Cornell-Santorini Rainwater Harvesting Research Project Santorini... · 7. The purpose of this report is to introduce the Cornell-Santorini Rainwater Harvesting Research project

This draft report is for DEYATH review and comment

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Cornell-Santorini Rainwater Harvesting Research Project

Report on Fieldwork conducted: 3 - 15 June 2016

Prepared by David C. Tipping

25 October 2016


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Contents Introduction ................................................................................................................................................. 3

Purpose ........................................................................................................................................................ 4

The Cornell-Santorini Rainwater Harvesting Project ................................................................................. 5

PART 1 Water and Sustainable Development ............................................................................................ 8

Access to Water and Sanitation as the Foundation of the Modern Public Health System ....................... 12

Ancient Minoan Achievements................................................................................................................. 14

Santorini Water Supply 2016 .................................................................................................................... 20

The Increasing Water Security Challenge on Santorini ............................................................................ 22

PART 2 - Fieldwork and Cost Evaluation to Rehabilitate 4 Cisterns....................................................... 24

Typology of Cistern Use ........................................................................................................................... 26

Cistern Rehabilitation Project ................................................................................................................... 27

Water Extraction from Island Wells ......................................................................................................... 28

Local Community Engagement ................................................................................................................ 29

Preliminary Cost Evaluation for the Rehabilitation Project ..................................................................... 31

Conclusion and Recommendations ........................................................................................................... 35

Appendix I - Geophysical Survey Cost Proposal ..................................................................................... 38

Appendix II – Construction Cost Estimate ............................................................................................... 39


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Introduction 1. The Island of Santorini in Greece is reported to have been first settled around the fourth millennium

BC, in the Neolithic period. During the Bronze Age, from about 2000 BC to 1650 BC, the port settlement

of Akrotiri on Santorini served as a trading hub for the Minoan people centered on Crete. The Minoan

fleet had mastered the art of sea navigation. As traders, the Minoans established linkages across the

Mediterranean,1 and in the process, they are reported to have become both influential and wealthy. They

began to build housing complexes and palaces using advanced water technologies.

2. The Minoans developed many water technologies to adapt to the arid environment on Crete and

Santorini.2 These technologies included: rainwater harvesting, aqueducts, underground water storage

cisterns, distribution systems, gutters, channels and pipes, sedimentation basins, filtration, as well as drains

and sewers. However, the sum of achievements of the Minoan civilization remains unknown. A volcanic

eruption on Santorini buried Akrotiri in a thick layer of tephra sometime between 1650 BC and 1600 BC,

and around this time Minoan civilization went into a great decline.3

3. Today, Santorini is experiencing widespread water shortages.4 The volume of metered water that

was supplied in 2015 (1,135,000 Liters/annum) only met around 63 % of current water demand. The

environment is water-scarce. The distribution of rainfall is geographically limited, and the community do

not have major seasonal/permanent sources of surface water to draw from. While water can be extracted

from the island aquifer using wells, this source of water supply has, in varying degrees, become brackish.

4. There are 15,000 inhabitants of the island during the winter season. However, in the summer

months, the island population swells to an average of 100,000 people as a result of tourism. Tourism is

1 Angelakis, N. A., Feo, G. D, Laureano, P., and Zourou, A. (2013). Minoan and Etruscan Hydro-Technologies. Water, No. 5, pp 972-987. The paper reports of the influence of Minoan culture and technology and trade relationships extending into the Black Sea and to Cyprus, Egypt and Anatolia. It states there was contact between the Minoans and other pre-historic civilisations, including Europeans, Asians and North Americans. 2 Mays, L., Antoniou, G. P., and Angelakis, A.N. (2013) History of Water Cisterns: Legacies and Lessons, Water, No. 5. “The construction and use of cisterns can be traced back to the Neolithic Age, when waterproof lime plaster cisterns were build into the floors of houses in village locations of the Levant, such as Ramad and Lebwe.” 3 Online at volcano.oregonstate.edu/oldroot/volcanoes/volc_images/europe_west_asia/santorini.html, accessed on 1 August 2016. Santorini Tephra consists of pumice, pyroclastic surge, and pyroclastic flows. In some areas of the island the tephra is observed to be 150 feet in depth. 4 The Municipality operates 5 desalination plants that produce around 6 MLD of water per day. Water is also sourced from the island aquifer, which is the only viable natural source of water on Santorini. However, the quality of this water has been degraded due to overextraction of freshwater, which has resulted in intrusion of salt water into the freshwater lens.


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the mainstay of the local economy. Agriculture is the other key productive activity.

5. The community would like to ensure the water supply system is adequate.5 In addition to meeting

domestic needs for drinking, cooking and bathing (personal hygiene), and sanitation, satisfying these

needs for the additional population of tourists is essential if the tourism industry is to be sustained and

grown in the future. To achieve this objective, the Municipality of Thira water authority (DEYATH)

would like to promote greater water efficiency and sustainability.

6. To assist the Municipality of Thira to move forward, DEYATH developed a partnership with

Cornell University following a proposal suggested by the Global Water Partnership Mediterranean Office

(GWP Mediterranean). A Cornell research team, led by Professors Gail Holst-Warhaft and Tammo

Steenhuis, visited Santorini to study the history of island water supply and investigate several underground

water storage cisterns.6 The aim of the project was to understand if principles and practices of water

supply first adopted in ancient times, then re-created and re-applied from the mid-nineteenth into the

twentieth century, could be used to increase the availability of good quality water and promote a more-

sustainable form of water management that better adapts Santorini’s water structures into nature.

Purpose 7. The purpose of this report is to introduce the Cornell-Santorini Rainwater Harvesting Research

project. It first introduces ideas to underpin a new philosophy for water supply and sustainable

development, considers ancient water principles and practices that offer lessons to improve water

management and enhance the productivity of the tourism and agriculture sectors, provides the principal

statistics of the Santorini water systems, and discusses risks of a limited water supply to quality of life,

economic productivity and social progress, more broadly.

5 Tipping, D. C. (2008a). The Underlying Value of Wholesome and Clean Water, Submission to Commonwealth Inquiry, Australia. “As a public good in civilised societies, water in a wholesome and clean state - for drinking and hygiene and irrigated agriculture - is essential for the healthy existence and survival of humans, and the integrity of the environment that supports human settlements. A public good may be defined to include a good or a service that is deemed to be essential for basic existence needs of individuals and societies, and access to which therefore demands public involvement in ensuring high quality standards, quality and reliability of service, appropriate pricing and the management of supply and demand on sustainable basis. (e.g. electricity, water and sanitation, basic health). 6 Antiniou, G., Kathijotes, N., Spyridakis, D. S., and Angelakis, A. N. (2014). Historical Development of Technologies for Water Resources Management and Rainwater Harvesting in the Hellenic Civilizations, International Journal of Water Resources Development, Vol. 30, No. 4. Underground water storage cisterns are used to store rainfall runoff and water from springs and streams. “In terms of form, cisterns were holes with irregular shapes dug out of sand and loose rock and lined with waterproof plaster (stucco).”


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8. This report next discusses Cornell’s fieldwork that investigated five underground water storage

cisterns that might be rehabilitated to augment water supply on Santorini. It then presents a preliminary

cost evaluation to rehabilitate the underground water storage cisterns. This analysis considers 2 options

to be confirmed as fit for purpose, including: a) restoration of existing capacity and b) restoration

combined with expansion of water storage capacity.

9. The Cornell team intends for this report to be used by the Municipality of Thira to determine

whether it should rehabilitate and/or expand specific cisterns to provide additional water storage for

domestic and/or productive uses. It is also hoped the findings could be further used to consider the

feasibility of governance reforms to improve water management, promote investments in sustainability,

and enhance livability and economic productivity.

The Cornell-Santorini Rainwater Harvesting Project 10. The Cornell-Santorini Rainwater Harvesting project is a collaboration between DEYATH and

Cornell University. In the spring of 2016, Dr. Gail Holst-Warhaft, Cornell Institute of European Studies

engaged with Ms. Konstantina Toli, of GWP Mediterranean and Ms. Eirini Koch, Trustee of the Panagia

Episkopi Byzantine Church Association, and former Counselor of the Municipality of Thira, to develop

the idea for a research project. The initial aim of the project was to study Santorini’s rainwater harvesting

cisterns and increase community awareness of the history and potential of rainwater harvesting to

supplement water supply on the island. The objective was to conduct research on ancient architectural,

hydraulic and social achievements and inform a consciousness-raising campaign to promote the benefits

of rainwater harvesting.

