Reefs Aff

Inherency

Now Key

Time to act is now-reefs are in serious declineHughes, et al., ARC Centre of Excellence for Coral Reef Studies, 2003(Terry Hughes, et. Al, 08/15/13, American Association for the Advancement of Science, “Climate Change, Human Impacts, and the Resilience of Coral Reefs, http://lib.gen.in/7307c15734546c9af66431119eb8d815.pdf, 06/24/14, SJ)

Coral reefs are critically important for the ecosystem goods and services they provide to maritime tropical and subtropical nations (1). Yet reefs are in serious decline; an estimated 30% are already severely damaged, and close to 60% may be lost by 2030 (2). There are no pristine reefs left (3-4). Local successes at protecting coral reefs over the past 30 years have failed to reverse regional scale declines, and global management of reefs must undergo a radical change in emphasis and implementation if it is to make a real difference. Here, we review current knowledge of the status of coral reefs, the human threats to them now and in the near future, and new directions for research in support of management of these vital natural resources.

Although they’re suffering, reefs can still be saved.

Science Daily, 13(Science Daily, 5/9/13, Science Daily, “Coral reefs suffering, but extinction not inevitable”, http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2013/05/130509123414.htm, 7/1/14, JW)Coral reefs are in decline, but their collapse can still be avoided with local and global action. That's according to findings reported in the Cell Press journal Current Biology on May 9 based on an analysis that combines the latest science on reef dynamics with the latest climate models. "People benefit by reefs' having a complex structure -- a little like a Manhattan skyline, but underwater," said Peter Mumby of The University of Queensland and University of Exeter. "Structurally complex reefs provide nooks and crannies for thousands of species and provide the habitat needed to sustain productive reef fisheries. They're also great fun to visit as a snorkeler or diver. If we carry on the way we have been, the ability of reefs to provide benefits to people will seriously decline." To predict the reefs' future, the researchers spent two years constructing a computer model of how reefs work, building on hundreds of studies conducted over the last 40 years. They then combined their reef model with climate models to make predictions about the balance between forces that will allow reefs to continue growing their complex calcium carbonate structures and those such as hurricanes and erosion that will shrink them. Ideally, Mumby said, the goal is a carbonate budget that remains in the black for the next century at least. Such a future is possible, the researchers' model shows, but only with effective local protection and assertive action on greenhouse gases. "Business as usual isn't going to cut it," he said. "The good news is that it does seem possible to maintain reefs -- we just have to be serious about doing something. It also means that local reef management -- efforts to curb pollution and overfishing -- are absolutely justified. Some have claimed that the climate change problem is so great that local management is futile. We show that this viewpoint is wrongheaded." Mumby and his colleagues also stress the importance of reef function in addition to reef diversity. Those functions of reefs include the provision of habitat for fish, the provision of a natural breakwater to reduce the size of waves reaching the shore, and so on. In very practical terms, hundreds of millions of people depend directly on reefs for their food, livelihoods, and even building materials. "If it becomes increasingly difficult for people in the tropics to make their living on coral reefs, then this may well increase poverty," said the study's first author, Emma Kennedy. It's in everyone's best interest to keep that from happening.

Unprotected

MPAs are underprotected in the squo.Rife et al, Oceans Program Coordinator @ Environmental Defense Fund 12 (Alexis, Brad Erisman, Alexandra Sanchez, Octavio Aburto-Oropeza, 12/14/12, Conservation Letters, “When good intentions are not enough…Insights on networks of ‘paper park’ marine protected areas”, http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1755-263X.2012.00303.x/abstract, 6/25/14, KM)

In efforts to protect the world's oceans, the Convention on Biological Diversity has moved the goal of establishing marine protected areas (MPAs) to cover 10% of the ocean from 2012 to 2020. This adjustment suggests that the rush to establish MPAs without proper resources does not resolve conservation problems. In fact, such actions may create a false sense of protection that camouflages degradation of marine ecosystems on regional scales. To exemplify this phenomenon, we reviewed MPA efficacy in the Gulf of California, Mexico, where some 23,300 km2 have been decreed as MPAs. With the exception of Cabo Pulmo National Park, MPAs have not met conservation or sustainability

goals. We examined MPA budgets and foundations’ investment in the region and found that funding for management is not the limiting factor in MPA efficacy, although funding for enforcement may be deficient. We conclude that MPAs have failed because of insufficient no-take zones, lack of

enforcement, poor governance, and minimal community involvement. We need a new philosophy to implement MPAs to take advantage of the scientific knowledge and monetary investment that have been generated worldwide and ensure that they complement effective fisheries management outside their borders.

Coral Reefs Declining: The World Is In Dire Need Of RegulationBellwood et all, International Weekly Journal of Science, 04(D.R., C. Folke, T.P. Hughes, M. Nystrom, 6/3/04, International Weekly Journal of Science, http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v429/n6994/abs/nature02691.html, 6/25/14, TH) (fishing uniqueness) The worldwide decline of coral reefs calls for an urgent reassessment of current management practices. Confronting large-scale crises requires a major scaling-up of management efforts based on an improved understanding of the ecological processes that underlie reef resilience. Managing for improved resilience, incorporating the role of human activity in shaping ecosystems, provides a basis for coping with uncertainty, future changes and ecological surprises. Here we review the ecological roles of critical functional groups (for both corals and reef fishes) that are fundamental to understanding resilience and avoiding phase shifts from coral dominance to less desirable, degraded ecosystems. We identify striking biogeographic differences in the species richness and composition of functional groups, which highlight the vulnerability of Caribbean reef ecosystems. These findings have profound implications for restoration of degraded reefs, management of fisheries, and the focus on marine protected areas and biodiversity hotspots as priorities for conservation.

Reefs are currently at risk – 60% threatened world wide

Burke, senior associate of the World Resources Institute, 12(Lauretta, July 2012, World Resoursces Institute, “Reefs at Risk Revisited in the Coral Triangle”, http://www.wri.org/publication/reefs-risk-revisited-coral-triangle, 6-24-13, JW)The World Resources Institute produced the report in close collaboration with the USAID-funded Coral Triangle Support Partnership (CTSP). Reefs at Risk Revisited in the Coral Triangle was adapted from WRI’s 2011 global analysis of threats to coral reefs, Reefs at Risk Revisited, and supplemented with more recent and detailed data for the Coral Triangle region. Threats to coral reefs in the Coral Triangle are much higher than the global average. More than 85 percent of reefs within the Coral Triangle Region are currently threatened by local stressors (such as overfishing, pollution, and coastal development), which is substantially higher than the global average of 60 percent. Nearly 45 percent are at high or very high threat levels. When the influence of recent thermal stress and coral bleaching is combined with these local threats, the percent of reefs rated as threatened increases to more than 90 percent, which is substantially greater than the global average of 75 percent. Reefs at Risk Revisited in the Coral Triangle studies current and future threats to the Coral Triangle's reefs, evaluates social and economic vulnerability to reef degradation and loss throughout the six countries, examines reef management initiatives, and identifies solutions to help safeguard reefs.

Current programs not sufficient—half of reef ecosystems in poor/fair conditionNOAA 08(7/9/8, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, “Half Of US Coral Reefs In 'Poor' Or 'Fair' Condition, NOAA Report States,” http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2008/07/080707112648.htm, 6/27/14, SM)Nearly half of U.S. coral reef ecosystems are considered to be in "poor" or "fair" condition according to a new NOAA analysis of the health of coral reefs under U.S. jurisdiction.¶ The report issued July 7, The State of Coral Reef Ecosystems of the

United States and Pacific Freely Associated States: 2008, says that the nation's coral reef ecosystems, particularly those adjacent to populated areas, continue to face intense human-derived threats from coastal development, fishing, sedimentation and recreational use. Even the most remote reefs are subject to threats such as marine debris, illegal fishing and climate-related effects of coral bleaching, disease and ocean acidification.¶ The report was released by NOAA at the 11th International Coral Reef Symposium in Fort Lauderdale, Fla. More than 270 scientist and managers working throughout the Gulf of Mexico, Caribbean, the Atlantic and Pacific authored the 15 jurisdiction-specific chapters of the report. The scientists graded the coral

ecosystems on a five tier scale: excellent, good, fair, poor and unknown.¶ "NOAA's coral program has made some significant progress since it was established 10 years ago, but we need to redouble our efforts to protect this critical resource," said retired Navy Vice Admiral Conrad C. Lautenbacher Jr., Ph.D., under secretary of commerce for oceans and atmosphere and NOAA administrator.¶ The 569-page document details coral reef conditions in the U.S. Virgin Islands, Puerto Rico, Navassa Island, southeast Florida, the Florida Keys, Flower Garden Banks, the Main Hawaiian Islands, the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands, American Samoa, the Pacific Remote Islands, the Republic of the Marshall Islands, the Federated States of Micronesia, the Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands, Guam and the Republic of Palau.¶ "The report shows that this is a global issue," said Tim Keeney, deputy assistant secretary of commerce for oceans and atmosphere and co-chair of the United States Coral Reef Task Force. "While the report indicates reefs in general are healthier in the Pacific than the Atlantic, even remote reefs are subject to threats stemming from climate change as well as illegal

fishing and marine debris."¶ The conditions of U.S. coral reefs have been declining for several decades according to the report's authors. As an indicator of this decline, since the last status report was released in 2005, two coral species -- Elkhorn and Staghorn corals --- have become the first corals ever listed as threatened under the Endangered Species Act.¶

Coral reefs under threat—climate changeFoster, BA in Ecology and Evolutionary Biology from Princeton, 14

(Joanna M., 1/3/14, MA in Science, Health, and Environmental Reporting from NY University, Climate Progress, “We Witnessing The End Of Coral?,” http://thinkprogress.org/climate/2014/01/03/3118001/coral-reefs-climate-change/, 6/29/14, SM)Tropical coral reefs form the very foundation of marine biodiversity. Sadly, their seemingly inevitable demise may prove to be one of the first irreversible consequences of climate change.¶ That’s the conclusion of a comprehensive new report on abrupt climate changes from the National Academy of Sciences. Researchers have long hypothesized about climate-induced points of no return, like sudden catastrophic melting of ice caps or a dramatic shift in the Gulf stream, but the Academy report

emphasizes that ecosystem collapse as environmental conditions steadily march past livable thresholds is much more likely in the next few decades. And tropical coral reefs are one of the most precarious ecosystems, thanks to

increasingly warm and acidic oceans.¶ Climate change poses a double threat to coral reefs. Warming ocean waters lead to a potentially fatal process known as coral “bleaching,” in which reef-building corals eject algae living inside their tissues that supply them with most of their food. Coral bleaching occurs when water temperatures are just 2-4°F above normal

summertime temperatures. Bleached corals are weak and often succumb to disease. ¶ At the same time as warming

waters are pushing corals to the brink of what they can tolerate, the oceans are absorbing about one quarter of annual CO2 emissions from human activities. That’s nearly 24 million tons of CO2 every day. CO2 dissolved in seawater increases ocean acidity. More acidic oceans decrease the availability of carbonate ions, which coral use to build their calcium carbonate skeletons. In short,

sour oceans spell the end to reef building.

Without preservation, coral reefs will go extinctLacey, BA in Journalism from Franklin Pierce University, 11(Stephen, 9/12/11, Climate Progress, “September 12 News: Coral Reefs “Will be Gone by the End of the Century,” Thanks to Climate Change and Ocean Acidification,” http://thinkprogress.org/climate/2011/09/12/316476/coral-reefs-gone-climate-change-and-ocean-acidification/, 6/29/14, SM)Coral reefs ‘will be gone by end of the century’ ¶ Coral reefs are on course to become the first ecosystem that human activity will eliminate entirely from the Earth, a leading United Nations scientist claims. He

says this event will occur before the end of the present century, which means that there are children already born who

will live to see a world without coral.¶ The claim is made in a book published tomorrow, which says coral reef ecosystems are very likely to disappear this century in what would be “a new first for mankind – the ‘extinction’ of an entire ecosystem”. Its author, Professor Peter Sale, studied the Great Barrier Reef for 20 years at the University of Sydney. He currently leads a team at the United Nations University Institute for Water, Environment and Health.¶ The predicted decline is mainly down to climate change and ocean acidification, though local activities such as overfishing, pollution and coastal development have also harmed the reefs. The

book, Our Dying Planet, published by University of California Press, contains further alarming predictions, such as the prospect that “we risk having no reefs that resemble those of today in as little as 30 or 40 more years”. ¶ “We’re creating a situation where the organisms that make coral reefs are becoming so compromised by what we’re doing that many of them are going to be extinct, and the others are going to be very, very rare,” Professor Sale says. “Because of that, they aren’t going to be able to do the construction which leads to the phenomenon we call a reef. We’ve wiped out a lot of

species over the years. This will be the first time we’ve actually eliminated an entire ecosystem.”

Coral reefs under threat—climate changeFoster, BA in Ecology and Evolutionary Biology from Princeton, 14(Joanna M., 1/3/14, MA in Science, Health, and Environmental Reporting from NY University, Climate Progress, “We Witnessing The End Of Coral?,” http://thinkprogress.org/climate/2014/01/03/3118001/coral-reefs-climate-change/, 6/29/14, SM)Tropical coral reefs form the very foundation of marine biodiversity. Sadly, their seemingly inevitable demise may prove to be one of the first irreversible consequences of climate change.¶ That’s the conclusion of a comprehensive new report on abrupt climate changes from the National Academy of Sciences. Researchers have long hypothesized about climate-induced points of no return, like sudden catastrophic melting of ice caps or a dramatic shift in the Gulf stream, but the Academy report

emphasizes that ecosystem collapse as environmental conditions steadily march past livable thresholds is much more likely in the next few decades. And tropical coral reefs are one of the most precarious ecosystems, thanks to

increasingly warm and acidic oceans.¶ Climate change poses a double threat to coral reefs. Warming ocean waters lead to a potentially fatal process known as coral “bleaching,” in which reef-building corals eject algae living inside their tissues that supply them with most of their food. Coral bleaching occurs when water temperatures are just 2-4°F above normal

summertime temperatures. Bleached corals are weak and often succumb to disease. ¶ At the same time as warming

waters are pushing corals to the brink of what they can tolerate, the oceans are absorbing about one quarter of annual CO2 emissions from human activities. That’s nearly 24 million tons of CO2 every day. CO2 dissolved in seawater increases ocean acidity. More acidic oceans decrease the availability of carbonate ions, which coral use to build their calcium carbonate skeletons. In short,

sour oceans spell the end to reef building.

Without preservation, coral reefs will go extinctLacey, BA in Journalism from Franklin Pierce University, 11(Stephen, 9/12/11, Climate Progress, “September 12 News: Coral Reefs “Will be Gone by the End of the Century,” Thanks to Climate Change and Ocean Acidification,” http://thinkprogress.org/climate/2011/09/12/316476/coral-reefs-gone-climate-change-and-ocean-acidification/, 6/29/14, SM)Coral reefs ‘will be gone by end of the century’ ¶ Coral reefs are on course to become the first ecosystem that human activity will eliminate entirely from the Earth, a leading United Nations scientist claims. He

says this event will occur before the end of the present century, which means that there are children already born who

will live to see a world without coral.¶ The claim is made in a book published tomorrow, which says coral reef ecosystems are very likely to disappear this century in what would be “a new first for mankind – the ‘extinction’ of an entire ecosystem”. Its author, Professor Peter Sale, studied the Great Barrier Reef for 20 years at the University of Sydney. He currently leads a team at the United Nations University Institute for Water, Environment and Health.¶ The predicted decline is mainly down to climate change and ocean acidification, though local activities such as overfishing, pollution and coastal development have also harmed the reefs. The

book, Our Dying Planet, published by University of California Press, contains further alarming predictions, such as the prospect that “we risk having no reefs that resemble those of today in as little as 30 or 40 more years”. ¶ “We’re creating a situation where the organisms that make coral reefs are becoming so compromised by what we’re doing that many of them are going to be extinct, and the others are going to be very, very rare,” Professor Sale says. “Because of that, they aren’t going to be able to do the construction which leads to the phenomenon we call a reef. We’ve wiped out a lot of

species over the years. This will be the first time we’ve actually eliminated an entire ecosystem.”

