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Corpora&on III: The Rise of the (Social Calcula&ng) Machines or “Malefactors of Great Wealth”: TheModern Corpora&on, Private Property, and Public Poli&cs J. Bradford DeLong Professor of Economics, U.C. Berkeley [email protected] OLLI April 13, 2010

Corporations III: The Rise of the (Social Calculating) Machines

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Page 1: Corporations III: The Rise of the (Social Calculating) Machines

Corpora&on  III:  The  Rise  of  the  (Social  Calcula&ng)  Machines  

or  

“Malefactors  of  Great  Wealth”:  TheModern  Corpora&on,  Private  Property,  and  Public  Poli&cs  

J.  Bradford  DeLong  Professor  of  Economics,  U.C.  Berkeley  

[email protected]  

OLLI  April  13,  2010  

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In  This  Lecture  

•  Some  Economic  Theory  –  Price  vs.  quanKty  signals  and  efficient  allocaKon  

•  Some  Economic  History  –  The  feudal  system  –  The  industrial  revoluKon  –  ConKnent-­‐wide  scale  of  economic  acKvity  

•  The  corporaKon  as  soluKon  •  The  corporaKon  as  problem  •  Conclusions  –  SuggesKons  for  further  reading  

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Some  Economic  Theory  

•  Supply  and  demand  •  Price  signals  —  “markets”  •  QuanKty  signals  —  “plans”  •  When  supply  is  flat  relaKve  to  demand...  •  When  supply  is  steep  relaKve  to  demand...  •  Economic  efficiency  

–  It’s  bad  to  produce  things  nobody  really  wants  –  Or  to  fail  to  produce  things  that  people  do  want  – Whether  you  want  a  decentralized,  price  signal-­‐coordinated  “market”  or  a  centralized,  quanKty  signal-­‐coordinated  “plan”  depends  on  how  things  really  work  •  Thus  war  economies  are  command  economies  

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Supply  and  Demand  

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Price  Signals  —  “Markets”  

•  Set  up  a  market,  and  have  producers  produce  unKl  their  cost  is  just  about  to  rise  above  what  they  think  the  market  price  will  be...  

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Quan&ty  Signals  —  “Plans”  

•  Set  up  an  administraKve  structure,  and  have  somebody  calculate  and  then  instruct  the  producers  how  much  to  produce...  

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When  Supply  Is  Flat  Rela&ve  to  Demand...  

•  The  costs  of  producing  the  wrong  amount  are  small,  but  the  costs  of  producing  at  the  wrong  price  can  get  very  large...  

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When  Supply  Is  Steep  Rela&ve  to  Demand...  

•  The  costs  of  producing  at  the  wrong  price  are  small,  but  the  costs  of  producing  the  wrong  amount  can  get  very  large...  

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Economic  Efficiency  as  a  Goal  

•  It’s  bad  to  produce  things  nobody  really  wants  •  Or  to  fail  to  produce  things  that  people  do  want  •  Whether  you  want  a  decentralized,  price  signal-­‐coordinated  

“market”  or  a  centralized,  quanKty  signal-­‐coordinated  “plan”  depends  on  how  things  really  work  on  the  ground  –  When  costs  are  steep  —  when  resources  have  valuable  

alternaKve  uses  in  other  industries  as  scale  changes  —  markets  show  to  their  best  advantage...  

–  When  costs  are  flat  —  when  the  value  of  resources  outside  this  industry  is  more-­‐or-­‐less  the  same  —  then  planned  coordinaKon  shows  to  its  best  advantage...  

–  Thus  war  economies  are  command  economies,  for  in  them  it’s  not  just  that  the  value  of  resources  outside  war  producKon  is  fixed  but  rather  that  it  is  very  low...  

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Some  Economic  History  

•  The  feudal  system  –  Personal  Kes  of  dependence  and  obligaKon  –  Hereditary  succession  qualified  by  other  consideraKons  –  How  to  fit  towns  and  other  groups  into  this  system?  