11. As a stakeholder in regional water outcomes, it was considered GWP Mediterranean could use

the research findings to develop some news articles and other promotional materials, with a view to

seeking grant funding through institutional channels for the delivery of a media awareness campaign.

Dr. Holst-Warhaft and Ms. Koch took the project to the Mayor of Santorini and Mr. Nikos Mainas,

Director of DEYATH, who supported the project. Cornell’s Atkinson Center for a Sustainable Future

(ACSF) and The Cornell Institute for European Studies funded the fieldwork.7

12. In May 2016, Professors Gail Holst-Warhaft and Tammo Steenhuis formed a six person

7 The ACSF Mission is “to discover and implement sustainable solutions to world needs for reliable energy, a resilient environment, and responsible economic development.”


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multidisciplinary team to undertake the research project. As presented in Table 1, the additional team

comprised a fellow, graduate students and seniors from across campus. The various academic

departments and schools included: Biological and Environmental Engineering, College of Engineering,

Human Ecology/Cornell Institute for Public Affairs, Arts and Sciences, and City and Regional Planning.

Individuals provided their services pro bono.

Table 1 - Research Team

Name Affiliation

Susan Chen Senior, College of Engineering, Department of Operations Research Jared Enriquez Graduate Student, City and Regional Planning Laura Kenny Graduate Student, City and Regional Planning

Jung-Ju Lee Senior, Government and Asian Studies, Arts and Sciences

Tammo Steenhuis Professor, Biological and Environmental Engineering

David Tipping Fellow, Cornell Institute for Public Affairs (CIPA)

Abhinav Vijay Graduate Student, College of Engineering, Department of Biological and Environmental Engineering

Gail Holst-Warhaft Adjunct Professor, Comparative Literature, Biological and Environmental Engineering Cornell, Institute for European Studies

13. The research team met in Santorini immediately following the Cornell Spring 2016 semester. A

GWP Mediterranean officer met with the students, helped with translation, and provided an island

induction over 2 days. This included a cultural briefing, a tour of some of the island’s historical tourist

sites, and participation in the project start-up meeting.

14. DEYATH convened the project start-up meeting at the Municipal Offices on 3 June 2016. At the

meeting, the Mayor of the Island, Mr. Nikolaos Zorzos, and Mr. Nikos Mainas, Director, DEYATH,

welcomed the research team. Mr. Mainas gave a presentation on the municipal water challenges and

objectives, which included details on the principal statistics of island water systems. He stated that

DEYATH wanted to develop projects to augment the volume of good quality water the Municipality was

able to deliver through the local water supply systems. Additionally, he discussed a desire to improve

sustainability and water efficiency. He also clarified that DEYATH had identified five cisterns to be

documented, only one of which was being used.

15. The Cornell team met following the start-up meeting to consider the strategic priorities of the


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water authority and design the project. It was established that additional research would need to be

undertaken to support the development of policy recommendations on augmentation of the water supply

through the financing of cost-effective infrastructure that could enhance the resilience of the island’s

water systems, as well as on good water governance and improved water management. The team created

a logical framework, determined project objectives, and identified research tasks and activities. The team

further refined this project research framework as the fieldwork was ongoing.

16. Table 2 presents the work program of the Cornell-Santorini partnership project, comprising a

primary objective and four specific objectives. To contribute to achieving the overall objective, the

research team sought to develop a deeper understanding of the island water systems, as well as ancient

cistern configurations and how local communities came to develop the post-war cisterns on the island to

meet both domestic and irrigated agriculture water requirements. The first specific objective entailed

field investigations to inspect, map and assess the condition of the five existing cisterns, and to develop

information the Municipality could use to decide if any cistern should be rehabilitated. This component

included development of a cistern assessment protocol, engagement with the local community, as well

as photography of the Panagia Episkopi Church cistern (circa 1115) to support its incorporation into the

UNESCO virtual water museum.

Table 2 – Research Framework

Overall Objective A more efficient and resilient water system, and community positioned to understand water as cultural capital and to achieve sustainable tourism, by 2020.

Specific Objective 1 Five Santorini cisterns for water storage documented, inspected, mapped and assessed for rehabilitation potential by the local community.

Specific Objective 2 Santorini water museum project developed, funded and implemented. Specific Objective 3 Santorini water storage capacity enhancement project developed, funded and

implemented. Specific Objective 4 Water use on Santorini more productive through public awareness of water

conservation initiatives.

17. The second objective involved the identification of water features/monuments on Santorini that

could be mapped and developed into a series of water hiking trails, for both local residents and visiting

tourists. This component included community engagement and the development of ideas the

Municipality could consider for funding and implementing a potential project. The third objective was

concerned with the development and funding of a Municipality water storage capacity enhancement


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project, contingent on the feasibility of rehabilitating and/or expanding the capacity of the existing

cisterns, and integrating these into the island water supply systems. The fourth objective required the

development of a communications strategy to inform the Municipality on how to promote a modern ethos

of valuing water, in support of water conservation and sustainability.

18. Currently, the overall objective of this research is “to create a more-efficient and resilient water

system” and “to position the community to understand water as cultural capital and to achieve sustainable

tourism”. In order to formulate draft recommendations, this report is divided into 2 parts. Part 1

introduces ideas to underpin a new philosophy for water supply and sustainable development, discusses

the challenge of creating water and sanitation as the foundation of the modern public health system, and

describes ancient principles and practices of water management used by the Minoan civilization

(3200 BC – 1100 BC). It presents the principal statistics of Santorini’s water system and discusses the

need to review water security and ensure the water supply is adequate for meeting community

requirements into the future. Part 2 discusses the activities undertaken to achieve Specific Objective 1.

These activities include fieldwork to inspect, map and assess the condition of five underground water

storage cisterns, research and data analysis, consultation with local government and stakeholders, and

cost evaluation in support of a project to rehabilitate four cisterns and facilitate public viewing of the

Episkopi Church cistern. In the report conclusion, the Cornell team presents draft recommendations for

the consideration of DEYATH.

19. The Cornell team completed the fieldwork on 15 June 2016.

PART 1 Water and Sustainable Development 20. Water is the core of human civilization. It is essential for good quality of life and social progress.

An abundant supply of wholesome and clean water is required for human health and well-being, and the

productive endeavors that allow people to realize individual potential and pursue aspirations in life. As

it is throughout nature, water is life.

21. In light of growing concerns that economic and social development were placing the global

environment at risk, in 1987 the United Nations established the World Commission on Environment and

Development (WCED). Its mission was to unite Member States to work together in pursuit of sustainable


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development. WCED called its final report Our Common Future.8 This report affirmed the objective

of development was the satisfaction of human needs, and aspirations, and it established

poverty and inequity had become endemic. Forewarning a world prone to ecological crisis,

the Commissioners reasoned a more sustainable form of development was required, i.e. if the

international community were to meet the basic needs of all persons, and help individuals achieve

aspirations of a better life.

22. WCED defined sustainable development as a form of “development that meets the needs of the

present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs”. They clarified

sustainable development was “not a fixed state of harmony, but rather a process of change”. To achieve

an end, of contentment, tranquility and peace among all peoples in all nations, WCED clari f ied

“exploitation of resources, direction of investments, orientation of technological development, and

institutional change” all needed to be made consistent with the future as well as present needs of humans.

Such remains the challenge of water today.9

23. Tipping (2016) described water as distributed geographically in nature by the water cycle.10

Water can generally be considered a renewable resource. This implies nature regenerates water over

time, through environmental services, though it also introduces the human concepts of economic scarcity,

and competition. The withdrawal of water for domestic consumption and social and economic activities

across the human system is placing increasing demands on the environmental resource base. In turn, all

the human competition for water is placing increasing pressure on the natural system.