Need preservation now—marine heat waves destroying coralValentine, BA in Journalism and minor in ecology from University of Georgia, 14(Katie, 2/13/14, Climate Progress, “Marine Heat Waves Have Caused ‘Almost Unprecedented’ Damage To Australian Coral,” http://thinkprogress.org/climate/2014/02/13/3288881/marine-heatwaves-damage-coral/, 6/29/14, SM)The Earth’s oceans are warming rapidly, absorbing about 90 percent of the heat created by anthropogenic climate change. Now, new research shows that this heat has caused “almost unprecedented” damage to ancient corals of the coast of Western Australia.¶ The research, which has yet to be published but is part of a five-year study

out of the University of Western Australia, found that, in the summer of 2012-2013, a marine heat wave killed off 400-year-old porites corals, which had previously been thought to be some of the more resistant to the effects of climate change. The coral’s survival depends on algae, but that algae was destroyed by the marine heatwave, causing the coral to become bleached and more susceptible to death.¶ The study’s researchers told the Guardian that the damage these ancient corals suffered was a major shock.¶ “To see them badly damaged, or completely dead, as a result of bleachings that happened over previous years, and likely the one in 2013, was surprising,” lead scientist Russ Babcock said.¶ This isn’t the first time

extreme heat has damaged ocean coral. The scientists said bleaching has been occurring for about 20 years, and that records show it has become more common in recent years. In 2010, corals across the world’s oceans

became bleached — shedding the algae that provide them much of their food and color — due to heat stress, just the second known global bleaching of coral in history.

New Policies Still Insufficient

Reef protection programs doing enough, reefs need more

Queensland Conservation 13 (“Current Practices Failing to Save the Reef”, 2013, http://qldconservation.org.au/current-practices-failing-to-save-the-reef/ , 6/25/14, CH)

¶ We are not convinced that current management practices are adequate to protect the Reef, a view borne from two Strategic Assessments that have been undertaken by both the Great Barrier Reef Marine Authority and the Queensland Government. Both assessments showed that key natural values of the World Heritage Area are in poor and declining condition.¶ ¶ Recent changes to Queensland laws, including land clearing in some Reef catchments, and reduced safeguards for coastal zones make matters worse.¶ ¶ QCC wants the government to take urgent and effective action to stop the decline and turn around the health of the Reef.¶ ¶ We do not accept that proposed recommendations contained in the Strategic Assessments are adequate, or effective enough to meet the requirement for the urgent protection of the Great Barrier Reef World Heritage Area.

Preservation policies need improvement.

Palmquist, Senior Science Writer @ The Nature Conservancy 13 (Darci, 4/11/13, The Nature Conservancy, “New Study: Marine Protection Goals Are On Target, But Still Not Enough”, http://blog.nature.org/science/2013/04/11/new-study-marine-protection-goals-are-on-target-but-still-not-enough/, 6/25/14, KM)

MPAs of the Future: Protecting for Ecosystem Services ¶ The latest targets for marine protection — set forth in the Convention on Biological Diversity’s Aichi Target 11 — include, for the first time, a mandate to protect for ecosystem services and human wellbeing in addition to biodiversity. This is a positive step that will undoubtedly make MPAs more effective. But, say the authors, it will require more creative and critical thinking about where to place MPAs and how to design them to provide benefits to people such as food, fuel, recreation, livelihoods and more. ¶ “This means we’re going to need to look in some new places,” says Spalding. “Most ecosystem services are coastal, and that’s where the majority of the threats are. We need to really scale up protection efforts in these same busy coastal waters where millions of people live and could benefit.” ¶ Spalding emphasizes that marine conservation in remote, pristine and diverse places is still important. But we also need to ask, what can MPAs do for us? Can MPAs help shore up all the ecosystem services on which billions of lives depend?

Need preservation now—half of reefs destroyedBawden, Environment Editor for the Independent, 13(Tom, 9/23/13, The Independent, “Coral alert: destruction of reefs 'accelerating' with half destroyed over past 30 years,” http://www.independent.co.uk/environment/climate-change/coral-alert-destruction-of-reefs-accelerating-with-half-destroyed-over-past-30-years-8835480.html, 6/28/14, SM)The rapid decline of the world's coral reefs appears to be accelerating, threatening to destroy huge swathes of marine life unless dramatic action is swiftly taken, a leading ocean scientist has warned. About half of the world's coral reefs have already been destroyed over the past 30 years, as climate change warms the sea and rising carbon emissions make it more acidic.¶ But the trend now looks to be

accelerating, said Professor Ove Hoegh-Guldberg, the scientist in charge of the ocean chapter of the forthcoming report by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC).¶ "Our oceans are in an unprecedented state of decline due to pollution, over-fishing and climate change. The state of the reefs is very poor and it is continuing to deteriorate," said Professor Hoegh-Guldberg, of the University of Queensland.¶ "This is an eco-system that has been around for tens of millions of years and we are wiping it out within a hundred. It's quite incredible."¶ In addition to working on the IPCC report, Professor Hoegh-Guldberg is leading by far the most comprehensive assessment of the state of the world's coral reefs, the Catlin Seaview Survey (CSS). Its initial findings demonstrate that the reefs are getting "increasingly hammered" from all sides, he said.¶ "The coral reefs' decline seems to be accelerating rather than decelerating, but I would add the caviat that the ultimate evidence will come in about five years time," he added. That is because the CSS will be the first to provide a detailed worldwide picture of coral reefs, many of which have never been documented before. Only by comparing the result of this survey with the situation as it develops in the coming years can the true picture of the decline be known.

Coral reefs under threat—Great Barrier Reefs proveGammon, Masters in Science Writing from MIT, 12(Katharine, 10/1/12, Live Science, “Half of Great Barrier Reef Lost in Past 3 Decades,” http://www.livescience.com/23612-great-barrier-reef-steep-decline.html, 6/28/14, SM)Australia's Great Barrier Reef is a glittering gem — the world's largest coral reef ecosystem — chock-full of diverse marine life. But

new research shows it is also in steep decline, with half of the reef vanishing in the past 27 years. ¶ Katharina Fabricius, a coral reef ecologist at the Australian Institute of Marine Science and study co-author, told LiveScience that she has been diving and working on the reef since 1988 — and has watched the decline. "I hear of the changes anecdotally, but this is the first long-term look at the overall status of the reef. There are still a lot of fish, and you can see giant clams, but not the same color and diversity as in the past."¶ To get

their data, Fabricius and her colleagues surveyed 214 different reefs around the Great Barrier Reef, compiling information from 2,258 surveys to determine the rate of decline between 1985 and 2012. They estimated the coral cover, or the amount of the seafloor covered with living coral.¶ That overall 50-percent decline, they estimate, is a yearly loss of about 3.4 percent of the reef. [Photos of Great Barrier Reef Through Time]¶ They did find some local differences, with the relatively pristine northern region showing no decline over the past two decades.¶ Cyclones and starfish¶ The reef’s decline, detailed this week in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, can be chalked up to several factors, they found. The biggest factors are smashing from tropical cyclones, crown-of-thorns starfish that eat coral and are boosted by nutrient runoff from agriculture, and coral bleaching from high-temperatures, which are rising due to climate change. (Coral bleaching happens when ocean temperatures rise and cause the corals to expel their zooxanthellae — the tiny photosynthetic algae that live in the coral's tissues.)¶ great barrier reef, health, damage, changesPin It Horseshoe reef after crown-of-thorns invasion ¶ Credit: AIMS Long-term Monitoring TeamView full size image¶ Other coral experts say the precipitous decline matches what they have found. "This is a really grim wake-up call," said John Bruno, a biologist at UNC

Chapel Hill. "The GBR [Great Barrier Reef], which only 10 years ago was considered the world's most pristine and resilient coral reef is clearly not better off and no less threatened than any other reef . I am

bullish on the long-term survival of reefs, but science like this is challenging that outlook."

Need preservation now—coral reef extinction in 40 yearsBurgett, Researcher for U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 14(Jeff, 2/18/14, PhD, Reef Relief, “New study reveals timeline of future coral reef decline, highlights urgent need for action,” http://reefrelief.org/2014/02/new-study-reveals-timeline-of-future-coral-reef-decline-highlights-urgent-need-for-action/, 6/28/14, SM)An international team of coral reef scientists has used the latest global climate models to reveal timelines for the accelerating decline of the world’s coral reefs through the end of the century. If global emissions of greenhouse gases keep rising at or near the current rate, “within 40 years, nearly all coral reefs globally will be subjected to stressful conditions so regularly that reefs are unlikely to persist as we know them,” says study co-lead Dr. Ruben van Hooidonk.¶ Dr. van Hooidonk and his co-lead Dr. Jeffrey Maynard developed interactive online maps of their study results, showing

the timelines for when each coral reef area will experience critical levels of temperature stress and ocean

acidification. The study is published in Global Change Biology in its January 2014 issue.¶ Coral reefs provide food and commercial fisheries, protect coastlines from waves, support tourism, and are inextricably interwoven into the cultural foundations for millions of people throughout the tropical oceans. Seychelles Ambassador for Climate Change and Small Island Developing State Issues, Ronald Jumeau noted that, "It is a common misconception that sea level rise is the greatest threat to small island countries, when in fact the decline of the coral reefs that help feed and protect us and contribute to our wealth and well-being is a more immediate threat to the economic viability and the very physical existence of many of our islands."

Need preservation now—worst coral die-off since 1988Climate Progress 10(10/20/10, Climate Progress, “Scientists: Caribbean coral die-off may be worst ever, Southeast Asia and Indian Ocean bleaching “may prove to be the worst such event known to science,” http://thinkprogress.org/climate/2010/10/20/206901/coral-bleaching-die-off-worst-ever/, 6/28/14, SM)Scientists studying Caribbean reefs say that 2010 may be the worst year ever for coral death there. Abnormally warm water since

June appears to have dealt a blow to shallow and deep-sea corals that is likely to top the devastation of 2005, when 80% of corals were bleached and as many as 40% died in areas on the eastern side of the Caribbean.¶ So Eli Kintisch reports at Science online. He explains:¶ Bleaching occurs when crucial microorganisms leave coral reefs during stress. Corals, which shelter a quarter or more of all marine species, get bleached, and may die, after prolonged heating. A few weeks of water temperatures a few degrees above normal can be fatal. During the 2005 die-off, for example, water temperatures off the Virgin Islands rose just 3°C above the average in August””but stayed that way until November. “There has been little recovery in the Caribbean since,” says reef specialist C. Mark Eakin of the U.S. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) in Silver Spring, Maryland.¶ But, as this NOAA graphic shows, 2010 is worse than 2005:¶ Kintisch reports:¶ “I’ve never seen bleaching like [it] in Panama,” said Nancy Knowlton, a coral biologist at the Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute in Panama who has been studying the local flora for 25 years. She and colleague Hector Guzman have seen massive reefs die in recent weeks in the enclosed lagoon of Bocas del Toro in Panama after becoming coated with giant sheets of slime, the remains of dead microorganisms. “This is NOT a normal condition on reefs, even bleached reefs. Where last year there

were healthy corals, this year there was only gray ooze,” she wrote in an e-mail….¶ A number of factors besides water temperature can cause coral bleaching and die-offs, including pollution and storms. But temperature is the number-one culprit in such a massive die-off, says Eakin. The warmest 12-month period in the NASA temperature record ended this summer; June through August was the fourth-warmest such period in the record. The extent of the devastation across the Caribbean will become clear in the coming months as biologists measure the deaths.¶ The rest of this post is from Nick Sundt’s piece on the WWF blog, “Scientists Report One of the Worst Coral Bleaching Events on Record in Southeast Asia and the Indian Ocean.”¶ The Australian Research Council (ARC) Centre of Excellence for Coral Reef Studies said in press release yesterday (Worst coral death strikes at SE Asia, 19

October 2010) that¶ “[m]any reefs are dead or dying across the Indian Ocean and into the Coral Triangle following a bleaching event that extends from the Seychelles in the west to Sulawesi and the Philippines in the east and include reefs

in Sri Lanka, Burma, Thailand, Malaysia, Singapore, and many sites in western and eastern Indonesia.”¶ “It is certainly the worst coral die-off we have seen since 1998. It may prove to be the worst such event known to science,” says Dr Andrew Baird of the ARC Centre.

Fishing Advantage

Uniqueness

Income Generated Is Not Sufficient Frontani et all, Professor at Elon University, 12(Heidi G., Alexander Hopkins, 9/01/12, The Encyclopedia of Earth, 6/25/14, TH)The management of coral reef fisheries generally involves restricting fishers’ access to marine resources of economic value (food fish, edible invertebrates, fish for the aquarium trade, decorative shells for tourists,

etc.) through licensing fishers and fishing vessels, restricting the use of certain fishing gear, setting catch limits, or designating waters as closed to all commercial and artisanal fishing short term or more permanently as is generally the case with marine protected areas. Given that coral reefs are of interest to multiple user groups whose interests vary considerably, from commercial and sport fishers to snorkelers, divers, researchers, glass bottom boat operators, and other stakeholders, managers are faced with the challenging task of addressing the needs of stakeholders, while protecting the biological richness of reefs. The establishment of marine protected areas that prioritize research and recreational uses is a widely used approach in the management of coral reef fisheries; such marine protected areas often promote tourism and species conservation but conflict with the livelihood interests of

fishers. The majority of the world’s coral reefs are located in poorer, tropical countries, and marine protected areas offer economic benefits via park entry fees and recreational services. Nonetheless, the income generated is rarely sufficient to offset the management costs (patrols, mooring buoys, educational placards, lifeguards, etc.) and an unfortunate reality is that most coral reef-based marine protected areas are undermanaged due to lack of funds and corruption. Managing coral reef fisheries is further complicated by the fact that the benefits from marine parks (jobs and recreational opportunities) tend to accrue to non-local people, whereas the costs in terms of lost livelihood opportunities tend to affect local fishing communities. Finally, many modern approaches to fisheries management do not support the informal management systems historically practiced by indigenous people, potentially fueling local fishers’ discontent with marine protected areas. Local fishing communities receiving few benefits and experiencing notable costs due to the presence of marine protected areas often leads to the illegal extraction of resources, increased law enforcement costs, and ultimately the failure to achieve conservation aims.

Degradation of Fisheries and Food SecurityCoral Triangular Initiative, 14(Coral Triangular Initiative, 14, Coral Triangular Initiative, http://www.ctknetwork.org/wp-content/documents/pdf/SCTR-PNG.pdf, 6/26/14, TH).Fish is a major source of animal dietary protein in Papua New Guinea (PNG). Annual per capita fish consumption is 13 kilograms (kg), but reaches 53.3 kg (Bell et al. 2009) in coastal communities. Subsistence fishing accounts for approximately 64% of total fish consumption in rural areas. However, access to fish is poor for residents

living more than 5 kilometers (km) inland. This is reflected in their estimated annual per capita fish consumption, which is less than 5 kg. Significant loss of coastal fisheries is evident along PNG’s coastline. Marine

resources in provinces that have depended heavily on them to sustain livelihoods have come under increasing stress because of fish catches that exceed sustainable levels, destructive fishing methods, and use of outboard engine-powered crafts to access distant or protected fishing grounds. Agroforestry projects are active in

many of the 14 maritime provinces. Over the past 20 years, many of these projects have contributed to marine resource degradation. Siltation from seasonal heavy rainfall has likewise contributed to degrading marine resources, particularly when it follows

extended droughts. Even coastal provinces with major gold and copper mines have suffered from food insecurity. In the Western Province, which borders Indonesia, flooding in May–June 2012 caused by heavy rain along the Fly River inundated 15 coastal villages, destroying food gardens, smothering seagrass meadows, and causing tributaries of the Fly River to flood. Following this, health concerns were widespread, and most marine-based food was deemed unsafe to eat for several months.