•  Commercial  and  industrial  revoluKons  –  Partnerships  –  Seek  greater  conKnuity  of  structure  

•  East  India  Company,  etc.  –  Larger-­‐scale  producKon  processes  –  Larger-­‐scale  distribuKon  processes  

•  ConKnent-­‐wide  scale  of  economic  acKvity  –  These  reach  their  height  in  the  nineteenth-­‐century  post-­‐Civil  

War  United  States  

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The  Feudal  System  

•  Personal  Kes  of  dependence  and  obligaKon  •  Hereditary  succession  qualified  by  other  consideraKons  – William  Marshal  and  Isabel  de  Clare  

•  How  to  fit  towns  and  other  groups  into  this  system?  – By  creaKng  a  ficKKous  “person”  who  can  be  slo^ed  into  the  feudal  hierarchy  

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Personal  Ties  of  Dependence  and  Obliga&on  

•  Fief  and  Homage  •  King  – Duke/Marquis/Earl/Count  •  Viscount/Baron/Lord  

–  Knight  » Manor/Serf  

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Hereditary  Succession  Qualified  by  Other  Considera&ons  

•  Gets  people  into  ranks  and  jobs...  

•  Sets  expectaKons...  •  Gets  long-­‐term  incenKves  in  order...  

•  With  sufficient  flexibility  to  make  the  system  sorta  work  —  some  of  the  Kme...  

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How  to  Fit  Towns  and  Other  Groups  into  This  Feudal  System?  

•  Make  them  into  a  ficKKous  “person”  

•  All  the  people  living  in  London  cannot  be  arranged  in  a  feudal  hierarchy...  

•  But  the  corporaKon  of  London  can  –  It  can  swear  homage  and  provide  supply  

– And  receive  benefices  

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Commercial  Revolu&ons  

– Start  with  partnerships  – But  seek  greater  conKnuity  of  structure  

•  East  India  Company,  etc.  

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Industrial  Revolu&ons  

•  The  shid  from  circulaKng  to  fixed  capital  •  Impossible  to  dissolve  the  partnership,  distribute  the  goods  and  then  reform  —  even  if  you  wanted  to  

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The  United  States  as  the  Leader  in  the  Development  of  the  Corporate  Form  •  ConKnent-­‐wide  scale  of  economic  acKvity  magnifies  the  advantages  

of  large-­‐scale  planning  of  economic  acKvity  –  Absence  of  internal  tariff  barriers  –  Unequaled  internal  water  transport  —  especially  ader  the  Erie  Canal  

and  the  Lake  Michigan-­‐Mississippi  Canal  •  Rapid  mobility  and  growth  puts  a  premium  on  impersonal  rather  

than  personal  Kes  in  economic  organizaKon  •  Large  U.S.  corporaKons  

–  John  Jacob  Astor’s  American  Fur  Company  –  Boston  Manufacturing  Company  –  Cornelius  Vanderbilt’s  New  York  Central  Railroad  –  McCormick  HarvesKng  Machine  Company  –  Carnegie  Steel  –  American  Telephone  and  Telegraph  –  Standard  Oil  

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The  Corpora&on  as  Economic  Solu&on:  A  Few  Considera&ons  

•  The  economic  problems  that  the  corporaKon  solved  •  The  problem  of  coordinaKon  

–  QuanKty  signals  –  Bureaucracy  and  rouKne  —  with  flexibility  

•  The  problem  of  scale  –  Stakeholders:  customers,  suppliers,  workers,  creditors,  gamblers,  

managers,  supervisors  •  The  problem  of  accountability  

–  Oscar  Wilde:  “The  problem  with  socialism  is  that  it  would  take  too  many  meeKngs”  

–  Form  of  government  peculiar  to  Berkeley:  rule  by  those  who  have  nothing  be^er  to  do  with  their  Kme...  