24. As a key input for human health and productive endeavors - from its use in irrigated agriculture

and tourism, to its essential nature in human consumption and hygiene - today’s competition for water is

highly complex and can be seen to be promoting unnecessary scarcity across nations.11 The United

8 United Nations General Assembly (1987). A/42/427, Development and International Economic Cooperation: Environment, Report of the World Commission on Environment and Development, 4 August, Note by the Secretary-General, USA. 9 Online at www.thegef.org/gef/node/11827, accessed on 17 May 2016. It’s all about water – transboundary water, The 8th GEF Biennial International Waters Conference (IWC-8), Media Release, 15 May 2016. “Yet, today, oceans are rapidly being degraded. Almost 60% of fish stocks are estimated to be fully exploited, while coral reefs—home to 25% of all marine species—are particularly threatened. And, our planet’s freshwater sources are being rapidly degraded by a range of global pressures such as population growth, pollution, food shortages and a changing climate”. 10 Tipping, D. C. (2016). Dying of Thirst: Hunger for Global Leadership on Water in the 21st Century, Report, BEE 7540 Water in a Thirsty World, Cornell University. 11 Shulte, P. (2014). Defining Water Scarcity, Water Stress, and Water Risk: It’s Not Just Semantics, Pacific Institute Insights, Online at pacinst.org/water-definitions/, accessed on 9 May 2016: “ ‘Water scarcity’ refers to the volumetric abundance, or


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Nations state this “geography of water scarcity coincides with that of desertification, land degradation

and drought”.12 As presented in Figure 1, Shulte (2014) presents the relationship between water scarcity

and water stress. 13

Figure 1 – Water scarcity versus water stress

Shulte, P. (2014)

25. Tipping (2016) proposed the phenomena of water stress and other consequences of poor water

management represent slow-onset natural and human-made disasters.14 The Arab civilization has a

proverb that all sunshine creates desert. Such may be the case if water is taken too liberally from nature,

for water is a gift to be shared. Every time water is cycled through the natural system it is blessed with

life-giving properties.

lack thereof, of water supply. This is typically calculated as a ratio of human water consumption to available water supply in a given area. Water scarcity is a physical, objective reality that can be measured consistently across regions and over time.” 12 United Nations (2015). Challenges and Initiatives for the Implementation of the Water-related SDGs in Water-scarce Countries: Learning from Mediterranean and Latin American Countries, 6 November, Side Event at the 70th General Assembly Second Committee Meetings, USA. 13 Shulte, P. (2014). “ ‘Water stress’ refers to the ability, or lack thereof, to meet human and ecological demand for water. Compared to scarcity, water stress is a more inclusive and broader concept. It considers several physical aspects related to water resources, including water scarcity, but also water quality, environmental flows, and the accessibility of water.” 14 Tipping, D. C. (2016).


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26. The many proverbs that have passed down through the generations offer insights into the

meanings of human life. In considering these reflections, Holst-Warhaft (2010) has come to classify

water as cultural capital.15 Through the ages, she states water can be seen as “a tool that societies used

to deal with the environment and modify it”. To facilitate water sustainability, Steenhuis (2010)

developed the staged development framework to classify human modification of the environment.16

Table 3 - Staged Development Framework

Stage Description 1 Pressure on the natural resource base is low. Food is gathered from land and/or sea.

Cultivation of crops does not take place. Water needs are minimal. 2 The forest and/or sea does not supply sufficient food for expanding population. Agriculture

begins in locations that are sufficiently wet during the year. Crops are cultivated using the available rainwater. The area can be infinitely extended until there is sufficient produce.

3 There is increasing demand for more food. Yields are increased by using better management practices. This includes adding fertilizer and preventing erosion to protect top soil.

4 Additional water is not available. Societies begin investing in more advanced irrigation technology to increase yield. The water that is used originates from rivers, reservoirs and groundwater. Wetlands are cultivated.

5 All available water is in use. Water that has not been used is either too salty or too toxic for irrigation. Saltwater management becomes the dominant factor.

27. Over the millennia, a rich matrix of cultures has developed. As human communities came

together and applied the fruits of science and technology to modify nature’s courses of water, they

evolved in sophistication.17 The staged development framework reflects that as particular civilizations

evolved, they became more complex and their demand for water increased. All the development required

more and more effort to access and manage water.

28. Ultimately, current patterns of human system development are placing significant pressure on the

natural system. Conditions of water scarcity and water stress undermine the ability of the environment

to adequately service and regenerate water. This is creating a heightened risk of severe water deficiency

in the human system.

15 Holst-Warhaft, G. and Steenhuis, T. (2010). Losing Paradise: The Water Crisis in the Mediterranean, Routledge, USA. 16 Steenhuis, T. (2010). Options for Sustainable Water Management in Arid and Semi Arid Areas, chapter 7 in Losing Paradise: The Water Crisis in the Mediterranean, Edited by Holst-Warhaft, G. and Steenhuis, T., Routledge, USA. 17 Online at www.thefreedictionary.com/Human+culture, accessed on 17 May 2016. Human culture can be defined as “the arts, beliefs, customs, institutions, and other products of human work and thought considered as a unit, especially with regard to a particular time or social group: Edwardian culture; Japanese culture”.


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29. Severe water deficiency places a limit on human development. Water management as a means

to achieve sustainability becomes the restoring of balance in the system.18 Tipping (2014) proposed there

needed to be a healthy prioritization of water for humans to ensure the basic need that all people share in

common are met. In this light, he proposed that sustainable development became “managing the quality

of a finite supply of freshwater, while maintaining both environmental quality and the natural resource

base of the human system.”19

Access to Water and Sanitation as the Foundation of the Modern Public Health System 30. Many water professionals who have documented urban communities in 19th Century Europe and

North America, have concluded that it was necessary to provide water and sanitation to all individuals in

society.20 While the scourge of black plague had etched an indelible mark in the memory of communities

over the period 1346–53, in conjunction with the subsequent plague pandemics, the spread of new

infectious and communicable diseases (for example, cholera, typhoid, etc.) evolved into a serious

challenge of survival for communities living in new forms of dense and rapidly growing human

settlements.21 In certain cases, contaminated water supplies were reported to have led to the death of

whole households in a single day.

31. History tells us that sanitary advances were lost as civilizations declined.22 Foil et al inferred the

art of sanitary engineering declined from around 2500 BC through to the Dark Ages. The Romans built

18 Tipping, D. C. (2014). Effects of Water Quality Index Aggregation in a Model of a Transboundary River Basin System, Report, CEE 6200 Water Resources Systems Engineering, Cornell University. 19 Tipping, D. C. (2001). Sustainable Development Indicators for Transboundary River Basins, Environmental Engineering Research Report, University of Massachusetts, Amherst. “Many externalities are not foreseen or considered by those whose actions serve to create them. To meet the challenges presented by the notion of sustainability, today’s problem solvers must be able to integrate engineering, science and management using multi-disciplinary approaches”. 20 Tipping, D. C. (2006). Towards an Organizing Framework for Addressing the Water and Sanitation Needs of the Developing World as the Foundation for International Collaboration for Global Poverty Reduction and Sustainable Development, UCLA Globalization Research Centre - Africa. 21 Online at en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_Death, accessed on 31 August 2016. “The Black Death or Black Plague was one of the most devastating pandemics in human history, resulting in the deaths of an estimated 75 to 200 million people and peaking in Europe in the years 1346–53… reducing the world population from an estimated 450 million down to 350–375 million .” 22 Foil, J., Cerwick, J. & White, J. (1993). Collection Systems Past and Present: A Historical Perspective of Design, Operations and Maintenance, reprint from Operations Forum Magazine, Vol. 10. No. 12, December 1993, USA.


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aqueducts and sewers on a grand scale, though there were few individual house connections.23 After the

decline of the Roman Empire, the decline of sanitation was hastened. Urban populations decreased in

size and returned to more sparse rural communities as a direct result of plague and pandemics.24

32. Tipping (2008b) presented the historical evolution of the London water supply from 1236 to 1886

as the foundation for the modern public health system.25 Master craftsmen working in Guilds needed to

create, test and improve water technologies, from water conveyance, distribution and discharge, to

filtration and other physical-chemical and biological water and wastewater treatment methods. Doctors

and scientists had to develop epidemiology and germ theory before disease could be understood. Local

governments in rapidly growing villages and hamlets became responsible for rolling out water and

sewerage systems across towns and cities.