Consumers In Rhode Island Hurt by Declining Fishing IndustryBari, The Jamestown Press, 09

(Sam, 09, The Jamestown Press, http://www.jamestownpress.com/news/2007-09-27/news/014.html, 6/26/14, TH)

Local fishermen, from draggers to lobstermen, and every kind of license holder in between, are feeling the effects of state Department of Environmental Management (DEM) regulations designed to downsize the industry. However,

more than the fishermen are feeling the effects of the fast-shrinking local fishing industry. "Consumers are affected too," said Greg Zeek, a local commercial fisherman and owner of Zeek's Creek Bait and Tackle on North Main Road. Zeek's store is also a popular retail outlet for fresh, off-the-boat seafood that includes locallycaught tuna, mahi-mahi, swordfish, striped bass, shellfish

and lobster. Inventory is more difficult to come by every day, Zeek said. "It's the worst I've ever seen it," he added. "Little is available and the wholesale prices for good, local seafood are ridiculous. To stay competitive leaves little room for even a modest profit,"

Zeek said. He noted that along with less volume, good quality is harder to find, yet the demand is still there. That has not changed. "The state DEM has regulated commercial fishing into obscurity. And the effects

of their regulatory policies trickle right down to the consumer. Fishermen are selling their boats and getting out of the industry because they can't afford to stay in business. Pretty soon, anyone wanting fresh seafood will have to go out and catch it themselves, or buy from a store supplied by an importer, because we will no longer have a local fishing industry," Zeek said. Zeek cited rules that he and other fishermen deemed ridiculous, that are blatantly designed to impede the ability of

Rhode Island fishermen to earn a living. "For instance, guys that had to stop fishing and do other work to make a living, now only fish part-time on the weekends. They were just dealt another blow. The state DEM made a new rule that they can't fish commercially for fluke on Fridays and Saturdays. What purpose does that rule have other than to put even part-time fishermen out of business?" Zeek asked. He said that he doesn't have a problem with the supposed goals of the DEM to replenish the fishery. He emphasized that responsible commercial

fishermen believe that all fisheries need to be managed to assure the future of the resource. He does, however, have a problem with the way the DEM is managing the Rhode Island fishery. Zeek and other commercial fishermen feel that the state is making every effort to privatize the industry. The Rhode Island Fishermen's Alliance, an advocacy group with more than 200 members, has challenged the state and taken them to court over their unfair regulatory policies. The group claims that many of the rules imposed by the state are unconstitutional. Their efforts have been rewarded, but not without a long and costly legal battle for each small victory. One of the recent victories challenged the DEM imposed RI boating registration requirement on federally documented commercial fishing vessels. Rhode Island fishermen received a favorable decision in RI District Court from Judge Patricia Moore, who ruled the registration requirement to be unconstitutional. The Department of Fisheries opposed the decision and has filed for a judicial ruling in the RI Supreme Court. The case is pending. The state has succeeded in prolonging their efforts with legal maneuvers to "avoid being held accountable," according to Alliance

president Richard Fuka. "The people of Rhode Island need to understand that their precious fishing industry will be gone forever if the current Carcieri administration continues to promote privatization and corporate streamlining of the fishery," Fuka said in recent letter to Alliance members. He said the Alliance is currently hoping for a negative court decision to deny the state request for a change of venue to try the case against them in federal court instead of state court. He and members of the Alliance believe the state knows that many of their regulatory policies oppose provisions made in the state constitution for fishermen's rights. The Alliance has cited RI Constitution, Article I, Section 17 as proof of their accusations. The current restrictions set by the state DEM do not allow commercial fishermen to "continue to enjoy and freely exercise all the rights of fishery, and the privileges of the shore, to which they have been heretofore entitled under the Charter and usages of this state," as written in the state constitution. Zeek, who is a member of the RI Fishermen's Alliance, said that his biggest complaint is how the DEM used regulations, that he followed, to drive him out of the lobster business. Todd Lander, vice-president of the Alliance, as well as all the other members have similar stories. Lander said, "In 2001, when they (DEM) told us that we had to cut down on the number of lobsters taken, I only caught lobsters for personal use that year. I thought that was the right thing to do. However, I fished part time commercially in 2002 and 2003. When I applied to renew my license in 2004, I was told that the number of traps I could run would be based on my productivity over the previous three years. My productivity was way down for this period. For this, I was punished. The number of traps I can run was reduced from 800 to 42. I can't make a living on 42 traps. They put me out of business." That scenario is a common lament among Rhode Island fishermen, for Alliance members as well as non-members. They want to see the fishery recover, but they also want to have assurances for their future, and they don't want to be punished for their efforts to comply. They do not feel the state has a right to regulate them out of business. They believe they have a right to know that upon recovery, the fishery will be

open to anyone who wants to participate. They are fighting to retain their right to make a living. If the fishery needs to recover, they

want the recovery level defined so they know what the recovery level of the fishery is. They want better management, with rules designed to replenish and sustain the fishery, not privatize the business for the benefit of the few. NEW BEDFORD —

A plummeting number of cod, haddock, and flounder; rising fuel costs and other economic factors; and a host of

government regulations account for the rapid decline in this city’s historic groundfish industry, according to a

report released Tuesday by the New Bedford Harbor Development Commission. Last year, the city’s fishermen caught $19 million worth of groundfish, about half of what they brought to shore just two years before, the report said. Between 2006 and 2013, the number of groundfish vessels operating out of New Bedford fell more than 50 percent, to 47 boats. “Groundfish have supported generations of Massachusetts

families,” state Senator Mark Montigny, a New Bedford Democrat, said in a statement. “Poorly implemented federal regulations have failed to protect our ecosystems, but succeeded in crippling our fishing fleet.” The report, which calls for new technology to survey fishing stocks, also urged the government to reform its quota system and other regulations that govern fishermen. Much of the decline came after a 2010 assessment of cod estimated there were 26 million pounds of the region’s most storied fish in the Gulf of Maine, 19 percent of what scientists view as necessary for a healthy population. Last year the New England Fishery Management Council cut the catch limit of Gulf of Maine cod by 77 percent from the year before and the US share of Georges Bank cod, whose stock is shared with Canada, by 55 percent. The quotas have combined with rising fuel costs to deepen the pain for fishermen. The average cost

of a trip for a groundfish vessel 75 feet or longer tripled to nearly $30,000 between fiscal 2009 and fiscal 2012. Fewer trips and reduced catch have meant an estimated 164 fewer fishing jobs. Fifty firms that supplied products or bought fish from New Bedford fishermen ceased between 2003 and 2013, resulting in 227 lost jobs between 2010 and 2012, the report said.

Sharp Decline in Fish and Lobster Exports

Constant, Sub-editor of the Daily Observer, 10(Cherisse, 4/08/10, The Daily Observer, Bachelors Degree in journalism from Baruch College, http://www.antiguaobserver.com/author/cherisse-constant/, 6/26/14, TH).

The Fisheries Division within the Ministry of Agriculture has recorded a sharp downward trend in its fish and lobster exports since 2007. Senior Fisheries Officer Ian Horsford said between 2008 and 2009 exports of fisheries products, in terms of tonnage, contracted by 30 per cent. In 2008 the total export was 88.5 metric tonnes for both islands and in 2009, 55.90 metric tonnes for Antigua and 11.90 metric tonnes for Barbuda – a considerable decline. “This is the largest contraction in fishery exports since the mission by the European Commission in 2002 to assess the conditions of production and export of fishery products from Antigua & Barbuda,” Horsford said, adding that the European Commission’s visit was to determine whether Antigua & Barbuda would continue to export to the European Union. “The second largest contraction in exports, 29.9 per cent, occurred in 2008. “Export of fishery products to the European Community accounted for 100 per cent of domestic fishery exports in 2009.” The decline in exports, according to the Fisheries officer, is attributed to the general strikes in neighbouring French territories Guadeloupe and Martinique on the tourism sector, as the trends in monthly exports coincided with the tourist season there. The strikes ran from January to March 2009. The recession in those French territories was also a major factor. “Usually the demand for fisheries products is driven by the demand from the tourist sector in these islands,” he told The Daily OBSERVER. “So if people are travelling less, you have less people in the hotels; you have less demand for seafood. But this relationship is stronger for the high valued product like lobster.” He added, “We’re hoping that with improvement in the French economy (they exited recession I think last year or so) things will pick up.” Explaining the reason why the Fisheries Division has not expanded its customer base much beyond the French territories, Horsford said this is due to operational costs. “In the past, there have been exports to a few Caribbean territories like Barbados but they have been minimal. The reason for that is operational costs; our production cost is high so it doesn’t really make sense for us to export, to say, the US or Canada.” He added that it’s the reason the division imports so much fish from Trinidad and Guyana. “The fish that we tend to buy from Guyana is usually a ‘buy-catch’ of their shrimp fisheries (meaning) when they actually go out targeting shrimp, they’d also catch fish and this fish is basically used to export to different Caricom islands while the high value shrimp is sent to the US …” he said. “In our case, since production cost, like electricity and all these things are high here, things are much more expensive. With the price of fish, we have to look for markets that give us better returns on investments.” Recently, sod was turned for the construction of a Japanese-funded fisheries project. Horsford said the initiative is welcome as it helps the industry on Barbuda to conform to the standards of the European Union which constitutes 94 per cent of the island’s market. “If (the Barbudans) can’t meet the European standards, they no longer have a market,” Horsford said. “About 25 per cent of the population directly depends on the lobster situation on Barbuda. So from that alone you can see the massive dislocation if Barbuda cannot maintain access to the European Union market.”

Fishing Regulations In Alaska Will Hurt EconomyClarion et all, Fairbanks Daily News, 12(Peninsula, Brielle Schaeffer, 12/26/12, Fairbanks Daily News, http://www.newsminer.com/news/alaska_news/alaska-board-keeps-status-quo-in-sport-fisheries/article_5431fc1a-8014-57c9-acc4-600681c5b26b.html?TNNoMobile, 6/27/14, TH)

KENAI, Alaska — As hundreds of people were watching the start of the Iditarod in downtown Anchorage, a few blocks away the Alaska Board of Fisheries finished up its decision-making on fish policy that affects thousands. The 14-day meeting that wrapped up Saturday included public testimony and board deliberations on some 211 proposals concerning Upper Cook Inlet finfish dug

into the commercial fisheries, but left the sport and personal-use fisheries pretty much unscathed. The mood inside the boardroom Saturday was tense. Sport and commercial fishermen sat on opposite sides of the aisle for the majority of the deliberations, sometimes murmuring under their breath about certain board members' allegiances or leaving the deliberations to take a

breather during the final decisions on policy. Commercial fishermen were especially upset on the board's decision

to define a "fishing period" as a time period open to commercial fishing not to exceed a 24-hour calendar day in terms of the "1 percent rule" Saturday. The 1 percent rule was created as a management tool to minimize the catch of coho salmon when low numbers of sockeye salmon are being caught. The rule states that if after July 31 there are two consecutive fishing periods where less than 1 percent of the sockeye run up to that point is caught, the eastside set net fishery closes and drift gillnet fishermen fish in designated areas on the west side of the inlet. Otherwise, the season ends Aug. 15. Fisheries board vice-chair Karl Johnstone, of Anchorage, put forward this definition and championed the change. "Historically there have been some issues here of extending the fishing periods to a certain period of time that you'll catch more than 1 percent of your harvest," he said. "When there's so few sockeye caught and so many coho caught maybe it's time to turn it over to the in-river people." According to Robert Begich, area manager of sport fisheries for the Department of Fish and Game, the commercial fleet on average harvests about 4 percent of the coho run, 2.5 percent by setnetters and 1.6

percent by drifters. Board chairman Vince Webster, of King Salmon, spoke against the restricted fishing period. He said the fixed closure window on Tuesdays for commercial eastside setnetters that the board passed on Thursday broke up

the fishing periods enough that a defined fishing period was unnecessary. "By fixing that window it takes away the department's ability to manage for abundance," he said. "We've tied the department's hands with the fixed window and now we're going to tie the department's hands further." Webster lobbied the board to hold off on making more restrictions to the commercial fishery. "Let's let all these changes we've made take effect," he said. "Why can't we hold off for another three years? The department understands now that we

have a real concern of them going out there if the majority of the fish are coho and there's not very many sockeye." But, other board members, like Mike Smith, of Fairbanks, were convinced a fishing period needed to be defined. "The perception was that this rule because of the unclarity was not allowed to work in the way it was intended to," he said. "I'm convinced that this

particular proposal is an orderly transition for the fishery." The board passed the proposal 4-3. Setnetters and drift fishermen

alike are concerned this new definition of a fishing period will make the fishery meet the 1 percent rule sooner and close, or restrict, the season earlier. "It might even be the nail in the coffin," said David Martin, president of the United Cook Inlet Drift Association (UCIDA). "It was strictly allocative and punitive against the commercial fisheries." He said this restriction could lead to system over escapement, and in turn lead to poor future returns of fish. "The industry cannot survive on that," Martin said. "We're being restricted so the in-river fishery just can play with those fish." Dyer VanDevere, a UCIDA member, said he was unhappy with the board's decision. The sport fishery's

"catch-and-release mortality on the Kenai is more than what the commercial fleet catches." Paul Shadura, executive director of the Kenai Peninsula Fisherman's Association, said that the board's actions in terms of the 1 percent rule were a "travesty," especially in light of the board's actions this week to create a pink salmon management plan for commercial

fish. "Many parts of the beach will be closed down before we even have the opportunity to harvest those pinks," he said. Shadura said the 24-hour fishing period in relation to the 1 percent rule is a tremendous expense and loss for the industry. "This is not just a negative situation for just Cook Inlet fisherman; this is precedent setting from this board on how priorities changed from one of biological management to one of social management," he said. But Ricky Gease, executive director of the Kenai River Sportfishing Association, saw the board's actions as managing for biology. He said he was pleased with the passage of most of his organization's proposals. "The positive action on our proposals demonstrates our intent of acting in a very professional, scientific manner in the Board of Fisheries process," he said. Gease said the board did the right thing by clarifying the fishing period. "I think it was unclear in regulation about exactly what the timeframe was and how you did measure the 1 percent," he said. There were a few proposals he would have liked to see passed in terms of the sport fishery though. He wanted to see the slot limit on early-run Kenai River king salmon repealed and liberalizations to retain smaller, jack kings and keep fishing, as well as a three-coho bag limit in August. Gease said he intends to put at least some of those things into proposals again for the next meeting cycle in three years. But Gease was not the only angler miffed by the board's rejection of certain sport fish proposals. Dwight Kramer, a private angler and head of the Kenai Area Fisherman's Coalition, had put forward a few proposals to conserve the king salmon runs, which were not passed by the board. "This process seems to be consistent in that they continue to support economic opportunity over conservation concerns," he said.

Global Fish Stock Depleted Harrabin, Environmental Analyst, 12

(Roger, 6/17/12, BBC, http://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-18353964, 6/27/14, TH)In the first of a series of five essays on declining global resources, the BBC's Environment Analyst Roger Harrabin looks at the depletion of fish stocks.