–  Could  pick  any  one  of  the  stakeholder  groups  to  have  control  •  The  corporate  form  picks  risk-­‐bearers  •  Others  have,  at  least  in  theory,  contract  rights  only  

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The  Corpora&on  as  Economic  Solu&on:  A  LiVle  Evidence  

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The  Corpora&on  as  Economic  Problem  

•  The  problem  of  uncounted  external  costs  –  PolluKon  –  Income  distribuKon  

•  The  problem  of  unvalued  external  benefits  –  CommuniKes  of  technological  pracKce  and  knowledge  –  “Sweet  commerce”  and  human  sociability  

•  The  problem  of  ill-­‐informed  consumers  •  The  problem  of  consumer  self-­‐control  •  The  gap  between  corporate  theory  and  corporate  reality  

–  The  problem  of  collecKve  acKon  –  The  problem  of  moral  hazard  –  Thus  the  links  from  gamblers  to  supervisors  to  managers  are  

extraordinary  imperfect  

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The  Corpora&on  as  Poli&cal  Problem:  Some  Theory  

•  Problems  of  collecKve  acKon  arise  in  high  poliKcs  as  well  as  in  “shareholder  democracy”  –  Special  interests  vs.  the  general  interest  in  lobbying  and  propaganda  

–  Special  interests  vs.  the  general  interest  in  campaign  contribuKons  and  voKng  

•  CorporaKons  have  a  big  edge  in  mobilizing  resources  to  influence  poliKcs  in  their  preferred  direcKon  – Which  is  almost  surely  not  the  preferred  direcKon  of  their  workers,  suppliers,  customers  —  or  even  of  their  shareholders  

–  Especially  in  technical  details  that  fly  under  the  radar  •  Tim  Geithner’s  problem  right  now...  

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The  Corpora&on  as  Poli&cal  Problem:  Some  History  

•  Nelson  Aldrich,  Chairman  of  the  Senate  Finance  Commi^ee,  Senator  from  Standard  Oil  –  Abby  Aldrich  Rockefeller  

•  Henry  M.  Jackson,  Senator  from  Boeing  

•  “The  most  profitable  subsidiary  of  the  Pennsylvania  Railroad  CorporaKon  is  the  Pennsylvania  state  legislature...”  

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The  Corpora&on  as  Poli&cal  Problem:  Some  Law  

•  Stephen  M.  Bainbridge,  William  D.  Warren  Professor  of  Law,  UCLA,  2007:  –  “[T]he  post-­‐Civil  War  cases  in  which  the  Supreme  Court  held  that  the  corporaKon  is  a  legal  person  for  

purposes  of  certain  ConsKtuKonal  purposes  followed  from  the  legislaKve  history  of  the  14th  Amendment....  Congress  subsKtuted  the  word  "person"  for  the  word  "ciKzen”  precisely  so  that  the  provisions  so  affected  would  protect  not  just  natural  persons  but  also  legal  persons,  such  as  corporaKons,  from  oppressive  legislaKon....  (Admi^edly...  the  legislaKve  history  is  not  uncontroverted)...”  

•  William  O.  Douglas,  dissent  in  Wheeling  Steel  CorporaKon  v.  Glander  ,  337  U.S.  562  (1949):  –  It  has  been...  since  1886  that  a  corporaKon  is  a  'person'  within  the  meaning  of  the  Equal  ProtecKon  Clause  of  

the  Fourteenth  Amendment.  Santa  Clara  Co.  v.  South.  Pacific  R.  Co....  [H]ow  strained  a  construcKon  it  is  of  the  Fourteenth  Amendment  so  to  hold....  It  requires  distorKon  to  read  'person'  as  meaning  one  thing,  then  another  within  the  same  clause  and  from  clause  to  clause...  