33. During this period, cities reached populations of a million persons, for the first time since Ancient

Rome. Individuals and families learnt they had to fund the reliable infrastructure associated with the

provision of wholesome, clean and safe water, and effective sanitation. The alternative was to pay a

more ultimate cost in terms of excessive illness (morbidity) and undue loss of life (mortality). Health

became wealth.

34. The end result of this action on water led to increased human efficiency and productivity. The

progress can be likened to adding fuel to the economic pursuits of the industrial revolution. It promoted

upward mobility through educational attainment and scientific and technological achievement. As

presented in Figure 2, adequate access to water and sanitation came to be the foundation of the modern

public health system.26 The good health outcomes led to improved quality of life, economic prosperity

and social progress, more broadly.27

23 Thomas, H. (1981). An Unfinished History of the World, 1st edn. Pan, UK. “The Romans were uninventive in medical matters; they had an effective system of medical organisation based principally on greater attention to sanitation, which included numerous public laws and good drainage”. 24 Karlen, A. (1996). Man and microbes: disease and plagues in history and modern times, Simon & Schuster, USA. 25 Tipping, D. C. (2008b). Case Study on the water supply of the City of London. “By 1236, the King of England was forced to take corrective action, to prevent loss and nuisance. 26 Tipping, D. C. (2006). 27 Kober, G. (1897). The Progress and Achievements of Hygiene, Science, new series, Vol. 6, 1897, No. 52, pp. 789-799. “Without underestimating the brilliant achievements of Jenner’s discovery of vaccination in 1796, which as a preventative measure has saved millions of lives, no two factors have contributed so much to the general result than the improvement of the air we breathe and the water we drink. Indeed, we have ample evidence that, with the introduction of sewers and public water supplies, the general mortality in numerous cities, during the past 40 years, has been fully one-half”.


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Figure 2 – A notion of sustainable socio-economic development

Tipping, D.C. (2006)

Ancient Minoan Achievements 35. It is less clear today that 19th Century European and North American communities re-created and

improved upon water technologies that had been developed by ancient societies several thousand years

earlier. May (2010a) documented that Neolithic populations (5700 BC – 3200 BC) were the first to

successfully modify the environment for the purpose of controlling the flow of water for flood protection

and irrigated agriculture.28 This research report highlights the achievements of Minoan civilization that

was centered on Crete and Santorini during the Bronze Age (3200BC – 1100 BC).

36. The Minoan people settled in arid regions. These were relatively water poor areas, characterized

by the lack of major surface water sources. This is in contrast to other civilizations of the day, whose

communities established settlements in proximity to large rivers that offered seasonal/permanent sources

of water supply (Egyptians, Sumerians).29

28 May, L. (2010a). A Brief History of Water Technology During Antiquity: Before the Romans, Chapter 1 in Ancient Water Technologies, Springer Science and Business Media B.V., USA. 29 Antiniou, G., Kathijotes, N., Spyridakis, D. S., and Angelakis, A. N. (2014). The authors proposed the Minoan had a cultural preference for a dry environment, suggesting the people sought protection from waterborne diseases, or from floods.


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37. The archaeological record reflects that the Minoan civilization initially survived and flourished.

However, since Crete and Santorini were not endowed with substantial, permanent sources of water, the

constant water shortage forced the Minoan people to create and innovate with water technologies, and

manage water efficiently. Figure 3 presents the one accessible source of water on Santorini, the Spring

of Eternal Life.

Figure 3 – The Spring of Eternal Life on Santorini

38. As presented in Figure 4, Santorini does not receive any geographic abundance of rainfall.

Seasonally, it has only a limited distribution of rainfall that is very low in the period April to September.30

Based on this figure, the annual average rainfall is around 370 mm. This is less than the 600 mm of rain

a settlement would need to grow a rain fed crop and thrive.31

30 Online at www.holiday-weather.com/santorini/averages/, accessed on 28 August 2016. 31 Pers. Comm. Steenhuis, T. (2016).


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Figure 4 – Rainfall data for Santorini

39. In order to survive, the Minoan people had to adapt to the water poor environment in new ways.

On Crete, they initially drew water from wells, and later they built small systems of dams.32 33 However,

as the Minoans engaged in trade across the Mediterranean, the civilization gained in influence, wealth

and sophistication. They innovated with water technologies and began to collect and transport rainfall

runoff.

40. The Minoans managed water supply to meet essential domestic and agricultural water

requirements. On Santorini, they begun to collect rainfall runoff from prepared surfaces, transported it

in channels and pipes, and stored it in underground cisterns.34 On Crete, the Minoans also collected and

32 Angelakis, A.N., De Feo, G., Laureano, P., and Zourou , A. (2013). “Wells have been used in Crete since Neolithic times.” 33 Betancourt, P. P. (2012). The Dams and Water Management Systems of Minoan Pseira, INSTAP Academic Press, USA. Betancourt states the Pseira dams were for improving farming and animal husbandry processes, not domestic supply. 34 Antiniou, G., Kathijotes, N., Spyridakis, D. S., and Angelakis, A. N. (2014). “The large number of cisterns of various sizes (55 found so far) is an indication that rainwater collection (here) was done on an individual basis and depended on the dwelling’s size… Theran soil was used as a component of the plaster, and its high content of silicon dioxide gave the plaster high impermeability.”


17

transported rainfall runoff, but also water from springs and streams.35 They transported the collected

water using both open gravity flow and closed pressure pipe aqueducts, and they disposed of the excess

stormwater and wastewater using sewers and drains.

41. Angelakis et al (2013) documented that by 2000 BC the Minoans had developed advanced

sewerage and stormwater drainage systems.36 They proposed these technologies were subsequently

transferred across Greece during Crete’s Mycenaean period (1400 BC – 1100 BC), as well as in the

Archaic (750 BC – 480 BC), Classical (480 BC – 323 BC), and Hellenistic periods (323 BC – 146 BC).

They further proposed the extent of water technology transfer demonstrated the vast extent of

interconnectedness between ancient civilizations. Angelakis and Zheng (2015) reported the ancient city

of Mohenjo-Daro (circa 2450 BC) situated on the Indus River in Pakistan also had sewers.37 This

associates the ancient Minoans with the transfer of this concept of water technology to a civilization in

South Asia. Though it is clearer today the innovation also spread in other directions, for example, ancient

Britain.

42. The major catastrophic volcanic eruption on Santorini (circa 1650 BC) obviously had a fateful

impact on the Minoan civilization. Angelakis et al (2013) report that whereas in about 1400 BC the

Minoan civilization was overrun by the Mycenaean people, it was the Dorian who subsequently

conquered Crete at the end of the Bronze Age, around 1100 BC. They describe how the Mycenaean and

Dorian civilizations transferred the advanced water technologies to the Greek mainland. The report

proposed that the Mycenaean, Dorian and others subsequently developed the water technologies further,

mainly “changing the application scale from small to large and implementing in both urban and rural

areas”. By around 700 BC these technologies had spread as far as “Marseille, France and Cyrene, Libya”,

whereas the Romans then expanded the concept of Empire to a new level.38

35 Angelakis, N. A., Feo, G. D, Laureano, P., and Zourou, A. (2013). “The main source of water supply at the palace of Knossos, initiatlly, was the spring of Mavrokkolymbos, a pure limiestone spring located approximately 500 m southwest of the papace. Water was conveyed to Knossos from as far as the mountainous area of Juctas, located approximately 10 km away… The Minoan distribution systems (on Crete) appear to have served public water supply networks.” 36 Angelakis, A.N., De Feo, G., Laureano, P., and Zourou , A. (2013). 37 Angelakis, A.N. and Zheng, X. Y. (2015). Evolution of Water Supply, Sanitation, Wastewater, and Stormwater Technologies Globally, Water, No. 7 pp 455-463. The authors report this planned city had at least 700 wells (1 in 3 houses), sewers in the streets, as well as thermal baths. 38 Angelakis, A.N., De Feo, G., Laureano, P., and Zourou , A. (2013).