The sea exemplifies the world's on-going failure to govern shared natural resources. There's widespread agreement among nations on the need to conserve fish stocks but often disagreement on the details of how to do it. And the need for unanimity in the UN process consistently allows a handful of countries to put the short-term interests of fishing crews before the

fish stocks themselves. It all means that globally about 85% of stocks are said to be fully exploited, over-exploited,

depleted or slowly recovering. Through the lens of history the depletion of fisheries looks even worse. Using data from 1889, researchers assessed catches of bottom-feeding fish like cod, plaice and sole in England and Wales. They calculated that over 118 years of industrial fishing, the productivity of this fishery dropped by 94%. Not to 94% but by 94%.

Anyone with a snorkel and mask - and a tolerance to cold water - can attest that much of the sea bed resembles a desert. The year of Peak Ocean Fish was 1996. Crews hauled in 87.7 million tonnes of wriggling protein. The total sea catch has since fallen to about 80 million tonnes and stabilised. Industrial scale fishing has depleted the species we love the best But we're depleting the

species we like best and making up the difference in low value substitutes. Tuna, the world's favourite, has declined in the Atlantic

since 1993. Catches of cod in the North-East Atlantic have been tumbling since the late 1960s. The total catch is being deceptively bolstered by unloved species like blue whiting and sandeels. Meanwhile fishermen are hunting farther from home for new favourites, using methods like bottom trawling where the ocean floor is scraped clean of life, and long-lining where hooks strung off lines often haul in by-catch that beggars comprehension. Take the longline fishery for mahi mahi in Costa Rica. Its collateral damage over a decade included 402 silky sharks, 625 stingrays and 1348 olive ridley turtles. Turtles of course eat jellyfish, an increasing scourge of the seas. In some areas nine out of ten large sharks have been killed. Callum Roberts, author of the excellent "Ocean of Life", says we're tugging blindly at the web of life in the sea. Big sharks eat cownose rays and, without their predators, the rays in US waters have been free to gorge on the scallops that adorn the tables of top restaurants. Fishermen are now muscling into the icy waters of the Southern Ocean in an increasingly desperate search for new stocks to feed a world population that's growing and getting richer. And our impact on fish stocks isn't just through nets and lines.

Food Uniqueness

GLOBAL food scarcity coming by 2050—population increasePhillips, Texas A&M AgriLife Communications media relations manager, 14.(Fred, 4/17/14, cites Davies, US Agency for International Development senior science advisor for food security EurekAlert, “Food shortages could be most critical world issue by mid-century,” http://www.eurekalert.org/pub_releases/2014-04/taac-fsc041714.php, 6/24/14, SM)WASHINGTON, D.C. -- The world is less than 40 years away from a food shortage that will have serious implications for people and governments, according to a top scientist at the U.S. Agency for International Development.¶ "For the first time in human history, food production will be limited on a global scale by the availability of land, water and

energy," said Dr. Fred Davies, senior science advisor for the agency's bureau of food security. "Food issues could become as politically destabilizing by 2050 as energy issues are today."¶ Davies, who also is a Texas A&M AgriLife Regents Professor of Horticultural Sciences, addressed the North American Agricultural Journalists meeting in Washington, D.C. on the

"monumental challenge of feeding the world."¶ He said the world population will increase 30 percent to 9 billion people by mid-century. That would call for a 70 percent increase in food to meet demand.¶ "But resource limitations will constrain global food systems," Davies added. "The increases currently projected for crop production from biotechnology, genetics, agronomics and horticulture will not be sufficient to meet food demand." Davies said the ability to discover ways to keep pace with food demand have been curtailed by cutbacks in spending on research.

Reefs K2 Fishing

Coral reefs key to fish and the fishing industry NOAA, 12 (11/30/12, NOAA Coral Reef Conservation Program : Fisheries, “Fisheries”, coralreef.noaa.gov/aboutcorals/values/fisheries/, 6/24/14, CH)

Coral reefs serve as habitat for many commercially important species targeted for fishing. Fisheries related to coral ecosystems range from artisanal subsistence fishing, commercial fisheries, aquaculture, the live reef fish for food industry, recreational

fishing, the aquarium/marine ornamental trade, and the curio and fashion industries.¶ The fish that grow and live on coral reefs are a significant food source for over a billion people worldwide—many of whom live far from the reefs that

feed them. Of that number, at least 85 percent rely principally on fish as their major source of protein. [a]¶

With 350 million people living within 50 km of the coast, communities in Southeast Asia are heavily reliant on marine and coastal resources for their livelihoods. This is particularly true of small-scale fishermen living in rural areas and relying, at

times solely, on these resources both as a source of income and for food. [b] In fact, of the estimated 30 million small-scale fishers in the developing world, most are dependent to some extent on coral reefs for food and livelihood, [c] with 25 percent of all fish caught in these regions coming from coral reefs. [d] In the Philippines, more than 1 million small-scale fishers depend directly on coral reefs for their livelihood. [c]¶ Unsustainable fishing results in shifts in fish size and species composition within coral communities, which may precipitate large-scale ecosystem changes alone or when combined with other threats. For example, unsustainable fishing of large predatory and herbivorous fishes is credited as the beginning of the end for some Caribbean reefs. In the absence of predators and competing herbivores, the long-spined sea urchin became the primary control of macroalgae levels on these reefs. Their increased population density left the sea urchins extremely susceptible to an unknown disease that killed off over 90 percent of the species in the Western Atlantic in 1982. This in turn led to algal overgrowth and the decline of reefs in the region. [l]¶ The live reef fish trade has two main components—live food fish and ornamental aquarium fish. Accurate figures are not available on the total value of these trades, but extrapolation from partial estimates indicates that the total value of the trade exceeds $1 billion per year. Southeast Asia is the hub of this trade, supplying up to 85 percent of the aquarium trade and nearly all of the live food fish trade. [e] However, the US is the primary importer of marine ornamentals. Trade in live reef food fish and marine ornamentals are both a source of income for many in Southeast Asia and a source

of local reef degradation due to destructive capture techniques such as blast and cyanide fishing. [f]¶ Approximately half of all federally managed fisheries in the United States depend on coral reefs and related habitats for a portion of their life cycles. [g] The NOAA National Marine Fisheries Service estimates the annual commercial value of US fisheries from coral reefs to be over $100 million. Reef-based recreational fisheries generate over $100 million annually in the US. [h] Globally, one estimate shows fisheries benefits account for $5.7 billion of the total $29.8

billion global net benefit provided by coral reefs. [h] Sustainable coral reef fisheries in Southeast Asia alone are valued at $2.4 billion per year. [i] These numbers do not take into account the value of deep-sea corals , which are themselves home for many commercially valuable species and thus additional fisheries value.¶ Properly managed reefs can yield, on average, 15 tons of fish and other seafood per square kilometer each year. [j] However, destructive fishing practices; such as dynamite fishing, cyanide fishing, and trawling; and unsustainable fishing, are threatening the world's coral ecosystems and limiting the long-term productivity of reef-related fisheries. Dynamite, cyanide and trawling gear physically damage coral ecosystems and their inhabitants and these fishing practices are not solely affecting just a target species. More than 80 percent of the world's shallow reefs are severely over-fished.

Coral Reefs essential to fishing industryRJD Marine Conservation Program, 13( “Artificial Reefs, Biodiversity, and Biodiversity”, http://rjd.miami.edu/conservation/artificial-reefs-biodiversity-and-ecotourism, 6/25/14, AVEN and CH)Coral reefs are a very important part of the ecosystem, and over the years, the condition of the world’s coral reefs has changed drastically; this condition has not changed for the better. There are many resources that coral reefs provide to the world. Some of these include tourism value and the fact that they provide a natural nursing area for fisheries. A lot of research has been done on corals and what features of a reef, give the reef more monetary value. This research has found some conflicting results. While, some claim that fish biodiversity is more valued than coral biodiversity, some claim the opposite. Although, this research has looked at many aspects of what makes a reef valuable, not a lot has been done with

looking at the value of each component of the biological attributes of a reef. This study aimed to look at different levels of biodiversity in fish and corals, in addition to, looking at each condition under different levels of conservation effort. This study also looked at whether or not artificial reefs could be used to cause an increase in ecotourism across the world.¶ Researchers from the Ben Gurion University of Negev and the Interuniversity Institute for Marine Sciences at Eliat in Israel created a survey to give to divers in the city of Eliat in Israel to see what monetary values they would put on these artificial reefs. The survey presented a number of different biological conditions of artificial reefs and at varying levels of conservation effort. These biological conditions were coral size, coral diversity, fish abundance, coral abundance, varying numbers of fish and corals, and different levels of biodiversity of fish and coral. The survey also asked about how much money they would be willing to pay for each scenario and why they decided on that monetary amount.

Coral reefs are crucial for economy NOAA 2014(NOAA, 6/26/14, “Fisheries”, http://coralreef.noaa.gov/aboutcorals/values/fisheries/, 6/25/14, AG)

Coral reefs serve as habitat for many commercially important species targeted for fishing. Fisheries related to coral ecosystems range from artisanal subsistence fishing, commercial fisheries, aquaculture, the live reef fish for food industry, recreational fishing, the aquarium/marine ornamental trade, and the curio and fashion industries. The fish that grow and live on coral reefs are a significant food source for over a billion people worldwide—many of whom live far from the reefs that feed them. Of that number, at least 85 percent rely principally on fish as

their major source of protein. [a] With 350 million people living within 50 km of the coast, communities in Southeast Asia are heavily reliant on marine and coastal resources for their livelihoods. This is particularly true of small-scale fishermen living in rural areas and relying, at times solely, on these resources both as a source of income and for food. [b] In

fact, of the estimated 30 million small-scale fishers in the developing world, most are dependent to some extent on coral reefs for food and livelihood, [c] with 25 percent of all fish caught in these regions coming from coral reefs. [d] In the Philippines, more than 1 million small-scale fishers depend directly on coral reefs for their livelihood. [c]

Artificial fisheries increase fish productionGrossman, professor of animal ecology at the University of Georgia, 97(Gary, 1997, Mexico Beach Artifical Association, “Do Artificial Reefs Increase Regional Fish Production? A Review of Existing Data”, http://www.mbara.org/pdf/grossman_97_avp.pdf, 6/25/14, JW)The basic philosophical assumption underlying the continued deployment of artificial reefs is that regional fish production is limited by a paucity of hard-bottom habitat(Bohnsack 1989). However, this assumption is supported mostly by short-term descriptive studies of individual

reefs(Bohnsack 1989; Bohnsack et al. 1991). Nonetheless, if habitat is limiting, new reefs can potentially increase fish production through three mechanisms: (1) an increase in the foragin habitat of adult, juvenile, or newly recruited fishes: (2) an increase in the nesting habitat of adult fishes; and (3) an increase in the amount of resting habitat or refuges from predators. As a result, stock sizes of economically important species increase, and both recreational and commercial fishers benefit.

Coral reefs provide economic and fishing benefits- NOAA estimates $100 millionNOAA (NOOA, “Coral Reefs- An Important Part of our Future”, http://www.noaa.gov/features/economic_0708/coralreefs.html, accessed 6/28/14 SH)The fish that grow and live on coral reefs are a significant food source for half a billion people worldwide – many of whom live far from the reefs that feed them. Millions of people in coastal villages of tropical developing countries depend on reefs for their livelihoods, with 25 percent of all fish caught in these regions coming from coral reefs. These benefits are not limited to developing countries – approximately half of all federally managed fisheries in the United States depend on coral

reefs and related habitats for a portion of their life cycles. The NOAA National Marine Fisheries Service estimates the commercial value of U.S. fisheries from coral reefs to be over $100 million.

Coral reefs are used in important new medicines and products- provides habitat NOAA (NOOA, “Coral Reefs- An Important Part of our Future”, http://www.noaa.gov/features/economic_0708/coralreefs.html, accessed 6/28/14 SH)

Coral reef plants and animals are important sources of new medicines being developed to treat cancer, arthritis, human bacterial infections, heart disease, viruses, and other diseases. In the future, coral reef ecosystems could represent an increasingly important source of medical treatments, nutritional supplements, pesticides, cosmetics, and other commercial products.

Reefs increase fishing by creating conditions ideal conditionsDepartment of Fisheries Western Australia, 14(Department of Fisheries Western Australia, 5/16/14, Government of Western Australia, “Artificial Reefs”, http://www.fish.wa.gov.au/Fishing-and-Aquaculture/Recreational-Fishing/Pages/Artificial-Reefs.aspx, 6/26/14, JW)Artificial reefs are designed to enhance fish habitats by providing additional structure that can increase the production of fish and other aquatic organisms. Fish and other aquatic organisms are attracted to the new structures and begin to populate and breed in and around them. This in turn attracts more fish and aquatic life as a food chain develops. Purpose-built artificial reefs are designed to: Create complex spaces and habitats with differences in light, shade and water flow to encourage further colonisation of marine organisms. The reef structures can be tailored to suit the requirements of specific target species such as rock lobster, abalone, demersal (living on or near the seafloor) or pelagic finfish (living near to the surface or higher up in the water column); and in some cases Create an up-welling effect – diverting more nutrient-rich colder water from the seabed up in the water column. This creates food for plankton and larval fish, which attracts small fish, which in turn attracts larger fish. International experience has shown artificial reef structures provide clear environmental benefits and, in some cases, can support greater biodiversity than adjacent natural reefs. Artificial reefs can generate social and economic benefits to the State and local communities by enhancing the local recreational fishing experience and tourism opportunities as a result.

Fishing Key to Economy

The fishing industry created over 200 million jobs and generates over 51 billion dollarsAllan et.al ‘01(Geoff L et.al, 11/15/01, EMBO Press, “Fish for Food: aquaculture’s contribution”, http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1084135/, 6/25/14, AG)

Fish also has substantial social and economic importance. The FAO estimates the value of fish traded internationally to be US$ 51 billion per annum (FAO, 2000). Over 36 million people are employed directly through fishing and aquaculture (FAO, 2000), and as many as 200 million people derive direct and indirect income from fish (Garcia and Newton, 1997). Consumption of food fish is increasing, having risen from 40 million tonnes in 1970 to 86 million tonnes in 1998 (FAO, 2000), and is expected to reach 110 million tonnes by 2010 (FAO, 1999). Increases in per capita consumption account for only a small portion; it is the growing human population in many countries in Asia, Africa and South America that is primarily responsible for this steadily growing demand for food fish. These data illustrate that a consistent source of fish is essential for the nutritional and financial health of a large segment of the world’s population.

Empirics prove fishing is key for economic growthGlobal Fish Alliance ‘02(The Global Fish Alliance, 2002, “The Importance of Fisheries for Food Security in Malawi”, http://www.globalfishalliance.org/pdfs/Malawi_072310.pdf, 6/25/14, AG)

The fisheries sector in Malawi is an important source of employment, rural income, food security, import substitution and biodiversity. In 2002, fish had a beach value of about MK1.5 billion (approx. 21 million US$), and contributed about four percent to Gross Domestic Product (GDP). The fish industry supports nearly 1.6 million people in lakeshore communities and makes substantial contributions to their livelihoods, by supporting approximately nine percent, 18 percent, 15 percent, nine percent and 30 percent of the people in Karonga NkhataBay, Nkhota Kota, Salima and Mangochi districts, respectively. Furthermore, 13 percent of the people in Zomba, Machinga and Phalombe districts, as well as six percent of the people in the Lower Shire Valley derive their livelihood from fishing

Fishing brings in billions of dollars to the US economy each yearCesar et.al 2003(Cesar, et.al, 2003, Environmental Economics Consulting, Arnhem, and WWF-Netherlands, Zeist, The Netherlands, “The Economics of Worldwide Reef Degradation” 6/25/14, AG)

Potential net benefits from fisheries are esti- mated at US$ 5.7 billion a year. Yet, over- fishing and destructive fishing have taken their toll and reef fishery benefits in most places in the developing world are now close to zero – fishers merely fish to stay alive with- out making any profits. The aesthetic beauty of coral reefs attracts millions of tourists worldwide who come to dive and snorkel amongst these natural treasures. Reef tour- ism is growing rapidly and is estimated to provide potential annual net benefits of US$ 9.6 billion. Coral reefs also act as natural sea walls by providing a buffer to protect in- shore areas from the pounding of ocean waves. This protective function of reefs is estimated to be

valued at US$ 9.0 billion per year. Finally, reef biodiversity has a high re- search and conservation value, as well as a non-use value, estimated together at US$ 5.5 billion annually. In addition to these quanti- fied values, reefs have drawn a mass of medi- cal and pharmaceutical research interest in the pursuit of finding cures for human diseases. These estimates provide new data on how much reefs can be worth in economic terms and give insight into the costs to society if these reefs are lost.