•  JusKce  Samuel  Miller,  1872:  –  “The  most  cursory  glance  at  these  [amenments]  discloses  a  unity  of  purpose...  which  cannot  fail  to  have  an  

important  bearing  on  any  quesKon  of  doubt  concerning  their  true  meaning...  the  one  pervading  purpose  found  in  them  all,  lying  at  the  foundaKon  of  each...  mean  the  freedom  of  the  slave  race,  the  security  and  firm  establishment  of  that  freedom,  and  the  protecKon  of  the  newly  made  freeman  and  ciKzen...”  

•  JusKce  John  Marshall  Harlan’s  opinion  in  Santa  Clara  County  vs.  Southern  Pacific  Railroad:  –  “The  proposiKons...  belong  to  a  class  which  this  court  should  not  decide  unless  their  determinaKon  is  

essenKal....  [T]he  court  below  might  have  given  judgment...  upon  the  ground  that  the  assessment...  included  property...  the  state  board  was  without  jurisdicKon  to  assess....  As  the  judgment  can  be  sustained  upon  this  ground,  it  is  not  necessary  to  consider  any  other  quesKons...  

•  J.C.  Bancrod  Davis,  Headnote  to  Santa  Clara  County  vs.  Southern  Pacific  Railroad:  –  “The  court  does  not  wish  to  hear  argument  on  the  quesKon  whether  the  provision  in  the  Fourteenth  

Amendment  to  the  ConsKtuKon,  which  forbids  a  State  to  deny  to  any  person  within  its  jurisdicKon  the  equal  protecKon  of  the  laws,  applies  to  these  corporaKons.  We  are  all  of  the  opinion  that  it  does.”  

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Conclusions  •  The  corporaKon  as  poliKcal  problem:  policy:  

–  Countervailing  power:  •  CorporaKons,  but  also  labor  unions,  ciKzen’s  groups,  grass-­‐roots  but  durable  party  

organizaKons  •  CorporaKons  used  to  be  one  of  many  intermediary  groups  —  “secondary  bodies”  that  

consKtute  “natural  associaKons  that  halt  abuses  of  power,”  in  Tocqueville’s  phrase  •  But  now?  

–  Milton  Friedman’s  soluKon:  •  The  corporaKon  should  not  speak  •  The  corporaKon  should  not  presume  to  be  a  ciKzen  •  The  corporaKon  should  not  presume  to  be  a  public  benefactor  •  The  corporaKon  should  not  pool  the  resources  of  its  stakeholders  for  any  but  the  narrow  

economic  purpose  of  making  valuable  things  at  low  cost  

•  The  corporaKon  as  island  of  central  planning  —  necessary  island  —  within  our  market  economy  

•  The  corporaKon  as  flawed  decision-­‐making  mechanism  –  The  problems  of  corporate  control  are  sKll  unresolved  

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Sugges&ons  for  Further  Reading  •  J.  Bradford  DeLong  (1990),  “Did  J.P.  Morgan’s  Men  Add  

Value?”  (Cambridge:  NaKonal  Bureau  of  Economic  Research  Working  Paper  3426).  

•  MarKn  Weitzman  (1974),  “Prices  vs.  QuanKKes,”  Review  of  Economic  Studies  61:4  (October),  pp.  477-­‐491.  

•  J.  Bradford  DeLong  (2007),  “A  Short  Dialogue  on  Santa  Clara  County  v.  Southern  Pacific  Railroad  Company,”  Grasping  Reality  with...  <h^p://delong.typepad.com/sdj/2007/02/a_short_dialogu.html>  

•  Wheeling  Steel  CorporaKon  v.  Glander,  337  U.S.  562  (1949)  <h^p://caselaw.lp.findlaw.com/scripts/getcase.pl?court=US&vol=337&invol=562>  

•  Adolf  Berle  and  Gardiner  Means  (1932),  The  Modern  Corpora>on  and  Private  Property  HD2795  .B53  1991.  

•  Charles  Francis  Adams  (1886),  Chapters  of  Erie  and  Other  Essays  (New  York:  Henry  Holt).