18

43. Tipping (2008b) clarified that London started to innovate with its water supply in 1236.39

However, the whole of Europe was devastated by the Black Plague pandemic (1346-1353), which

resulted in the loss of an estimated 75 to 200 million lives, and likely, much historical memory.40 At this

time, the technological advances of the ancient Minoan civilization appear to have been lost, as urban

populations returned to more sparse rural communities.

44. Somewhere along this path, the human system seems to have lost touch with ancient philosophies

that valued water and its life-giving properties. By the 19th Century, some ancient principles and practices

of water supply had been forgotten. Communities in Europe and North America needed to re-create

water technologies and improve them, though for the very new and constantly evolving cultural, political

and economic context of modern urbanization.

45. May (2010b) reports that certain ancient societies had developed sustainable water management

practices by “building water structures that were adapted to the environment and fitted into nature”.41

Through an improved understanding of how Minoan communities came to develop rainwater harvesting

to meet both domestic and irrigated agriculture water requirements, one aim of this project is to

consolidate learning on ancient value systems for water. May (2010b) states ancient societies appear to

have promoted human life in harmony with nature, protective of her environmental services. Table 4

presents the established water technology developments of the Minoan civilization.42 43 44

39 Tipping, D. C. (2008b). “Water sources were diverted into London from its hinterlands. Monies were granted for water to be conveyed into London through a six inch diameter lead pipe.” 40 Online at google.com.au/search?q=scientific+and+technological+achievements&oq=scientific+and+technological+ach ievements&aqs=chrome..69i57.8781j0j8&sourceid=chrome&ie=UTF-8#q=black+plague, accessed on 3 September 2016. 41 May, L. W. (2010b). Lessons from the Ancients on Water Resources Sustainability, Chapter 11 in Ancient Water Technologies, Springer Science and Business Media B.V., USA. “Many of the ancients practiced sustainable water use through building water structures that were adapted to the environment and were fitted into nature.” 42 May, L. (2010a). 43 Angelakis, A. N., Koutsoyiannis, D., and Tchobanoglous, G. (2005). Urban wastewater and stormwater technologies in ancient Greece, Water Research, No. 39, pp 210-220. 44 Antiniou, G., Kathijotes, N., Spyridakis, D. S., and Angelakis, A. N. (2014).


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Table 4 - Water technology developments of Ancient Minoa

Technology Location Date

Wells Not specified Knossos Palace (6 wells)

2900 BC - 2300 BC 1900 BC - 1700 BC

Aqueducts Tylissos (Spring of Agios Mamas) Knossos Palace (Springs of Mavrokolymbos (500 m), Juctas (10 km), Fundana (15 km)

2000 BC - 1100 BC 1900 BC - 1700 BC

Rain Harvesting Systems

Flat rooftops and courtyard water collection surfaces

Not specified Phaistos Palace

2900 BC - 2300 BC 2000 BC - 1900 BC

Gutters and channels Not specified 2900 BC - 2300 BC

Stepped Chute Channel Knossos Palace 1900 BC - 1700 BC

Terracotta pipe (round/spigot/water distribution)

Knossos Palace

1900 BC - 1700 BC

Terracotta pipe (rectangular/water transportation)

Myrtos and Pyrgos Palaces 1700 BC

Sedimentation basins Tylissos Knossos Palace

2000 BC - 1100 BC 1900 BC - 1700 BC

Filtration device (charcoal) Tylissos 2000 BC - 1100 BC

Filtration (coarse sand filters) Knossos Palace 1900 BC - 1700 BC

Cisterns Chamaizi (housing complexes) Phaistos Palace Zakros Palace (7m diameter/5 columns/step access)

3000 BC - 2000 BC 2000 BC - 1900 BC 1500 BC

Toilets Phaistos Palace Knossos Palace (wooden seat/flushing conduit)

2000 BC - 1900 BC 1900 BC - 1700 BC

Sewers Not specified 3200 BC - 1900 BC


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Figure 5 – Photo of a Channel in Knossos

Santorini Water Supply 2016 46. In order to promote an idea of improved water management on Santorini and better fit island

water structures into nature, the team needed an understanding of the configuration of the island water

systems. Table 5 presents the principal statistics of the water systems. The Municipality of Thira owns

and DEYATH operates a system of water sources, drinking water treatment facilities and distribution

facilities for the supply of drinking water to local residents and commercial and industrial enterprises. In

addition, there is a system of wastewater collection facilities and wastewater treatment and disposal

facilities.


21

Table 5 - Principal statistics of Santorini water and wastewater system

Component Number Wells (51 % public supply) 52 (Brackish water; unknown volume of withdrawal) Desalination plants (49 % public supply) 5 (6 MLD ~ 2,190,000,000 liters/annum) Cisterns (0 % public supply) 0 Bottled Water Supply (imported) 1,000,000 liters/annum Storage tanks 27 Distribution systems 4 (150 km) Pumping stations 1

Annual water consumption (billed) 1,135,000 liters/annum Annual water loss 1,055,000 liters/annum (48%+) Projected 2016 annual demand 1,800,000 liters/annum Water supply capacity gap 984,200 liters/annum (needed to deliver 665,000

liters/annum)

Wastewater treatment plants (secondary TBC)

5

Sewers 135 km Sewage pumping stations 38 Wastewater treatment capacity 9,000,000 liters/annum Projected wastewater disposal gap (based on projected 2016 annual demand)

Unknown (based on access to infrastructure)

Excess wastewater treatment capacity 80 %

47. It is essential that the Municipality of Thira ensure that the water facilities and infrastructure on

Santorini are always adequate to meet the community’s requirements, including the growing demands

placed upon them. This implies DEYATH need to operate, maintain and update them over time, so they

remain in a fit for purpose condition. This is especially important for Santorini, as the island economy

is reliant on happy and healthy tourists and sustainable agricultural production.


22

48. The Municipality of Thira is responsible for overseeing the periodical review of strategies and

plans, and any redesign and enhancement of system configuration. The engineering profession has

established that it is more cost effective when a system is designed to cope with conditions that will exist

well into the future. To achieve cost effective and sustainable water supply, and long run fitness for

purpose, it is important to develop advanced plans for infrastructure growth and protection of public

health.

The Increasing Water Security Challenge on Santorini 49. DEYATH stated they knew of 52 public wells on Santorini. The water authority sources

approximately 1,115,000,000 liters of water from the island aquifer each year. This represents

approximately 51 % of the billed water consumption, whereas 49 % of water is sourced from the island’s

5 desalination plants.

50. Figure 6 presents a sketch of the cross-section of a typical island aquifer. The freshwater lens

floats on the salt water. This lens changes in form and quality with water withdrawals, and rainwater is

introduced through natural recharge.

Figure 6 – Cross-section of an island aquifer with a floating freshwater lens

Mantoglou, A. and Giannoulopoulos, P. (2004)

51. Mantoglou and Giannoulopoulos (2004) reported the Santorini aquifer was “intensively pumped


23

causing saltwater intrusion and deterioration of water quality”. 45 This extraction of water has led to the

mixing of freshwater and salt water in the aquifer. As a result, the freshwater lens has become

increasingly brackish over time.

52. It is not clear when the modern day Santorini community began using wells to access the island

aquifer. The team proposed the Minoan people in the trading port of Akrotiri could also have drawn

water manually from wells, though this activity could not be confirmed as the site remains covered by a

thick layer of tephra. While Angelakis et al (2013) stated wells were used on Crete in the Neolithic

period,46 Mays et al (2010) found wells in Minoan areas rich in groundwater are today saline.47

53. In this light, DEYATH practices are not sustainable. The over-extraction of water through the

wells is promoting excessive mixing of freshwater and saltwater. While this is creating a health hazard

for some users, for others there is an additional cost to treat brackish water prior to use. As water from

these wells represents 51 % of Santorini’s water supply, this phenomenon creates an increasing water

security challenge for the Municipality of Thira. Water supply for key economic sectors is at risk.

54. The Municipality of Thira should conduct a review of its water security measures for the island,

and ensure that water facilities and infrastructure remain adequate to meet community requirements into

the future. This ought to include ensuring sufficient volumes of good quality water are available for the

growing tourism and agricultural sectors. It will be timely to consider the need to reconfigure and update

the four centralized water systems, while delivering a cost effective and sustainable water supply that is

fit for purpose.