The fishing industry created over 200 million jobs and generates over 51 billion dollarsAllan et.al ‘01(Geoff L et.al, 11/15/01, EMBO Press, “Fish for Food: aquaculture’s contribution”, http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1084135/, 6/25/14, AG)

Fish also has substantial social and economic importance. The FAO estimates the value of fish traded internationally to be US$ 51 billion per annum (FAO, 2000). Over 36 million people are employed directly through fishing and aquaculture (FAO, 2000), and as many as 200 million people derive direct and indirect income from fish (Garcia and Newton, 1997). Consumption of food fish is increasing, having risen from 40 million tonnes in 1970 to 86 million tonnes in 1998 (FAO, 2000), and is expected to reach 110 million tonnes by 2010 (FAO, 1999). Increases in per capita consumption account for only a small portion; it is the growing human population in many countries in Asia, Africa and South America that is primarily responsible for this steadily growing demand for food fish. These data illustrate that a consistent source of fish is essential for the nutritional and financial health of a large segment of the world’s population.

Empirics prove fishing is key for economic growthGlobal Fish Alliance ‘02(The Global Fish Alliance, 2002, “The Importance of Fisheries for Food Security in Malawi”, http://www.globalfishalliance.org/pdfs/Malawi_072310.pdf, 6/25/14, AG)

The fisheries sector in Malawi is an important source of employment, rural income, food security, import substitution and biodiversity. In 2002, fish had a beach value of about MK1.5 billion (approx. 21 million US$), and contributed about four percent to Gross Domestic Product (GDP). The fish industry supports nearly 1.6 million people in lakeshore communities and makes substantial contributions to their livelihoods, by supporting approximately nine percent, 18 percent, 15 percent, nine percent and 30 percent of the people in Karonga NkhataBay, Nkhota Kota, Salima and Mangochi districts, respectively. Furthermore, 13 percent of the people in Zomba, Machinga and Phalombe districts, as well as six percent of the people in the Lower Shire Valley derive their livelihood from fishing

Alaskan fishing helps to build US economyMcdowell group 2013(Mcdowell Group, 7/13, “Economic Value of the Alaska Seafood Industry”, http://pressroom.alaskaseafood.org/wp-content/uploads/2013/08/AK-Seafood-Impact-Report.pdf, 6/27/14, AG)Alaska seafood directly accounts for 94,000 workers who, in total, earned $2.8 billion in 2011. This figure consists of American workers who caught, processed, managed, sold, cooked, or served Alaska seafood. On an average monthly basis, Alaska seafood directly created 61,200 U.S. jobs in 2011. The

combined value of Alaska seafood exports and the retail value of Alaska seafood sold in the U.S. totaled an estimated $6.4 billion in 2011.

Fishing profits increaseSævaldsson no date(Hörður Sævaldsson, no date, University of Akureyri, “Fisheries impacts”, http://www.fisheries.is/economy/fisheries-impacts/, 6/26/14, AG)In 2011 the total catch in Icelandic waters was close to 1.1 million tonnes of fish products worth ISK 251 billion; EUR 1.6 billion in export value. At the same time, the nation’s total population was 319,000 people and the workforce 167.300. The fishing industry employs 5.3% of the total workforce; fishing 3.1% and fish processing 2.2%. Although not visible from the aforementioned numbers, the fishing industry is fundamental for the whole economy and the country’s regional development. Fisheries and fish processing companies constitute the most important source of livelihood in coastal communities, where employment opportunities are often more limited because of less economic diversification. Profitability and efficiency within the fishing sector have risen substantially, especially because of improved technology, both in processing and harvesting; the use of fully automated processing with latest computer technology is widespread in the industry. Improvements and innovations in transportation and logistics have increased efficiency as well; the use of temperature controlled containers, better storage boxes and readily available refrigerated warehouses. The availability of air cargo capacity has also greatly increased, supporting a huge rise in the export of chilled fish products. Several auxiliary companies have developed as an offspring of the fishing industry, providing support services and products. Some of those supportive businesses have successfully exported their innovations and expertise globally, e.g. in fishing technology, fish processing machinery and the marketing of seafood products.

Fishing k2 Food

Worldwide, about one billion people depend on fish for their protein intake. ¶

Cury ‘ no date ¶ (Philippe, no date, Les dossiers thematiques de l’IRD,” A billion people dependent on fish in the world” https://www.mpl.ird.fr/suds-en-ligne/ecosys/ang_ecosys/pdf/ecosys_intro.pdf, 6/25/14, JY)¶ On a world-wide scale, approximately one billion people are dependent on fish as the principal source of animal protein. Since the 1960s, the availability of fish and fish by-products per inhabitant has practically doubled (with an average consumption of 16 kg of fish per person per year at the end of the 1990s), rapidly gaining on demographic growth, which also nearly doubled over the same

period. In low-income food-deficit countries where the current consumption of sea products is close to half of that of the richest countries, the contribution of fish to total protein in-take is considerable, neighboring 20%. In certain insular or coastal countries of high population density, fish protein is a deciding dietary contributor, providing at least 50% of total protein intake (Bangladesh, North Korea, Ghana, Guinea, Indonesia, Japan, Senegal, etc.).

Fisheries have an important role in food and nutrition to nearly 17% of the world’s population. FAO ‘12(Food and Agriculture Organization of the United States, 7/9/12, FAO, “Fisheries and aquaculture – enabling a vital sector to contribute more”, http://www.fao.org/news/story/en/item/150839/icode/, 6/25/14, JY) Sustainable fisheries and aquaculture play a crucial role in food and nutrition security and in providing for the livelihoods of millions of people. ¶ FAO's latest flagship publication on the state of fisheries and aquaculture, launched at the opening of the 30th session of the FAO Committee on Fisheries, highlights the sector's vital contribution to the world's well-being and prosperity, a point reflected in the recent Rio+20 Outcome Document.¶ The State of World Fisheries and Aquaculture 2012 reveals that the sector produced a record 128 million tonnes of fish for human food - an average of 18.4 kg per person - providing more than 4.3 billion people

with about 15 percent of their animal protein intake. Fisheries and aquaculture are also a source of income for 55 million people.¶ "Fisheries and aquaculture play a vital role in the global, national and rural economy,"

said FAO Director-General Jose Graziano da Silva. "The livelihoods of 12 percent of the world's population depend directly or indirectly on them. Fisheries and aquaculture give an important contribution to food security and nutrition. They are the primary source of protein for 17 percent of the world's population and nearly a quarter in low-income food-deficit countries."

Communities who fish are better off nutritionally wise and have a better meal frequency.GFA ‘02(Global Fish Alliance, 4/02, AED, USAID, and DARDEN, “The Importance of Fisheries for Food Security in Malawi”, http://www.globalfishalliance.org/pdfs/Malawi_072310.pdf, 6/25/14, JY)“The fishery sector provides vital and unique nutritional benefits such as protein, vitamins, minerals and micro-nutrients. Therefore, it is apparent that the sector has a significant impact on food and nutrition security especially in the lake districts. In addition, studies have revealed that fishing communities are better off in terms of meal frequency, meal composition, meal diversity, availability of household assets and the level of income with which they buy food to ensure household food and nutrition security. As a result, the sector is employing a significant proportion of the population as fishers, processors and traders enabling them to earn income for purchase of

food to meet their household food and nutrition security. Households which vend in fish find it advantageous to sell

fish and purchase other food items to improve their household food security and nutritional status.”(FAO)

Places like Caribbean countries, Hawaii, and Southeast Asia depend to make a large part of their GDP on the tourism industry derived off of reefs, empirics prove. NOAA, 11(National Oceanic and Atmosphere Administration, 5/13/11, NOAA, http://coralreef.noaa.gov/aboutcorals/values/tourismrecreation/, 6/24/14, JYHealthy coral ecosystems support local businesses and economies, as well as provide jobs through tourism and recreation. Every year, millions of scuba divers and snorkelers visit coral reefs to enjoy their

abundant sea life. Even more tourists visit the beaches protected by these reefs. Local economies receive billions of dollars from these visitors to reef regions through diving tours, recreational fishing trips, hotels, restaurants, and other businesses based near reef ecosystems. One estimate places the total global value of coral-reef based recreation and tourism at $9.6 billion of the total global net benefit of coral reefs. [a] For example, in the US, reef-related recreation and tourism account

for an estimated $364 million in added value to Hawai`i's economy each year and its nearshore reefs annually contribute nearly $1 billion in gross revenues for the state. [b] Caribbean countries, which attract millions of visitors annually to their beaches and reefs, derive, on average, half of their gross domestic product from the tourism industry. [c] In Southeast Asia, it is estimated that each square kilometer of healthy reef (in areas with tourism potential) has a potential net benefit of $23,100 to $270,000. [d]

The Decrease In Reefs Causes A Huge Food, Economic, and Marine and Human Impact- From AcidificationRoppolo, CBS staff writer, 6/24

(Michael, 6/24/14, CBS, “360-degree underwater cameras explore world's most stunning coral reefs”, http://www.cbsnews.com/news/360-degree-underwater-cameras-explore-worlds-most-stunning-coral-reefs/, 6/24/14, AEG)Due to a wide variety of factors -- including coastal development, ¶ pollution and overfishing -- the world's coral reefs are deteriorating¶ at the rate of 1 to 2 percent per year. Thermal stress, including rising sea ¶ temperatures, is expected to affect nearly 50 percent of the reefs by the ¶ 2030s and 95 percent by the 2050s, according to a 2011 report by the World ¶ Resources Institute. Rising CO2 levels will increase ocean acidification, ¶ which will also reduce coral growth.¶ If the coral reefs were to die out, it would have a dramatic impact on people who live ¶ near coasts or on islands. "Coral reefs also provide food and livelihoods ¶ for more than 500 million people around the world, are home to 25 percent ¶ of all marine life, and provide natural protection to towns, communities ¶ and ports from storms waves and open seas," Vevers explained, estimating their ¶ economic impact at $375 billion dollars per year.

Food Impact – Resource Wars

Less Food Leads to Resource Wars- International conflict and war breaks out over scarce resources. Evans, Editor at Center on International Cooperation, 10 (Alex, 9/9/10, Western Australia Water Corporation, “Resource Scarcity, Climate Change and the Risk of Violent Conflict”, page 4, http://siteresources.worldbank.org/EXTWDR2011/Resources/6406082-1283882418764/WDR_Background_Paper_Evans.pdf, 6/25/14, ML)

Even before climate change is taken into account, scarcity of land, food, water and oil is likely to be an increasing driver of change between now and 2030, and beyond. Climate change will exacerbate the challenge in all of these areas, and the combined effect of

these changes is likely to put tens to hundreds of millions more people at risk of impacts including hunger, disease, displacement, injury, poverty or other forms of hardship. Although the conflict risk posed by climate change and resource scarcity will almost always be better understood as a ‘threat multiplier’ than as a sole cause of violent conflict, a range of potential linkages between climate, scarcity and conflict risk can nonetheless be identified, whether through intensifying existing problems, or through

creating new environmental problems that lead to instability. The most obvious such linkage is the risk of direct conflict over access to or control of scarce resources such as land or water. Most current examples of such conflicts take place

within countries, but intensifying resource scarcity and climate change could see an increase in strategic resource competition between states both at the regional level (particularly if abrupt climate effects, such as rapid glacial

melting, manifest themselves and thus impact trans-boundary water resources) and internationally (with some countries already pursuing third country access rights to oil, land, food and potentially water). However, a range of other conflict risks arising from climate change

and resource scarcity also have the potential to make themselves felt in the future. Among them are cases where livelihoods or economies are undermined by resource scarcity, potentially increasing state fragility in the process; cases where violent conflict

itself has the effect of contributing to environmental degradation, thus potentially creating a cyclical relationship between scarcity and conflict; large-scale unplanned migration as a result of climate impacts or resource scarcity; and the risk that changing geographical circumstances, such as rising sea levels or changing water flows in trans-boundary watercourses, render existing legal agreements out of date.

Impact – China

U.S. Key to Food Resources for ChinaBarnett, American military geostrategist, 12 (Thomas, May 29, 2012, Time Inc., “Death to ‘Resource Wars’”, http://nation.time.com/2012/05/29/death-to-resource-wars/, 6/25/14, ML)

Toss in China’s growing food reliance on the Western Hemisphere, which only grows with that nation’s middle class,

and the climate change that makes it harder to grow food over there, and we’re looking at a global future in which China and the U.S. are intertwined in basic resource dependencies: they need our food and energy, and we need their savings. Those realities are already firmly in place: the Western hemisphere largely feeds the Eastern one in terms of major grain flows (reflecting underlying water-resource realities), and Asia has been the primary saver in the global financial system for several decades

Impact UQ – Overfishing

Fishys in danger – 90% of exploited fish will be gone by 2048Weise, epidemiologist, 2006 (Elizabeth, 11/3/06, USA Today, "Study: 90% of the ocean's edible species may be gone by 2048", URL, 6/29/14, SJ)

¶ Oversight of commercial fishing must be strengthened or there may eventually be no more seafood.¶ That's the conclusion of a report in today's Science

journal that predicts 90% of the fish and shellfish species that are hauled from the ocean to feed people worldwide may be gone by 2048.¶ ¶ Even now, 29% of those species have "collapsed," meaning a 90% decline in the amount being fished from the sea, said Boris Worm, lead author and a professor of marine conservation biology at Dalhousie University in Halifax, Canada.¶ ¶ "It is a very

clear trend, and it is accelerating," Worm said. The paper represents four years of work by an international team of researchers at various universities who analyzed ocean species diversity over the past 1,000 years. ¶ ¶ The team concludes that this trend can be reversed. "We need to implement sustainable fishing methods, create marine sanctuaries where species can replenish themselves and limit pollution from coastal areas," said Heike Lotze, a marine

ecologist at Dalhousie University.¶ ¶ "If the habitat is gone or the water's destroyed," the fish populations can't bounce back, she said.¶ ¶ "We know how to do this. But it must be done soon," Worm said. "With each species that is lost, the opportunity for the system to repair itself is diminished ."¶ ¶ The findings are too pessimistic and not true of

the USA, said Steve Murawski, chief scientist for the National Marine Fisheries Service, which oversees fishing regions in U.S. waters.¶ ¶ Murawski said "aggressive fisheries management" is reducing the percentage of U.S.

overfished species, which he estimated is now 20%. U.S. fishing regions represent about 10% of the world's catch.¶ ¶ Worldwide, overfishing is a big part of the problem, the researchers said. "Every year it's

estimated that human beings remove 150 million metric tons of life from the seas," said Joshua Reichert, environment-program director at Pew

Charitable Trusts in Philadelphia.¶ ¶ But fishing isn't the only problem, the report states. The destruction of coastal areas, estuaries and reefs by dredging, building and pollution destroys nursery habitats for young fish. ¶ ¶ As marine species disappear, the ability of others to survive is further harmed by the drop in the ocean's overall productivity and stability, the researchers found.¶ ¶ Fish and seafood are key protein sources for a world that's expected to add another 3 billion people by 2050. But it's also a problem for people who don't eat fish. Sixty percent of Americans live

within 60 miles of a coast. Declines in marine biodiversity can:¶ ¶ •Increase coastal flooding because of the loss of floodplains and erosion control

provided by the wetlands, reefs and underwater vegetation that are a cornerstone of marine life.¶ ¶ •Reduce water quality by destroying the plants, shellfish and fish that are the ocean's biological

filtering apparatus.¶ ¶ •Increase beach closure because of harmful algae blooms, such as red tide, facilitated by diminished filtering.

