems

determinedtonormaliseandneutralisetheirmenace,andevenindicatesthat

theviolencewhichdoesoccuriscircumscribedwithintheorganisationitself,

statingthat‘theykilledoneanotherforbreachesofomertà,butthatwastheir

businessalone’.28Indoingso,however,Alvaroexposesacontradictionwhich

reflectsthedarkerrealityheappearsunwillingtoconfront.Ifviolenceand

intimidationreallywereconfinedtothemafiaitself,thenwhowerethepeople

thatthemafiosiwereintimidating–byAlvaro’sownadmission-asameansto

achievingstatus?Thesimplefactisthatinnocentpeoplewerefrequently

murdered,brutalised,andextortedbytheorganisationduringthisearlierperiod

ofitshistory,asasubstantialweightofevidenceunambiguouslyproves(see

Ciconte,1992;Dickie,2013).

Alvarodoesattempttodealwiththiscontradictiontoadegreebyonce

againshiftingthefocusofhiscriticism,withtheimplicationthatthemafiawhich

isactiveinCalabriain1955representsadistorted,modernincarnationofa

traditionalphenomenonwithaquiteseparateethos.Whilethedistinction

betweenanoldandanewmafiaislesspronouncedthanin‘Ibriganti’or

‘Angelino’,bothofwhichidentifythemodernpreoccupationwithaccumulating

26“Quandounasocietàdàpocheoccasionidimutarestato,onessuna,farpauraèunmezzoperaffiorare.”(Alvaro,1955a).27“Nessunoinpaeseliconsideravagentedaevitare”(Alvaro,1955a).28“Siassassinavanotraloroperglistrappiall’omertà,ederanoaffariloro”(Alvaro,1955a).

20

wealthasacorruptinginfluenceonanorganisationwhichtraditionallyupheld

thevaluesofpeasantsociety,tracesofthisdivisionarevisiblein‘Lafibbia’.For

example,thearticlestatesthatonlyinrecentyearshastheorganisation

concerneditselfwithinfiltratingpoliticalandeconomicinterests.ForCrupi

(1992,65),‘Lafibbia’thusrepresentsAlvaro’slamentofthetransformationof

thebenign‘Fibbia’ofoldintoanew,malignant‘mafia’withanalteredsetof

priorities.29Contextualisedwith‘Ibriganti’and‘Angelino’,itseemsreasonableto

concludethatAlvarowaskeentoemphasisethistransformation,ormore

precisely,degenerationoftheorganisation,particularlyinlightofhisrepeated

insistenceinhisdiariesthatAmericanfilmsandconsumeristcultureare

responsibleforthedevelopmentofthe‘gangster’mentality(Alvaro1959171;

208).

Inallthetextsanalysedabove,Alvaroexhibitsacleartendencyto

minimiseanyimplicationoftheharmdonebythehonouredsociety,andinstead

constructthemythofanassociationwhichupholdstraditionalCalabrianvalues,

fromthefamily-man-cum-multipleconvictmafiabossin‘Angelino’,tothe

defendersoffemalevirtuedescribedbyRomeoin‘Ibriganti’.Alvaro’shonoured

society,andwithitallthevaluesandtraditionswhichheholdssodear,hasbeen

transformedintoa‘mafia’viathecatalystsofprofit,progress,andapower

vacuumcreatedbythestate.Incondemningthe’Ndranghetain‘Lafibbia’,Alvaro

condemnsonlythisnewmanifestationoftheorganisation,andreservesthebulk

ofhiscriticismforthestatewhichhasallowedittoproliferateandinfiltrateinto

positionsofauthority.Meanwhile,heconstructsamythofanoldhonoured

societywhichavoidsconfrontingtheviolentrealityoftheorganisation’spast,in

anextensionoftheromanticisedportraitsofcrimewhichwehaveobserved

elsewhereinhiswriting.30

Conclusions

29ItisimportanttoacknowledgethatthisdistinctionbetweenthetwonamesisCrupi’s,notAlvaro’s.Aswehaveseen,theauthorusesavarietyofnameswithreferencetothe’Ndrangheta,placingtheterms‘fibbia’and‘mafia’sidebysideasequivalents.30Lupo(1993,23)referstothismythologisedconstructionofthepastasastrategyadoptedbytheSicilianmafia,whichhesayshashistoricallyappropriatedculturalcodesandexpressedanideology‘tocreateconsensusontheoutsideandcompactnessontheinside’[“creareconsensoall’esternoecompattezzaall’interno”].

21

In‘Lafibbia’,‘Angelino’,and‘Ibriganti’,Alvaroclearlyimpliesthatthemafia

whichisactiveinCalabriain1955representsthebeginningsofacorrupted,

modernincarnationofanhonouredsocietywhichonceenjoyedtheconsensusof

theCalabrianpeople,embodyingtheirvaluesandtraditions.Whilethereare

obviouselementsoftruthinhisidentificationofthesocio-economicdriversfor

mafiarecruitmentandproliferation,andthechangeswhichwerebeginningin

themiddleofthetwentiethcentury,inhisportrayalsoftheearly’Ndrangheta,

Alvaroconstructsamythwhichglossesovertheviolentreality.Theauthor’s

doggedrefusaltoacknowledgetheinherentviolenceoftheearly’Ndrangheta

andhisfirmpositioningofblamewiththeItalianstatecanbelocatedwithina

widertrendofdefensivenessinCalabrianregionaljournalisminthe1950s,in

responsetothenegativepressstereotypingproducedbytheMarzanoOperation

(Ciconte1992,287-288)-aphenomenonwhichitselfdeservesfurther

investigation.Thereisaninsistenceonthespecificity,and,toanextent,the

superiority31oftheCalabriancontextinAlvaro’swritingwhichrecalls

Sicilianismo,andmoreresearchisrequiredintowhatwemighttermthis

‘calabresismo’,anditsimpactonpublicandofficialresponsestotheorganisation.