55. DEYATH should commission a series of studies on the island water supply systems with a view

to developing an advanced plan for infrastructure growth and protection of public health. The water

authority ought to establish if there are any additional wells, currently reported as only 52 on the island.

Additionally, the volume and rate of extraction of water from wells should be checked, and adequately

monitored into the future. Technical solutions may include enhanced aquifer recharge with stormwater,

and incorporation of decentralized water storages into the supply system to promote resilience.

45 Mantoglou, A. and Giannoulopoulos, P. (2004). Sustainable Yield of Coastal Aquifers: Simluation, Optimization and Application to Santorini Island, Protection and Restoration of the Environment VII, Mykonos 2004. 46 Angelakis, A.N., De Feo, G., Laureano, P., and Zourou , A. (2013). 47 Mays, L., Antoniou, G. P., and Angelakis, A.N. (2013).


24

PART 2 - Fieldwork and Cost Evaluation to Rehabilitate 4 Cisterns 56. The fieldwork component of the research was intended to build team understanding of cistern

function and construction techniques, and to develop information that could be used to determine if any

of the cisterns should be rehabilitated. As such, the team needed to collect data and prepare a preliminary

condition assessment for each cistern. The team used these assessments in a planning process to define

and analyze specific infrastructure capability that could be reused or repurposed. DEYATH could use

this research to develop a plan and prepare a potential rehabilitation project business case for

Municipality approval, prioritization and funding. GWP Mediterranean could further refine the new

information to educate regional communities on water conservation.

57. Prior to the arrival of the research team on Santorini, DEYA Thira prepared 4 of the 5 cisterns

for inspection, mapping and assessment purposes. The cistern at Panagia Episkopi Church was kept in

service. The Church was using it to store water for the church gardens and it could not be entered.

58. As the water authority had issued each team member with wader boots, tools and other equipment

in advance, the team was able to safely enter the cisterns to carry out fieldwork activities. Mr. Mainas

worked alongside the Cornell team to inspect, map and assess each of the cisterns. Mr. Mainas and a

member of the Cornell team briefed the others on aspects of safety in confined spaces and ensured the

team used safety equipment correctly when entering and working in the cisterns.

59. The team collected data on five underground water storage cisterns of varying age and capacity.

The water authority considered these cisterns as having a higher potential for rehabilitation, though it

was not clear if or how these cisterns would be integrated with the island water systems. Table 6 presents

field data on the five cisterns.

Table 6 –Cistern Data

Cistern Date Estimated capacity (L)

Panagia Episkopi Church circa 1115 Unknown

For Pyrgos Public Carpark circa 1952 298,000 Pyrgos Water Closet circa 1952 283,000

Mesa Gonia Kindergarten Unknown 92,000

Mesa Gonia Art Space Unknown 439,000


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60. As part of the research process, the team photographed and prepared hand sketches of each cistern

and measured internal dimensions with tape measures and lasers. After preparing a cistern assessment

protocol,48 the team determined the assessment would be of limited utility. The team could only conduct

a preliminary test on the integrity of the lining of the cisterns and inspect the architectural works to

document the quality and standard of workmanship of the cisterns. This included an examination of the

cistern’s walls, crown and entry passages for liner finishes, including alignment and evenness. Figure 7

presents a sketch of the Mesa Gonia cistern, and Figure 8 presents a damaged section of the Pyrgos Water

Closet cistern.

Figure 7 – Sketch of the Mesa Gonia Kindergarten cistern

48 Singapore Building and Construction Authority (2014). CONQUAS: The BCA Construction Quality Assessment System, Edition 8, Singapore. The team used CONQUAS as a guidance document to develop the assessment protocol.


26

Figure 8 - Damaged section of liner inside the Pyrgos Water Closet Cistern

61. It was noted the cisterns appeared to be lined with plaster, though the liners in each cistern could

not be dated. The team documented all visible cracks and other damage. It was not clear if high

impermeability plaster made with local Theran soil had been used.

62. As the research was limited in its ability to inform an infrastructure planning process and develop

a potential rehabilitation project, the team determined additional feasibility studies would be needed to

identify core project requirement risks, improve cost certainty of the project, and recommend a

contracting methodology for delivery of the proposed capital works.

Typology of Cistern Use 63. At the project start-up meeting, DEYATH had informed the research team it would be desirable

to reuse the cisterns to create additional water storage to meet island water demand. The water authority

discussed the merit of using the cisterns to store both rainwater runoff collected using traditional means,

as well as treated drinking water delivered by water tanker from one of the island’s five desalination

plants.

64. The team discussed this option in the broader context of the work program for the project and

considered there was also merit in repurposing one cistern as a Minoan water history museum. It was

proposed this would be ideal for providing information to residents and tourists on water conservation,

sustainability, and the value of water more generally. The museum could also be incorporated into the

water hiking trail being developed, and factored into the communication strategy for water conservation

and sustainability. (Please see team reports on the water hiking trail and communications strategy for


27

further information).

65. In order for the Municipality to consider potential opportunities to reuse or repurpose individual

water storage cisterns, the team created a typology of cistern uses for Santorini. This could be used to

assess preferred options and configuration requirements for other water storage cisterns on the island,

and to assist with determination of the feasibility of rehabilitation projects for further development. Table

5 presents five potential future uses of cisterns on Santorini.

Table 5 - Proposed Typology of Cistern Use

Number Use/Reuse Type

1 Storage of harvested rainwater

2 Storage of desalinated water

3 Storage of well water

4 Storage of water from all sources

5 Conversion into a facility (e.g. a museum)

Cistern Rehabilitation Project 66. As a rehabilitation project will require capital expenditure, the Municipality of Thira will need to

determine if a potential cistern reuse/repurposing project is feasible, suitable and acceptable. In addition,

DEYATH needs to establish if the existing cistern storage capacity is optimal, or if any individual cistern

would need to be increased in capacity to realize a greater net benefit. The range of issues that need to

be considered include water quality and public safety, as well as integration with Santorini water systems

and water security, more broadly. Given the complexity of considering options for the development of

the cistern rehabilitation project, the team determined a strategic business case should be prepared to

support planning activities and take decisions on the preferred use of each particular cistern.

67. The strategic business case would be used to establish clear project boundaries, align the

requirement with the strategic plans of the water authority, and provide clear Municipal governance

requirements for project approval and funding. If the proposed project passed the initial screening criteria

for capital works, DEYATH could engage a technical consultant to implement a design process, develop

a detailed design report, and prepare a detailed business case to demonstrate value for money and seek

final project approval for funding.


28

Water Extraction from Island Wells 68. While limited systemic information was provided on the five desalination plants, relevant

information on water supplied at local wells remains unknown. To gain a better understanding of the

function of water supply at local wells, the team made field visits to two sites. At the first well, the team

observed water tanker turn up to extract water, though it departed as the driver noted there was fieldwork

ongoing. It was not clear if this was a municipal or private vehicle. At the second well, the team observed

well head apparatus that did not appear to be fixed.

69. This observation suggested the island wells were not adequately protected in a context of

unlimited water withdrawals and potential contamination events. From a water authority perspective,

factors that need to be considered include water safety and potential revenue loss. There are multiple

water companies on the island and the number of water tankers and annual volume of bulk water sold to

hotels and establishments across the island is unknown.

70. Whereas DEYATH reported the volume of water extracted from the island aquifer in 2015 was

918,000 m3, a desktop study found this rate of extraction to be unsustainable. In 2004, Mantoglou and

Giannoulopoulos estimated the sustainable annual yield of water should be limited to 722,135 m3 49 As

a result, current water supply operations appear to be placing the island aquifer at heightened risk of

further saline intrusion, which will promote more degradation of water quality over time. This may be

increasing health risks and the private cost of water treatment for consumers.

71. To properly assess the merit of any demonstration project to rehabilitate the underground water

storage cisterns, the team identified the need for a study to confirm the annual volume and monthly rate

of water extraction from each well on the island, as well as a governance requirement to monitor water

table level and salt concentration into the future, and regulate extraction to protect the water source.