Disease

UQ –TB

Need to solve tuberculosis now—drug resistant TBChristian 13(Kira A., 7/3/13, Kashef Ijaz, Scott F. Dowell, Catherine C. Chow, Rohit A. Chitale, Joseph S. Bresee, Eric Mintz, Mark A. Pallansch, Steven Wassilak, Eugene McCray, and Ray R. Arthur, US National Library of Medicine National Institutes of Health, “What we are watching—five top global infectious disease threats, 2012: a perspective from CDC’s Global Disease Detection Operations Center,” http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3701798/, 6/25/14, SM)The global incidence of tuberculosis (TB) has been in a slow decline since the early 2000s. However, TB was responsible for 1.4 million deaths worldwide in 2011 (38). Additionally, the emergence and spread of multidrug-resistant (MDR) and extensively drug-resistant tuberculosis (XDR-TB), first identified in Tugela Ferry, KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa in

2005, pose a rising threat to global TB control (39). Morbidity and mortality are consistently higher among patients infected with MDR and XDR-TB, primarily because of the delays in diagnosis, limited or no options for antimicrobial therapy, complicated patient management and increased treatment costs (39). In 2009, it was reported that in the United States the cost of hospitalization for one XDR-TB patient was estimated to average $483,000 (40). According to WHO, by mid-2011, 84 countries had reported one or more cases of XDR-TB (38) and in the United States, 6 cases of XDR-TB were reported (41). In impoverished areas and vulnerable populations, the presence and spread of a demonstrably efficient human pathogen that in some situations has become almost untreatable with currently available agents warrants careful observation. In 2009 CDC responded to cases of XDR-TB in Namibia in an effort to mitigate further spread of illness (Fig. 2). Surveillance for resistant TB among global migrants and refugees is also imperative: in 2005, an outbreak of MDR-TB was identified in US-bound Hmong refugees from Thailand (42). Co-morbid conditions put vulnerable populations at further risk. Drug-susceptibility testing for first- and second-line TB drugs is unavailable in most settings with high incidence of TB, thereby creating the opportunity for emergence of XDR-TB when MDR-TB is inadequately assessed for drug susceptibility, and, treated inadequately (39). We include XDR-TB on the short list of pathogens to be monitored closely because of its potential

for more widespread transmission. If XDR-TB became widespread, its severity and the difficulty of case management and infection control could cause considerable challenges for global public health.

TB major health threat—CDC lists as one of top 5 health threatsBernhard, Health Reporter for St. Louis Post-Dispatch, 14(Blythe, 1/11/14, The Tampa Tribune, “CDC names top 5 health threats in 2014,” http://tbo.com/cdcnames-top-5-health-threats-in-2014-20140111/, 6/25/14, SM)Some bacteria have become resistant to several types of antibiotics, making it harder to fight infectious diseases. Drug-resistant infections are particularly dangerous for people with a compromised immune system, including those with cancer, kidney failure or organ transplants. In some cases, doctors and nurses have had to resort to less effective and more toxic antibiotics when the first-line defenses fail. Patients with antibiotic resistant infections incur longer hospital stays, long-term side effects and

death. More than 2 million Americans contract antibiotic-resistant infections each year, and 23,000 die, according to the CDC.¶ Several drug-resistant bacteria, including forms of gonorrhea, tuberculosis, salmonella and strep are considered urgent or serious threats to public health because doctors are running out of drugs to treat these infections. The overuse of antibiotics is the main pathway for drug-resistant infections. About half of antibiotic prescriptions are considered to be unnecessary. Antibiotics given to farm animals before slaughter are another main source of resistance. The CDC is working with the FDA to reduce the use of antibiotics in the food chain.¶ “One of my key principles in using antibiotics properly is to make sure the patient receives the correct amount of a medication that only treats the bacteria or germs involved in the infection,” said infectious disease pharmacist Ryan Moenster, associate professor at St. Louis College of Pharmacy. “If the doctor diagnoses you or a family member with a viral infection, don’t demand medication like amoxicillin because antibiotics do nothing for viral infection.”

UQ - HIV

Huge risk of HIV pandemic—drug resistant strainsCooper, health reporter for the Independent, 14(Charlie, 5/22/14, The Independent, “Drug-resistant HIV pandemic is a 'real possibility', expert claims,” http://www.independent.co.uk/life-style/health-and-families/health-news/drugresistant-hiv-pandemic-is-a-real-possibility-expert-claims-9420833.html, 6/25/14, SM)A new HIV pandemic is “a real possibility”, one of the world’s leading authorities on infectious disease has said, warning that a rise of drug resistant strains of the virus could “reverse progress made since the 1980s” in combating the disease.¶ Professor Jeremy Farrar said that “the spectre of drug-resistant HIV” threatened to have “a huge impact” in the next 20 years, if drugs which have made vast improvements to the life expectancy of patients since 1990s become

less effective.¶ His warning came as a coalition of scientists said that antimicrobial resistance (AMR) – the process by which bacteria

and other microbes, including viruses, evolve to be immune to the drugs we use to combat them – should rank alongside climate change as one of the greatest threats facing humanity.¶ Professor Farrar, director of the leading research foundation the

Wellcome Trust, said that it was “inevitable” that resistance to HIV would increase because it was a virus which could easily mutate.¶ Antiretroviral drugs currently used to treat HIV have been so successful that people living with the virus can expect to live healthy, active lives if they have access to the drugs and adhere to their regime.¶ While hailing the “incredible” progress made since the 1980s in treating HIV, Professor Farrar said that resistance to first resort drugs, and also some second and third resort, drugs had already occurred and that drug options for the virus were not “limitless”.¶ “It is not unreasonable that a HIV pandemic could return.” he said. “The possibility of a resistantly-driven HIV pandemic is quite real.”¶ He said it would be essential to use existing treatments “efficiently and

effectively” to avoid further resistance developing.¶ “We [also] need to ensure we continue to develop new compounds rather than become complacent about the existing drugs we have,” he added. “A vaccine is also crucial to ensure we do not have to rely on our current prevention and treatment options. But an HIV vaccine will be incredibly difficult.”¶ In an article for the journal Nature published today, Professor Farrar and another leading figure, Professor Mark Woolhouse, have called for the establishment of a “powerful global organisation” similar to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) to coordinate the worldwide response to the threat of anti-microbial resistance.¶ Scientists have warned for years that the rise of AMR risks undoing a century of medical progress with

routine operations and cancer treatments becoming deadly because of the risk of infection.¶ Resistant strains of tuberculosis, malaria,

MRSA and HIV have already spread around the world, they write. The focus of concerns has been antibiotic resistance, which

relates to bacterial infections, but viral infections such as HIV and malaria are now also showing signs of resistance.¶ In Europe, there are

estimated to be 25,000 deaths every year from drug-resistant infections – roughly the same as those killed in road accidents.¶

HIV pandemic coming—consumption of gorilla and chimpanzee meatLaurance, Health Reporter for The Independent, 12(Jeremy, 5/25/12, The Independent, “African monkey meat that could be behind the next HIV,” http://www.independent.co.uk/life-style/health-and-families/health-news/african-monkey-meat-that-could-be-behind-the-next-hiv-7786152.html, 6/27/14, SM)Deep in the rainforest of south-east Cameroon, the voices of the men rang through the trees. "Where are the white people?" they shouted. The

men, who begin to surround us, are poachers, who make their money from the illegal slaughter of gorillas and chimpanzees. They

disperse but make it known that they are not keen for their activities to be reported; the trade they ply could not only wipe out critically endangered species but, scientists are now warning, could also create the next pandemic of a deadly virus in humans.¶ Eighty per cent of the meat eaten in Cameroon is killed in the wild and is known as "bushmeat". The nation's favoured dishes are gorilla, chimpanzee or monkey because of their succulent and tender flesh. According to one estimate, up to 3,000 gorillas are slaughtered in southern Cameroon every year to supply an illicit but pervasive commercial demand for ape meat .¶ "Everyone is eating it," said one game warden. "If they have money they will buy gorilla or chimp to eat."¶ Frankie, a poacher in the southern Dja Wildlife reserve who gave a fake name, said he is involved in the trade because he can earn good money from it, charging around £60 per adult gorilla killed. "I have to make a living," he said. "Women come from the market and order a gorilla or a chimp and I go and kill them."¶ Cameroon's south-eastern rainforests are also home to the Baka – traditional forest hunters who have the legal right to hunt wild animals, with the exception of great apes.¶ Felix Biango, a Baka elder, said the group used to hunt gorilla every few weeks to feed his village, Ayene, but has stopped since Cameroon outlawed the practice 10 years ago. However, he says that every week, three or four people come from the cities to ask the group to help them to hunt wild animals, such as gorillas and chimpanzees.¶ While the Baka no longer hunt primates for themselves, Mr

Biango says that they still kill gorillas for the commercial trade and will eat the meat if they find the animals already dead.¶ Though

Cameroonians have eaten primate meat for years, recent health scares have begun to raise fears about the safety of the meat. "In the village of Bakaklion our brothers found a dead gorilla in the forest," Mr Biango said. "They took it back to the village and ate the meat. Almost immediately, everyone died – 25 men, women and children – the only person who didn't was a woman who didn't eat the

meat."¶ Three-quarters of all new human viruses are known to come from animals, and some scientists believe

humans are particularly susceptible to those carried by apes. The human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) is now widely

believed to have originated in chimps. Apes are known to host other potentially deadly viruses, such as ebola, anthrax, yellow fever and other potential viruses yet to be discovered.¶ Babila Tafon, head vet at the primate sanctuary Ape Action Africa (AAA), in Mefou, just outside the capital Yaounde, believes the incident that Biango describes could have been caused by an outbreak of ebola, but cannot be sure because no tests were carried out.¶ AAA now cares for 22 gorillas and more than one hundred chimps – all orphans of the bushmeat trade.¶ Mr Tafon

tests the blood of all apes arriving at the sanctuary. He says he has recently detected a new virus in the apes – simian foamy virus, which is closely related to HIV. "A recent survey confirmed this is now in humans, especially in some of those who

are hunters and cutting up the apes in the south-east of the country," he said.¶ Viruses are often transferred from ape to human through a bite, scratch or the blood of a dead ape getting into an open wound. There is a lower risk from eating cooked or smoked primates, but it is not completely safe.¶ Bushmeat is not only a concern for Cameroonians. Each year, an estimated 11,000 tons of bushmeat is illegally smuggled in to the UK, mainly from West Africa, and is known to include some ape meat.¶ The transfer of viruses from ape to man is a primary concern for the international virology research and referral base run by the Pasteur Centre in Yaounde. Each week, it screens more than 500 blood samples for all manner of viruses, and alerts major international medical research centres

if it finds an unfamiliar strain.¶ Professor Dominique Baudon, the director of the Cameroon centre, says he is concerned that the bushmeat trade is a major gateway for animal viruses to enter humans worldwide, due to the export trade.¶ He says that the deeper poachers go in to the forest, and the more that primates are consumed, the more exposed people become to new unknown viruses and the more potential there is for the viruses to mutate into potentially aggressive forms. At the Ape Action Africa sanctuary, Rachel Hogan, who came to Cameroon from Birmingham 11 years ago, and her team focus on the last of Cameroon's great apes.

Coral Reefs Key

Coral reefs key to new developments in medicine—chemical compounds are already showing major advancesNOAA, 11 (“Medicine”, http://coralreef.noaa.gov/aboutcorals/values/medicine/, 6/24/14, AVEN)The genetic diversity found in coral ecosystems is unparalleled and this diversity has proven beneficial for humans through the identification of potentially beneficial chemical compounds and through the development of medicines , both derived from organisms found in coral ecosystems. ¶ Many species found in coral ecosystems produce chemical compounds for defense or attack, particularly the slow-moving or stationary species like nudibranchs and

sponges. Searching for potential new pharmaceuticals, termed bioprospecting, has been common in terrestrial environments for decades. [a] In fact, nearly half of the medicines in use today have their origins in natural products, mostly derived from terrestrial plants, animals, and microorganisms . [b] However, bioprospecting is relatively new in the marine environment and is nowhere close to realizing its full potential. [a] Creatures found in coral ecosystems are important sources of new medicines being developed to induce and ease labor; treat cancer, arthritis, asthma, ulcers, human bacterial infections, heart disease, viruses, and other diseases; as well as sources of nutritional supplements, enzymes, and cosmetics. [b] The medicines and other potentially useful compounds identified to date have led to coral ecosystems being referred to as the medicine cabinets of the 21st century by some, and the list of approved and potential new drugs is ever growing.¶ However, this focus on coral ecosystems for medical properties is not unique to the 21st century. The unique medical properties of organisms found in coral reefs was recognized by Eastern cultures as early as the 14th century; tonics and medicines derived from seahorse extracts continue to be in high demand for traditional medicines. [b] The gall bladder of several fish species were used in Palauan traditional medicine to treat venomous stings of other marine organisms, such as stonefish. [c] While knowledge and use of some traditional medicines has been lost, there is renewed interest

within modern medicine in researching some of these treatments.¶ Toxins provided by reef creatures are of particular interest in present day pharmaceutical research . Stonefish, sea snakes, box jellyfish, cone shells, and pufferfish contain some of the most toxic compounds presently known to man. These chemical compounds are being studied by researchers, and some have already been used to develop medicines or cosmetics. For example, cone snail neurotoxin is showing promise as a powerful painkiller. [a]¶

Other types of chemical compounds are also proving fruitful. The antiviral drugs Ara-A and AZT and the anticancer agent Ara-C, developed from extracts of sponges found on a Caribbean reef, were among the earliest modern medicines obtained from coral ecosystems. [b] The anti-cancer properties of a number of additional compounds derived from organisms found in coral ecosystems are also being studied. Chemicals derived from Caribbean sea-whip corals have shown skincare, painkiller, and anti-inflammatory properties and a compound derived from a Pacific sponge has lead to testing of over 300 chemical analogs for anti-inflammatory properties. [a], [d] Kainic acid, which is used as a diagnostic chemical to investigate Huntington's chorea, a rare but fatal disease of the nervous system, was isolated from organisms on a Japanese reef. [e] Australian researchers have developed a sun cream from a coral chemical that contains a natural "factor 50" sun block. [e]¶ NOAA is even playing a role in the discovery of new medical compounds. A research team, including NOAA scientists at the Hollings Marine Laboratory, has discovered new compounds derived from a sea sponge and corals. One compound eats away at the shield bacteria use to protect themselves from antibiotics.