Bypresentingabenignconstructionofthe’Ndrangheta’spastinhis1955

writingsontheorganisation,AlvarocreatesanexampleofNeumann’s‘fictionsof

memory’;disseminatinganidealisedconstructionofthepastinresponsetothe

stimulusofperceivedattacksonhishomeregioninthenationalpress.

Further,throughhistextualrepresentationsoftheorganisation,Alvaro

activelycontributestosubsequentrepresentationsandperceptionsofCalabrian

organisedcrime,asNeumann(2010,341)explains:‘Becauseliteratureis

interwovenwithothersystemsofmemoryculture,itnotonlydrawsonpre-

existingdiscoursesystemsbutisalsoinapositiontoproductivelyinfluence31N.B.Dickie(2013,83)positsthatAlvaro’sacknowledgmentofthe’Ndranghetain1955constitutedarecoveryofmemory,inlightofanarticlepublishedbytheauthorin1949whichdeclaredCalabriatobefreeof‘criminalsocietiesinimitationofthemafia’(translationbyDickie,Ibid.).Myowninterpretationofthis1949articleisthatitrepresentsAlvaro’sconsistentbeliefintheuniqueness(andsuperiority)oftheCalabrianhonouredsociety,whichheidentifiesasfirmlydistinctfromtheSicilianmafia.ThisinterpretationissupportedbyanaccountofameetingwithAlvarowrittenbytheauthorSaverioStrati,inwhichAlvaroisreportedtohavehighlightedthenobilityandchivalryoftheCalabrianmafiaattheexpensiveofitsSiciliancousin(Strati,1978,107-108).Alvaro’scommentsinthisexchangeindicatefirmlythatheviewedtheCalabrianmafiaasanentityofsuperiormoralcharacter,makinghiscommentsin1949amattermoreofasemanticdistinctionbetweentheSicilianmafiaandthe’Ndrangheta,thanadenialoftheexistenceoforganisedcrimeinhisnativeregion.

22

thesesystems.’Thissurelyextendstotheacademicswhocitehiswork,aswellas

totheperceptionsofthepublic,andtotheauthorities.Theenormousimpactof

culturalproducts,particularlyfilms,onperceptionsofItalianorganizedcrimeis

wellacknowledged,particularlywithregardtotheSicilianmafia,butthereisa

greatdealmoretobeexploredwithregardtotheCalabriancontext.

IhopethatAlvarohasprovedaconvincingcasestudyfortheimportanceofa

thoroughandcriticalapproachtoliteraryandjournalisticsources,ifonlyby

indicatinghowfailingtointerrogatethemindetailorwithincontextcan

significantlyimpactourunderstandingoftheirmessage.Thecomplex,

sometimesambiguousnatureofItalianterzapaginajournalistictextsisof

particularconcern,andhasclearimplicationsfortheinterpretationofthese

textsashistoricalandsociologicalsources.Theprimarygoalofthisarticle,

however,isnottounderminetheusefulnessofliteraryorjournalistictexts,nor

tothinkofthempurelyintermsoftheirusefulnessassourcesofsocio-historical

data.Itishopedthatthispaperhasindicatedthatwhileliteraryandtextual

representationsofthe’Ndrangheta’spastcannotandshouldnotbeconsidered

astacitlyhistoricallyaccurate,textslike‘Lafibbia’,whicharecapableofboth

reflectingandatthesametimeshapingpublicopinion,canteachusagreatdeal

aboutperceptionsofCalabrianorganisedcrimewithinitshostcommunities,and

raiseinterestingquestionsrelatedtoidentityandblame.

Theserepresentationsmustbeanalysedintheirownright,inordertogaina

greaterunderstandingofthesocialandculturalfactorswhichmightliebehind

theirspecificportrayaloftheorganisedcrimephenomenon.Themythofthe

’Ndrangheta’sbenevolentpaststillpersistsinsomecornersofCalabria,andhas

historicallybeenusedbytheorganisationtoitsadvantage.Ibelievethatamore

completeintegrationofculturalproductsintoresearchonthe’Ndranghetacan

shedagreatdealoflightonthis,andmanyotherquestionsinthisfield,including

analysesofhowknowledgeofcriminalhistoryisconstructed.

CompliancewithEthicalStandards:Thisstudyisbasedonthedoctoralworkof

theauthor,whichisfundedbytheArtsandHumanitiesResearchCouncil.

23

Ethicalapproval:Thisarticledoesnotcontainanystudieswithhuman

participantsoranimalsperformedbyanyoftheauthors.

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