DEYATH needs to determine if there is a requirement to limit groundwater withdrawals, promote aquifer

recharge to improve aquifer function and groundwater quality, and in conjunction, improve water supply

and storage, and enhance water security more broadly. A further requirement could be to conduct an

audit on the number of water tanker companies on the island. In addition to estimating potential revenue,

by collecting accurate data DEYATH will develop inputs for advanced infrastructure planning for

growth, to improve island resilience.

49 Mantoglou, A., and Giannoulopoulos, P. (2004).


29

Local Community Engagement 72. During the fieldwork, the team met with residents of Santorini who provided historical

information on the island and the history of cisterns. Several of the residents had direct knowledge of

the construction of the cisterns in Pyrgos and Mesa Gonia around 1950.

73. The team also consulted with Ms. Eirini Koch who stated that the Panagia Episkopi Church

cistern was constructed in the Byzantine period, around 1114 AD. It was after this time that cultivation

of grapes to produce wine was introduced to the island, which could have been associated with principles

and practices of water that were used on Crete in Minoan times.

74. The team met Mr. Giannis Fousteris, the local family baker in the village of Pyrgos. He informed

the team that his father had helped to excavate and build the Pyrgos Public Carpark cistern in the post

war period. He stated the village committee organized the residents to come together and develop plans

to build new water supply cisterns to meet community needs. It was suggested the residents had provided

resources for the construction of five cisterns in the area over the period 1930 - 1970. After construction,

residents were able to draw water from the cisterns for domestic purposes and feeding animals. Some

hawkers may have distributed water by donkey. [Panayotes 6946 34 6682]

75. On June 2016, the team interviewed a local engineer. He had worked on the excavation and

construction of the Mesa Gonia Art Space cistern. The President of the local village committee had

decided the labor sharing arrangements. Mr. Yakko provided the team with specific details on the

excavation and preparation and application of the liner (aka “Kourasani Method”). The workers mixed

lime and Theran soil (a locally sourced material) to make a plaster that was applied in 3 layers. They

finished the final layer using smooth stones to polish. After applying the liner to the walls, workers used

sieved tephra, pumice stones and lime to prepare a three layer, 10 cm thick base in the floor of the cistern.

76. On 8 June 2016, the team met with staff at Thira High School to learn about a school cistern

project that had been decommissioned. The staff stated the school had abandoned its original water

cistern storage scheme in 1988. The new cistern project was commenced in April 2010. Workers

installed a 3,500,000 Liter water storage cistern that was commissioned in June 2010. However, this

infrastructure was not constructed to a suitable standard. The team could only observe that it had not

been properly recessed into the ground, which created a trip and fall hazard on the student’s playground.

The school subsequently decommissioned the new cistern just three months later, in September 2010.


30

77. The team established that unqualified persons had constructed the cistern project. They did not

appear to follow a project development process, rather simply procured components and fit them

together. They also did not consult with the Department of Education in delivering the project, whereas

they were a key stakeholder who should have provided a project approval. The fact that scarce project

resources were wasted clarifies that a phased development process is essential for delivering any potential

DEYATH rehabilitation project and assuring value for money is achieved.

Preliminary Risk Assessment

78. The team analyzed project risks to inform development of any potential cistern rehabilitation

project. It is important to understand there are risks associated with not rehabilitating these cisterns.

Table 6 presents risk dimensions, a description of risk consequences, and a risk rating.

Table 6 - Risk of Doing Nothing

Dimension Description Risk Rating

Capability This is the risk to the capacity of the 5 cisterns to support DEYATH in achieving its service delivery objectives across the island. As the 5 cisterns are not currently functioning or integrated into the island water systems, there is no impact on the ability of DEYATH to fulfil its obligations. However, noting water quality in the island aquifer is degraded, the lack of additional water storage capacity in which to store desalinated water may impact DEYATH’s future capacity to deliver an adequate water supply.

Medium

Occupational Health and Safety

This is the risk to the physical well-being of DEYATH employees and contractors, and the public more generally. As the 5 cisterns are located below ground and the team did not observe any land subsidence, there appears to be no impact. However, if the strata behind the cisterns has been loosened by seismic activity, or if water has been percolating down through the strata and causing saturation of any cistern liner, there may be increasing potential for collapse.

Very High

Legislative Compliance

This is the risk of compliance with regulatory requirements. As the team were not made aware of any Municipal laws or regulations related to the maintenance and upgrade of underground water storage cisterns, it appears DEYATH has no obligation to perform. However, the Municipality of Thira may like to consider whether DEYATH need to comply with: the intent of any EU or international laws or agreements and whether the remedial work should be required to comply with some other obligation.

Medium


31

Environment and Heritage

This is the risk to island environmental and heritage values. The team were not made aware of any flora and fauna, erosion, biodiversity, water quality or contamination issue, however it is clear that any ancient cistern has certain heritage value that needs to be protected.

Very High

Financial Efficiency

This is the risk of potential increased costs incurred if rehabilitation works are delayed, including direct project costs and increased costs if works are not performed (also, short-term cost of preventing further damage versus long-term costs of recovering assets.)

High

Reputation This is the risk to DEYATH’s reputation in managing the island water supply, political and media attention, community concerns, and complying with Municipality of Thira and Government of Greece commitments, more generally.

High

79. If the Municipality chooses to develop the cistern rehabilitation project, DEYATH should prepare

a comprehensive risk assessment, with the participation of key stakeholders, to identify key project risks

common to infrastructure projects. This process will support decision making, improve project planning,

and ensure the optimal allocation of risk to be transferred to project contractors. The categories of risks

to be considered include: requirements, technology, schedule, commercial, project integration with island

water systems, water security, financial and operational. Key stakeholders to engage will include:

government authorities, archaeological authorities, tourism authorities, water cartage contractors, other

community groups.

Preliminary Cost Evaluation for the Rehabilitation Project 80. The DEYATH infrastructure requirement is defined as cost effective and sustainable water supply

system. The team identified 4 reasons that justify a potential cistern rehabilitation project to provide

additional water collection and storage on the island, including:

a. Taking pressure off the island aquifer;

b. Delivering water of improved quality for drinking, cooking and personal hygiene;

c. Increasing water availability for domestic and productive purposes; and

d. Leveraging Minoan water achievements to promote a Mediterranean region ethos of

conservation that values water and its life-giving properties.


32

81. It was early in the fieldwork that the team concluded it would not be possible to undertake a

proper engineering assessment of the condition of the cisterns. As a result, it was not possible to prepare

a robust cost estimate for the rehabilitation project. An ideal assessment will include 3 distinct aspects:

structural works, architectural works, and mechanical and electrical works. The team did not have access

to the necessary tools and equipment required to: a) undertake non-invasive testing of structural integrity

of the strata and liner quality, b) conduct a material test of water tightness of cisterns to determine the

ability of each cistern to hold water and prevent groundwater intrusion, and, c) carry out a functional test

of inertness of the liner to determine the suitability of each cistern for storing the various grades of water.

82. To prepare a more robust cost estimate for rehabilitation of the cisterns, the team determined a

geophysical survey was needed. The geophysical survey would incorporate 2 methods of analysis. In

order to better understand the integrity of the structural works, a high quality map of the structure and its

subsurface would be created. This would be achieved by using ground penetrating radar to analyze the

liner of each cistern and the immediate shallow environment (0 – 1.5 m in depth), as well as the geological

strata at a depth of 1 to 1.5 m. A map of the heterogeneity of the liner would also be created. This is

achieved by using seismic refraction to analyze the thickness and uniformity of the liner in each cistern.

If the engineers recommended the structural integrity of a given cistern was suitable and acceptable for

reuse or repurposing, a material test of water tightness and a functional test of inertness may also need to

be undertaken.

83. As discussed previously, the range of planning and water management issues need to be

considered to improve transparency about the potential project and to reduce budget risk. These include

early identification of any land ownership issues and other requirements, such as liner performance. A

water report will review island water demand and consider integration of decentralized water storage

with the centralized Santorini water systems.

84. There are a range of issues that will be investigated in the infrastructure planning process.

Additional feasibility studies will be conducted to identify core project and other requirements including:

a. Comprehensive cistern assessment using geophysical survey techniques to improve the

preliminary cost estimate.

b. Planning report that analyses issues from land tenure to liner performance requirements.