The second discovery was compounds that fight some of the worst infectious bacterial strains. [e]¶ Besides being the source of potentially useful chemical compounds, the porous limestone skeleton of corals has been tested as bone grafts in humans. Pieces of coral set into a fracture act as a scaffold around which the healing can take place. The implant eventually disappears, absorbed by the new growth of bone. Rates of rejection are much lower than with artificial grafting materials. [e]¶ It should be noted that, aside from the compounds mentioned here, there are likely many other compounds under development which have not yet been disclosed to the wider public. It is safe to say that the published research is only the tip of the iceberg when it comes to the pharmaceutical possibilities presented by compounds derived from creatures found in coral ecosystems, including the corals themselves. Thus, it is nearly impossible to predict what the future economic benefits of bio prospecting will be, as more potentially valuable medical compounds are isolated from organisms found in coral ecosystems. This aspect of reef value was not incorporated into the estimated $5.5 billion total global value of coral reef biodiversity, but is certainly both a consideration for the economic value of coral reefs and the costs to society if reefs are lost. [f]¶

Now is the time to explore corals’ healing properties—climate change disrupts ecosystemsThe Nature Conservancy, 14 (Protecting Reefs for Human and Maine Health, http://www.nature.org/ourinitiatives/habitats/oceanscoasts/explore/coral-reefs-and-medicine.xml, 6/24/14, AVEN)Climate change is already affecting the health of coral ecosystems. Microbial communities — where many new drugs could likely be found — are especially susceptible to these changes, and some are

already beginning to decline or migrate. ¶ “An estimated 95 percent of the world’s oceans remain unexplored, so it’s possible that we might lose significant marine organisms without ever knowing they existed in the first place,” explains Stephanie Wear, a marine scientist on the Conservancy’s Global Marine Team. “A devastating loss of biodiversity could mean that fewer species will be around for future medicinal research and biomedical studies.” ¶ By protecting marine environments through the creation of marine protected areas and the development of adaptation strategies, the Conservancy is safeguarding marine biodiversity. People and nature are already benefitting in so many ways from these marine protected areas. Just imagine what medical benefits may still lay undiscovered beneath the sea.

Loss of biodiversity prevents future medicinal researchNOAA, 11 (“Coral reefs could hold the cures for some of the human race's most common – and serious – ailments.”NOAA, http://coralreef.noaa.gov/aboutcorals/coral101/symbioticalgae/#d, 6/25/14, AVEN)Coral reefs could hold the cures for some of the human race's most common – and serious – ailments. Surprisingly, coral reefs hold the cures to some of our most common medical ailments.Climate change is affecting the health of coral ecosystems — and that puts a strain on the medicinal benefits derived from our oceans.By protecting marine environments across the world, The Nature Conservancy is safeguarding marine biodiversity and ensuring coral reefs will be around for future medicinal discoveries.“A DEVASTATING LOSS OF BIODIVERSITY COULD MEAN THAT FEWER SPECIES WILL BE AROUND FOR FUTURE MEDICINAL RESEARCH AND BIOMEDICAL STUDIES.”Stephanie Wear, Nature Conservancy marine scientist

Corals may lead to revolutionary work in skin cancerKCL, 11 (31/08, Kings College London, "Coral could be used to create sunscreens",www.kcl.ac.uk/newsevents/news/newsrecords/2011/08August/Tropical-coral-create-novel-sun-screens-human-use-scientists.aspxll, 6/25/14, AVEN)

Researchers at King’s College London have discovered how coral produces natural sunscreen compounds to protect itself from damaging UV rays, leading scientists to believe these compounds could form the basis of a new type of sunscreen for humans.¶ The team has begun to uncover the genetic and biochemical processes behind how these compounds are produced and eventually hope to recreate them synthetically in the laboratory for use in developing sun protection.¶ This month, as part of the three-year project funded by the Biotechnology and Biological Sciences Research Council (BBSRC), the King’s team collected coral samples for analysis from the Great Barrier Reef, a collaboration with Dr Walter Dunlap from the Australian Institute for Marine Science and Professor Malcolm Shick from the University of Maine USA.¶ Coral is an animal which has a unique symbiotic partnership with algae that lives inside it - the algae use photosynthesis to make food for the coral and the coral waste products are used by the algae for photosynthesis.¶ Because photosynthesis needs sunlight to work, corals must live in shallow water, which means they are vulnerable to sunburn.Dr Paul Long, Senior Lecturer from the Institute of Pharmaceutical Science at King’s College London, who is leading the project, said:

‘We already knew that coral and some algae can protect themselves from the harsh UV rays in tropical climates by producing their own sunscreens but, until now, we didn’t know how. ¶ ¶ ‘What we have found is that the algae living within the coral makes a compound that we

think is transported to the coral, which then modifies it into a sunscreen for the benefit of both the coral and the algae.¶ ‘Not only does this protect them both from UV damage, but we have seen that fish that feed on the coral also benefit from this sunscreen protection, so it is clearly passed up the food chain. ¶ ‘This led us to believe that if we can determine how this compound is created and passed on, we could biosynthetically develop it in the laboratory to create a sunscreen for human

use, perhaps in the form of a tablet, which would work in a similar way. This could lead to evolutionary research in skin

cancer, or at least be a big step in prevention. ¶ ‘We are very close to being able to reproduce this compound in the lab, and

if all goes well we would expect to test it within the next two years.’¶ A long-term goal of the King’s study is to look at whether these processes could also be used for developing sustainable agriculture in the Third World, as these natural sunscreen compounds found in coral could be used to produce UV-tolerant crop plants capable of withstanding harsh tropical UV light. ¶ ‘The part algae play in protecting itself and coral against UV is thought to be a biochemical pathway called the shikimate pathway, found only in microbes and plants. If we could take the part of the pathway that the coral generates, and put this into plants, we could potentially also utilise their shikimate pathway to make these natural sunscreens,’ said Dr Long.¶ ‘If we do this in crop plants that have been bred in temperate climates for high yield, but that at present would not grow in the tropics because of high exposure to sunlight, this could be a way of providing a sustainable nutrient-rich food source, particularly in need for Third World economies,’ he concluded.¶ Not only has the study revealed the potential of the coral’s compound to protect both humans and crops from the sun, but Dr Long’s team is also looking for clues as to how climate change is leading to coral ‘bleaching’, which can lead to coral death.¶

Coral reefs provide immense biodiversity, which can be used as resources like treatments for disease, and to create jobsWildscreen Arkive no date(Wildscreen Arkive, nonprofit wildlife organization, no date, “Coral Reef Conservation, http://www.arkive.org/coral-reef-conservation/, 6/24/14, AG)Coral reefs are among the most valuable ecosystems on Earth, forming massive, complex habitats for thousands of other species. Although coral reefs cover less than 1% of the ocean floor, the numbers of species living in, on and around coral reefs rivals even the most diverse tropical forests, including the Amazon rainforest in Brazil. Home to an estimated 2 million species, coral reefs are sometimes nicknamed the ‘rainforests of the oceans' because of their staggeringly rich biodiversity. As well as supporting an enormous variety of

species, tropical coral reef ecosystems are also important to human health and well-being. Coral reefs are vital to the world’s fisheries, forming nurseries for about a quarter of the ocean's fish and providing a source of income for local communities, as well as national and international fishing companies. In coastal areas, coral reefs provide an important

natural barrier against waves, hurricanes, typhoons and even tsunamis, helping to prevent coastal erosion and flooding. The beauty and diversity of coral reefs make them important tourist attractions which help to generate income and create jobs for local communities. Coral reefs are also becoming increasingly important in medicine, and coral reef organisms are already being used in treatments for diseases like cancer and HIV.

Coral Reefs Key to DiseasesBruckner, Ph.D. Coral Reef Ecologist, 13(Andrew, 11/27/13, Issues, "Life-Saving Products from Coral Reefs,"issues.org/18-3/p_bruckner/, 6/24/14, AF).

The prospect of finding a new drug in the sea, especially among coral reef species, may be 300 to 400 times more likely than isolating one from a terrestrial ecosystem. Although terrestrial organisms exhibit great species

diversity, marine organisms have greater phylogenetic diversity, including several phyla and thousands of species found nowhere else. Coral reefs are home to sessile plants and fungi similar to those found on land, but coral reefs also contain a diverse assemblage of invertebrates such as corals, tunicates, molluscs,

bryozoans, sponges, and echinoderms that are absent from terrestrial ecosystems. These animals spend most of their time firmly attached to the reef and cannot escape environmental perturbations, predators, or other stressors. Many engage in a form of chemical warfare, using bioactive compounds to deter predation, fight disease, and prevent

overgrowth by fouling and competing organisms. In some animals, toxins are also used to catch their prey. These

compounds may be synthesized by the organism or by the endosymbiotic microorganisms that inhabit its tissues, or they

are sequestered from food that they eat. Because of their unique structures or properties, these compounds may yield life-saving medicines or other important industrial and agricultural products.

Coral Reefs key to medicine research-They provide resources needed for medicine.Bruckner, Coral Reef Ecoologist in the National Marine Fisheries Service's Office of Protected Resources, 14 (Andrew, 11/27/13, Issues in Science and Technology, "Life-Saving Products from Coral Reefs, http://issues.org/18-3/p_bruckner/, 6/24/14, SJ)

During the past decade, marine biotechnology has been applied to the areas of public health and human disease , seafood safety, development of new materials and processes, and marine ecosystem restoration and remediation. Dozens of promising products from marine organisms are being advanced,

including a cancer therapy made from algae and a painkiller taken from the venom in cone snails. The antiviral drugs Ara-A and AZT and the anticancer agent Ara-C, developed from extracts of sponges found on a Caribbean reef , were among the earliest modern medicines obtained from coral reefs. Other products, such as Dolostatin 10, isolated from a sea hare found in the Indian Ocean, are under clinical trials for use in the treatment of

breast and liver cancers, tumors, and leukemia. Indeed, coral reefs represent an important and as yet largely untapped source of natural products with enormous potential as pharmaceuticals, nutritional supplements, enzymes, pesticides, cosmetics, and other novel commercial products. The potential importance of coral reefs as a source of life-saving and life-enhancing products, however, is still not well understood by the public or policymakers. But it is a powerful reason for bolstering efforts to protect reefs from degradation and overexploitation and for managing them in sustainable ways.

Reefs k2 HIV

Coral reefs solve both TB and HIV—new drug from transitmycinDIC 11(Drug Information Center, 6/18/11, Indian Pharmaceutical Association, “Drug Information Bulletin,” http://www.ipapharma.org/news/Drug%20Information%20Centre%20Bulletin%20Volume%204/53.pdf, 6/25/14, SM)Scientists come up with new molecule ¶ that may lead to better drug for TB ¶ Scientists at the Tuberculosis Research ¶ Centre (TRC) here

have hit upon a new ¶ molecule with anti-bacterial and anti-viral ¶ properties that could potentially lead to a ¶ better drug for the treatment of TB and ¶ common HIV sub-types . ¶ The team at TRC extracted the molecule, ¶ Transitmycin, from the marine ¶ microorganism Streptomyces sp. isolated ¶ from a soil sample off

the Rameswaram ¶ coral reef. ¶ The brominated and pigmented (yellow) ¶ antibiotic was found effective during in ¶ vitro tests against dormant and active ¶ forms of Mycobacterium tuberculosis — the ¶ pathogen that triggers one of the leading ¶ infectious diseases worldwide. For details ¶ https://conferences.niaid.nih.gov/TBIndia/¶ Presentations/Posters/12_Poster_Vanaja_K¶ umar.pdf

Coral reefs solve TB and HIV—clinical trials proveDepartment of Health 12(12/28/12, Department of Health Research, “Communicable Diseases Bacteriology of TB,” http://dhr.gov.in/annual_report/2012-13/english/PDF/English%20pdf%20files/10_Communicable%20Diseases.pdf, 6/25/14, SM)An exclusive user friendly database on mycobacteriophages with exhaustive information ¶ catalogued on a single platform after analysis was developed and functions assigned to the¶ proteins by in silico approach. The data mining and genome annotation has been completed ¶ for 70 mycobacteriophages with annotated information developed and linked to the database. ¶ This includes 8120 genes (except tRNA), which were

classified into 7815 families. ¶ Novel marine Streptomyces sp R2 isolated from Coral reef deposit off Rameswaram

coastal ¶ area exhibited promising activity against M. tuberculosis and HIV. This novel antibiotic was ¶ tested against 108 clinical M. tuberculosis isolates by luciferase reporter phage (LRP) assay ¶ for its antimycobacterial

activity. Anti HIV activity was tested against 20 clinical HIV isolates. ¶ Solubility and stability of the novel antibiotic was tested using different organic solvents and ¶ temperature ranges, respectively. It was found to be soluble in various organic solvents. Of ¶ the various temperature ranges tested, none of them affected its anti TB activity.

Coral reefs solve HIV—potent proteins found in coral ASBMB 14(American Society for Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, 4/29/14, Science Daily, “Coral reefs provide potent new anti-HIV proteins,” http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2014/04/140429092649.htm, 6/24/14, SM)Researchers have discovered a new class of proteins capable of blocking the HIV virus from penetrating T-cells, raising hope that the proteins could be adapted for use in gels or sexual lubricants to provide a potent barrier

against HIV infection.¶ The proteins, called cnidarins, were found in a feathery coral collected in waters off Australia's northern coast. Researchers zeroed in on the proteins after screening thousands of natural product extracts in a biorepository maintained by the National Cancer Institute. "It's always thrilling when you find a brand-new protein that nobody else has ever seen before," said senior investigator Barry O'Keefe, Ph.D., deputy chief of the Molecular Targets Laboratory at the National Cancer Institute's Center for Cancer Research. "And the fact that this protein appears to block HIV infection -- and to do it in a completely new way -- makes this

truly exciting."¶ In the global fight against AIDS, there is a pressing need for anti-HIV microbicides that women can apply to block HIV infection without relying on a man's willingness to use a condom. Koreen Ramessar, Ph.D., a postdoctoral research fellow at the

National Cancer Institute and a member of the research team, said cnidarins could be ideally suited for use in such a product because the

proteins block HIV transmission without encouraging the virus to become resistant to other HIV drugs .¶

"When developing new drugs, we're always concerned about the possibility of undermining existing successful treatments by encouraging drug

resistance in the virus," said O'Keefe. "But even if the virus became resistant to these proteins, it would likely still be sensitive to all of the therapeutic options that are currently available."¶ The research team identified and purified the cnidarin proteins, then tested their activity

against laboratory strains of HIV. The proteins proved astonishingly potent, capable of blocking HIV at concentrations of a billionth of a gram by preventing the first step in HIV transmission, in which the virus must enter a type of immune cell known as the T-cell.¶ "We found that cnidarins bind to the virus and prevent it from fusing with the T-cell membrane," said Ramessar. "This is completely different from what we've seen with other proteins, so we think the cnidarin proteins have a unique mechanism of action."¶ The next step is to refine methods for generating cnidarins in larger quantities so the proteins can be tested further to identify potential side effects

or activity against other viruses. "Making more of it is a big key," said O'Keefe. "You can't strip Earth of this coral trying to harvest this protein, so our focus now is on finding ways to produce more of it so we can proceed with preclinical testing."¶ The scientists discovered cnidarins while screening for proteins, a largely understudied component of natural product extracts found in the National Cancer Institute's extract repository. The institute maintains a large collection of natural specimens gathered from around the world under agreements with their countries of origin. The specimens are available to researchers across the United States.¶ "The natural products extract repository is a national treasure," said O'Keefe. "You never know what you might find. Hopefully, discoveries like this will encourage more investigators to use this resource to identify extracts with activity against infectious disease."¶ Experimental Biology is an annual meeting comprised of more than 14,000 scientists and exhibitors from six sponsoring societies and multiple guest societies. With a mission to share the newest scientific concepts and research findings shaping clinical advances, the meeting offers an unparalleled opportunity for exchange among scientists from across the United States and the world who represent dozens of scientific areas, from laboratory to translational to clinical research

Coral reefs key to solve HIV/AIDS—proteins in corals provide unique mechanism of combatting the diseaseLees, health reporter for Science World Report, 14(Kathleen, 4/30/14, Science World Report, “Protein Found in Coral Reefs may Protect Against HIV,” http://www.scienceworldreport.com/articles/14353/20140430/protein-found-in-coral-reefs-may-protect-against-hiv.htm, 6/27/14, SM)Researchers from the National Cancer Institute's Center for Cancer Research have discovered that a group of proteins found in the coral reef may be capable of blocking HIV. ¶ "It's always thrilling when you find a brand-new protein that nobody else has ever seen before," said senior

investigator Barry O'Keefe, Ph.D., deputy chief of the Molecular Targets Laboratory at center, via Science Codex. "And the fact that this protein appears to block HIV infection-and to do it in a completely new way -makes this truly exciting."¶

Researchers collected the proteins, also known as cnidarins--a feathery coral that's found off the northern coast of Australia.¶ As the World Health Organization (WHO) estimates that as of 2012, about 35.3 million people were living with HIV, (of whom 1.6 million died), these findings bring hope in the face of the epidemic.¶ Studies have shown a pressing need for anti-HIV microbicides that women can use to stop infection without solely relying on a man's willingness to use a condom, according to Science Codex. The cnidarins could be used

to help block transmission without causing the virus to become resistant to other HIV drugs.¶ "When developing new drugs, we're always concerned about the possibility of undermining existing successful treatments by encouraging drug resistance in the virus," said O'Keefe, via the news organization. "But even if the virus became resistant to these proteins, it would likely still be sensitive to all of the therapeutic options that are currently available."¶ He adds that "even if the virus became resistant to these proteins, it would likely still be sensitive to all of the

therapeutic options that are currently available."¶ What's even more important about the cnidarians is that they appear to bind to the virus, stopping any fusion with the membrane of the T cells. According to Koreen Ramessar, Ph.D., a postdoctoral

research fellow at the National Cancer Institute and a member of the research team, this is "completely different from what we've seen with other proteins, so we think the cnidarin proteins have a unique mechanism of

action ."¶ For their next step, researchers said that they hope to produce large quantities of this "national treasure" in an effort to help make

it work against the virus.¶ "The natural products extract repository is a national treasure," said O'Keefe, via Science Codex. "You never know what you might find. Hopefully, discoveries like this will encourage more investigators to use this resource to identify extracts with activity against infectious disease."