33

c. Water report that reviews island water consumption and investigates the concept of

decentralized water storage integration with Santorini’s centralized water systems.

85. In order to develop a preliminary cost estimate for the project, the team identified two scope

options to rehabilitate the four disused cisterns and make them fit for purpose. The scope options include:

1) restoration of existing cistern capacity, and 2) restoration of existing cistern combined with expansion

of capacity to a volume of 600,000 m3. Based on a strategic business case, the Municipality will be

required to establish the best value for money solution to create a more efficient and resilient water

system. The Municipality should also consider value for money by comparing cistern rehabilitation costs

with above ground water storage.

86. Each of the project cost estimates include a budget provision of 20,000 euros for the design and

construction of a viewing area to facilitate public exhibition of the Episkopi Church cistern. It is proposed

that this activity would be undertaken in consultation with archeological authorities. Table 6 presents

the cost of like-for-like upgrade of the four disused cisterns, whereas Table 7 presents the cost of

augmenting the capacity of each cistern to provide an overall storage volume of 600m3.

Table 6 – Option 1 Cistern Rehabilitation Cost (in 2016 Euros)

Item Total

PLANNING

Geophysical survey 22,350

Access to cisterns and scaffold setup for survey 8,000

Planning report (to identify land issues) 15,000

Water report (to consider storage integration with island water system) 25,000

Legal costs 10,000

Probity costs 10,000

Project Management (develop and administer contract, oversee planning and approval of project) 10,000

Design Consultant (detailed design of works package) 28,000

DELIVERY

Project Management (develop and administer contract, oversee delivery and handover of works) 10,000

Head Contract (works delivery) 158,000

Electrical and Hydraulics works (pump, wiring, telemetry, SCADA) 12,000


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OTHER

Escalation 31,000

Design Contingency 3,500

Materials Contingency 5,000

Construction Contingency 3,500

TOTAL = 356,350

Table 7 – Option 2 Cistern Rehabilitation Cost (Euros)

Item Total

PLANNING

Geophysical survey 22,350

Access to cisterns and scaffold setup for survey 8,000

Planning report (to identify land issues) 15,000

Water report (to consider storage integration with island water system) 25,000

Legal costs 10,000

Probity costs 10,000

Project Management (develop and administer contract, oversee planning and approval of project) 10,000

Design Consultant (detailed design of works package) 47,000

DELIVERY

Project Management (develop and administer contract, oversee delivery and handover of works)

15,000

Head Contract (works delivery) 334,640

Electrical and Hydraulics works (pump, wiring, telemetry, SCADA) 15,000

OTHER

Escalation 50,000

Design Contingency 3,500

Materials Contingency 5,000

Construction Contingency 17,500

TOTAL = 592,990


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87. The project cost estimate includes contingency for design, material and construction risk, and

allows for escalation in prices over a 2 year planning phase. The cost certainty of the estimate is P50,

i.e. plus or minus 50 %. For comparison purposes, the estimated cost of each 1,000 L of water storage

using like-for-like upgrade of cisterns is $320, versus $247 per 1,000 L of water storage using the

augmented capacity solution.

88. It is further noted this research does not claim that 600,000 m3 is the ideal capacity for any cistern,

nor does the estimate include any annual operation and maintenance costs.

Conclusion and Recommendations 89. This research has sought to learn lessons on rainwater harvesting and underground water storage

cisterns on Santorini. The technique of collecting rainwater stems from the Ancient Minoan civilization

on Crete (3200 BC - 1300 BC) who appear to have achieved the objective of water supply. They used

water as a tool, adapting to water poor environments in new and innovative ways, and fitting

infrastructure to the environment. While visitors to Crete today can observe the ruins of the palaces and

villas, authorities are still excavating the ancient sites in the port settlement of Akrotiri on Santorini. The

team observed the site appears to have been preserved relatively intact, as has been found in Pompeii, a

Roman city that was covered in thick layers of volcanic ash when the Vesuvius volcano erupted.

90. The Minoans developed principles and practices of water supply and created many innovative

technologies. Some of these appear to be superior to those used in a few developing countries today.

They include: rainwater harvesting, aqueducts, underground water storage cisterns, distribution systems,

gutters, channels and pipes, sedimentation basins, filtration, as well as drains and sewers.

91. As Santorini is experiencing widespread water shortages today, the Municipality requires a new

strategy to enable residents and the island economy to achieve their potential. Economic growth can be

a miracle to improve quality of life and promote social progress, or a tension leading to conflict and

degradation of the natural resilience required to provide environmental services. Policies and strategies

that promote sustainability and growth are needed. The challenge for governments is knowing when to

invest in developing and maintaining the water supply system, to ensure water security for populations

at the lowest per unit cost. It is also important for governments to realize water conservation across all

sectors of the economy, from domestic to agriculture and tourism, in order to recognize the value of

water.


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92. Water scarcity appears to be an increasing global phenomena. Today’s forms of economic growth

can place new demands on existing water sources and public supplies that are available. In parallel, a

drying climate and over-extraction of groundwater can deplete water sources, while pollution can degrade

water quality. As the risks of severe water deficiency are catastrophic, a more holistic approach to water

supply is becoming an imperative for many societies.

93. Water security and sustainability are challenges besetting fragile states and emerging economies

with rapidly increasing urban populations, as well as modern societies who appear to have lost sight of

some principles and practices of water supply. Local water authorities need to meet the demand that

people have in common.

94. To help the Municipality, this phase of research prepared a preliminary assessment of the

condition of five underground water storage cisterns on Santorini that might be rehabilitated to augment

water supply on the island. The opportunity is to develop a potential project to rehabilitate four cisterns

and create a viewing area to facilitate public exhibition of the Episkopi Church cistern (circa 1115). To

further develop the project, it is recommended that DEYATH:

a. Undertake a detailed analysis of the water systems on Santorini and prepare a water

security strategy. By projecting the current population and estimating future water

demand factors, predictions of the average, maximum day and peak hourly demands for

the year 2046 could be calculated. These projections would be used to evaluate the

adequacy of the current water system and the ability of the current storage capacity to

meet water demand. Further, the demand calculation would be placed in a computer

algorithm to simulate the ability of the distribution system to cope with the projected

future demand. The analysis could be done with various parameters, with fire flows

applied to source reduction scenarios. In instances where deficiencies were found,

recommendations could be made to improve the infrastructure. These recommendations

would be developed to ensure that crucial work to upgrade the distribution system is

completed in an order of priority, so the system will be adequate out to 2046. Similarly,

the wastewater collection and treatment systems would be assessed.

b. Conduct all required feasibility studies, engage design consultants, and develop

conceptual design and performance specifications for the rehabilitation of the

underground water storage cisterns assessed in this study. The revised cost evaluation


37

report would be used to conduct cost-benefit analysis to determine if a detailed business

case should be developed to approve a capital investment in the water system. Through

further research and development, the island could seek ways to optimize investments in

water infrastructure that will be required to promote growth in the tourism and agricultural

sectors.

c. Conduct a planning process to: i) develop a database of cisterns on the island including

GPS coordinates and elevations; ii) confirm additional water storage needs based on a

technical assessment of the ability of the water system to meet future island water demand

projections; iii) identify a water security strategy and a technical concept to integrate

decentralized cistern water sub-systems with the centralized island water system;

iv) produce a project development and delivery strategy; v) validate user requirements

and develop detailed designs for the construction of each cistern, and, vi) produce a

business case identifying scope options, cost, schedule, and preferred delivery method to

support project approval.

d. As many countries in the Mediterranean region are also water poor, Santorini should look

to become a leader in water management. By developing a water hike that links the

principles of water supply and a conservation ethos, there is an opportunity to educate

local communities and tourists on the value of water and its life-giving properties. This

education could be leveraged by identifying significant water monuments throughout the

region, and creating a water passport for travelers to get stamped when they visit these

monuments, learn about Mediterranean region’s great water achievements, and carry new

ideas on water back to their home countries.


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Appendix I - Geophysical Survey Cost Proposal


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Appendix II – Construction Cost Estimate

Documents

Cornell-Santorini Rainwater Harvesting Research Project Santorini... · 7. The purpose of this report is to introduce the Cornell-Santorini Rainwater Harvesting Research project