Earlier modeling work suggested that coral reefs would be gone by the middle of this century. Our study shows that if corals can adapt to warming that has occurred over the past 40 to 60 years, some coral reefs may persist through the end of this century

Impact

And, disease spread causes extinction.McCallum, professor of ecology at and head of Griffith School of Environment , 12(Hamish, 9/10, The Royal Society of Biological Sciences, “Disease and the impacts of extinction,” http://rstb.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/367/1604/2828.full?cited-by=yes&legid=royptb;367/1604/2828, 6/25/14, AVEN)In theory, however, simple models show that parasites and infectious diseases may, in some circumstances, be capable of being significant contributors to extinction [5]. From first principles, a population declines when there are more deaths than there are births and extinction occurs when there continue to be more deaths than births even as the population declines towards

zero. It is therefore necessary to first distinguish between situations in which infectious disease may reduce population size to such an extent that other factors may lead to extinction and cases in which infectious disease contributes to there [is] being an excess of deaths over births even in a vanishingly small population.

Impact is Saved Lives-Coral Reefs Contain Anti-HIV ProteinsLamontagne, Member of American Society for Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, 14(Nancy, 4/29/14, EurekAlert!, "Coral reefs provide potent new anti-HIV proteins,"www.eurekalert.org/pub_releases/2014-04/asfb-crp042814.php, 6/24/14, AF).

Researchers have discovered a new class of proteins capable of blocking the HIV virus from penetrating T-cells, raising hope that the proteins could be adapted for use in gels or sexual lubricants to provide a potent barrier against HIV infection.The proteins, called cnidarins, were found in a feathery coral collected in waters off Australia's northern coast. Researchers zeroed in on the proteins after screening thousands of natural product extracts in a biorepository maintained by the National Cancer Institute. "It's always thrilling when you find a brand-new protein that nobody else has ever

seen before," said senior investigator Barry O'Keefe, Ph.D., deputy chief of the Molecular Targets Laboratory at the National

Cancer Institute's Center for Cancer Research. "And the fact that this protein appears to block HIV infection—and to do it in a completely new way—makes this truly exciting."In the global fight against AIDS, there is a pressing need for anti-HIV microbicides that women can apply to block HIV infection without relying on a man's willingness to use a condom. Koreen Ramessar, Ph.D., a postdoctoral research fellow at the National Cancer Institute and a member of the research team, said cnidarins could be ideally suited for use in such a product because the proteins block HIV transmission without encouraging the virus to become resistant to other HIV drugs."When developing new drugs, we're always concerned about the possibility of undermining existing successful treatments by encouraging drug resistance in the virus," said O'Keefe. "But even if the virus became resistant to these proteins, it would likely still be sensitive to all of the therapeutic options that are

currently available."The research team identified and purified the cnidarin proteins, then tested their activity against laboratory strains of HIV. The proteins proved astonishingly potent, capable of blocking HIV at

concentrations of a billionth of a gram by preventing the first step in HIV transmission, in which the virus must enter a type of immune cell known as the T-cell."We found that cnidarins bind to the virus and prevent it from fusing with the T-cell membrane," said Ramessar. "This is completely different from what we've seen with other proteins, so we think the cnidarin proteins have a unique mechanism of action."The next step is to refine methods for generating cnidarins in larger quantities so the proteins can be tested further to identify potential side effects or activity against other viruses. "Making more of it is a big key," said O'Keefe. "You can't strip the Earth of this coral trying to harvest this protein, so our focus now is on finding ways to produce more of it so we can proceed with preclinical testing."The scientists discovered cnidarins while screening for proteins, a largely understudied component of natural product extracts found in the National Cancer Institute's extract repository. The institute maintains a large collection of natural specimens gathered from around the world under agreements with their countries of origin. The specimens are available to researchers across the United States.

Success Results in More Virus-Fighting ExtractsLamontagne, Member of American Society for Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, 14

(Nancy, 4/29/14, EurekAlert!, "Coral reefs provide potent new anti-HIV proteins,"www.eurekalert.org/pub_releases/2014-04/asfb-crp042814.php, 6/24/14, AF).

"The natural products extract repository is a national treasure," said O'Keefe. "You never know what you might find. Hopefully, discoveries like this will encourage more investigators to use this resource to identify extracts with activity against infectious disease."

The next global pandemic threatens extinctionVince, degree in Chemistry with Physics, science broadcaster for BBC, 13(Gala, 7/11/13, BBC, “Global transformers: What if a pandemic strikes?,” http://www.bbc.com/future/story/20130711-what-if-a-pandemic-strikes, 6/27/14, SM)Epidemics are certainly not new or unpredictable. A new strain of influenza virus occurs every 1-2 years, for example. But the sudden global explosion of an epidemic that infects a large number of the population – a pandemic – is harder to predict. We know a pandemic has occurred every 10-50 years for the past few centuries, and the last one was in 1968, so we're overdue one. Epidemiologists do not talk of whether there will be a new pandemic, but of when it will occur.¶ Pandemics, which kill a significant proportion of the population have acute and lasting effects on society. The Black Death, a bubonic plague during the Middle Ages caused by the bacterium Yersinia pestis, killed 30%-60% of Europeans (80% of people in the south of France and Spain) and reduced global population from 450 million to around 350 million. In a single province of China, more than 4 million people died (90% of the population) in 1334 alone. Such a toll was socially transformative. Entire cities were depopulated, world trade declined, but so did wars. In some countries witch hunts rooting out the unknown cause of the plague resulted in minority groups being massacred, including lepers and Jews.¶ For plague survivors life generally improved, especially for those at the bottom of the ladder. Peasants benefited from the scarcity of labour to gain better wages (often through revolt), and their crops and cattle spread into unoccupied land giving most people a richer diet. The Black Death also had an environmental impact – loss of agricultural activity allowed forests to regrow, and their photosynthetic activity sucked so much carbon from the air it contributed to the regional cooling event known as the Little Ice Age.¶ Economic slump¶ More recently, the Spanish Flu of 1918 killed one in five of those infected, some 40-50 million people worldwide, which was more than the guns of World War I. The impacts of this pandemic should have been especially severe because unusually, more than half of those who died were young working-age adults, aged 20-40 (most flu outbreaks kill the very old and young first). However,

the global economic slump that resulted from incapacitation or deaths among the workforce melded into the dramatic effects of the war. The HIV/Aids epidemic, which also disproportionately effects young, working age men and women, can give some idea of economic impact – in hard-hit sub-Saharan African countries the economies were estimated to be on average 22% smaller in 2010, due to the virus's effects. ¶ So what would be the result of a global pandemic in the 21st Century? The world’s population in the Middle Ages was just a few hundred million;

in 1918, it was 1.8 billion – now it is more than 7 billion. The numbers of people infected and killed could run into the hundreds of millions. Industry, food production, and the trappings of our modern world economy would all suffer, but this could be to the benefit of the environment. Poverty in HIV-hit southern Africa means it has the lowest per capita greenhouse gas emissions on the planet. During the global financial crisis that began in 2008, annual emissions from the energy sector fell from 29.3GT to 29GT.¶ Fewer people would mean less production of everything from food to plastics. That could mean fewer industrial emissions, agricultural and residential land reverting back to forest perhaps, few polluting journeys, and less freshwater extractions.¶ But what if the pandemic was really severe – killing 80%-90% of our species? Aside from a few people with immunity, densely populated cities would be worst

hit – small remote islands may be spared through quarantine. It could mean an end to our advanced human civilization for a time, at least. Our species impact on the planet would diminish substantially as a result of our few numbers and global capability.¶

Impact – Economy

Pandemics cause a global economic shock—history proves Jonas, World Bank Economic Adviser, 13(Olga, 10/13, The World Bank, “Pandemic risk,” http://un-influenza.org/sites/default/files/WDR14_bp_Pandemic_Risk_Jonas.pdf, 6/25/14, SM)Systemic economic shock. If a disease is not controlled at its animal source and a sudden-onset ¶ pandemic occurs, people in all countries may experience both a contagion of disease and a sharp, ¶ possibly catastrophic, economic downturn associated with shifts in demand, supply shocks, and ¶ economic and social disruptions . Because countries are connected by, and depend on, travel, trade ¶ and capital movements, the shocks would propagate across interconnected economic and financial ¶ systems worldwide, possibly ahead of the contagion itself. These risks were evident in the SARS ¶ outbreak in 2003 (Figure 6) and should be anticipated, based on connectedness characteristics of ¶ each country (some will be more vulnerable than others). The evolution of a pandemic in any one ¶ country or community is largely unpredictable, not least because disease surveillance data become ¶ available with delay and only partially, and this is generally more so in countries with weak health ¶ information systems. For ¶ slow-onset pandemics like ¶ AIDS, which developed over ¶ decades, these economic ¶ impacts would be much ¶ smaller, however.

Next pandemic will trigger a global recession—SARS pandemic showsBegley, Senior U.S. Health & Science Correspondent for Reuters, 13(Sharon, 1/21/13, Reuters, “Flu-conomics: The next pandemic could trigger global recession,” http://www.reuters.com/article/2013/01/21/us-reutersmagazine-davos-flu-economy-idUSBRE90K0F820130121, 6/27/14, SM)That's just the easily measured stuff; the indirect costs pushed the total SARS bill much higher. "The biggest driver of the economics of pandemics is not mortality or morbidity but risk aversion, as people change their behavior to reduce their chance of exposure," says Dr. Dennis Carroll, director of the U.S. Agency for International

Development's programs on new and emerging disease threats. "People don't go to their jobs, and they don't go to shopping malls. There can be a huge decrease in consumer demand, and if (a pandemic) continues long enough, it can affect manufacturing" as producers cut output to align supply with lower demand. If schools are closed, healthy workers may have to stay home with their children. People afraid of becoming infected are less likely to go out to stores, restaurants or movies.¶ Most of China was essentially on lockdown in the first half of 2003 as the government did everything in its considerable power to minimize human-to-human contact and, hence, the spread of SARS. Beijing was shut down tighter than at any time since martial law was declared during the 1989 Tiananmen Square protests. Discos, bars, shopping malls, indoor sports facilities, and movie theaters were closed, and 80 percent of the capital's five-star hotel rooms were vacant.¶ By May 2003, Singapore Airlines had cut capacity 71 percent and put its 6,600-member flight staff on unpaid leave. Tourism to Singapore fell 70 percent, and the country's gross domestic product took a $400 million hit that year.¶ From Asia, where the disease was largely confined, the ripples spread in all directions. Toronto recorded 361 SARS cases and 33 deaths, and the World Health Organization issued an advisory against traveling there — surely a factor in the $5 billion loss Canada's GDP suffered in 2003.¶ It's not surprising that a pandemic hurts businesses dependent on employees or customers moving from point a to point b (as AIG and the airlines learned), but SARS also set back transport companies such as FedEx (closed airports; fewer people doing business), telecom equipment-makers such as Nortel (vendors and customers staying home) and cable-TV-box maker Scientific-Atlanta (multiple parts made in Asia). It even cut deeply into profits for Estee Lauder, which under normal circumstances sells a lot of cosmetics in Hong Kong, Singapore and China, and in duty-free airport shops.¶

In our interconnected world, a farmer running a fever in Southern China can reduce the income of a baggage handler in Frankfurt, and hence all

the businesses that worker patronizes. "Within hours or days, an event that starts on one side of the world can establish itself on the other," says Carroll. Lufthansa saw demand for flights to and from the Far East tumble 85 percent that year, and grounded a dozen planes. With planes grounded, oil demand fell by 300,000 barrels a day in Asia, dinging the revenues of oil companies

from Kuwait to Venezuela.¶ A COST BEYOND MEASURE? The World Bank estimated China's SARS-related losses at $14.8 billion, and although the United States and Europe were largely spared its ravages, the pandemic reduced the global GDP by $33 billion. And here's a scary thought: As health crises go, SARS wasn't that bad: It killed just 916 people and lasted well under a year. The Department of Health & Human Services estimates that the ho-hum

seasonal flu is responsible for 111 million lost workdays each year in the United States. That's $7 billion in sick days and lost productivity.¶ A global pandemic that lasted a year could trigger a "major global recession," warned a 2008 report from the World Bank. If a pandemic were on the scale of the Hong Kong flu of 1968-69 in its transmissibility and severity, a yearlong outbreak could cause world

GDP to fall 0.7 percent. If we get hit with something like the 1957 Asian flu, say goodbye to 2 percent of GDP. Something as bad as the 1918-19 Spanish flu would cut the world's economic output by 4.8 percent and cost more than $3 trillion. "Generally speaking," the report added,

"developing countries would be hardest hit, because higher population densities and poverty accentuate the economic impacts."¶ The majority of the economic losses would come not from sickness or death but from what the World Bank calls "efforts to avoid infection: reducing air travel … avoiding travel to infected destinations, and reducing consumption of services such as restaurant dining, tourism, mass

transport, and nonessential retail shopping."¶ The really bad news is that we may not be hearing all the bad news. Economists who study pandemics worry they may be underestimating the financial toll because they haven't been considering all the ramifications. "Research to understand the indirect costs of an epidemic has been growing, focusing on how to accurately incorporate productivity losses and effects on economic activity," says Bruce Lee of the University of Pittsburgh Medical Center, where he is an associate professor, director of the Public Health Computational and Operations Research Group, and an expert in the economics of infectious diseases.

Huge economic impacts and deaths because of pandemicsDean, PhD at the University of New South Wales, 09(Tim, 1/7/9, Cosmos, “Doomsday: Five catastrophes that could wipe out civilization,” http://cosmosmagazine.com/features/doomsday/, 6/27/14, SM)Could such a pandemic outbreak occur again? In 2002 it almost did, says Gregory Härtl, from Epidemic and Pandemic Alert and Response at the World Health Organisation (WHO) in Geneva, Switzerland. “SARS was a pandemic that almost happened,” he says.¶ SARS, or Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome, struck at the end of 2002 and caused more than 770 deaths with a mortality rate of nearly 10 per cent. By comparison, the influenza’s mortality rate is usually less than one per cent. Had local governments and organisations like the WHO not responded immediately to quarantine and blunt the SARS outbreak, the outcome could have been grave indeed. “We got lucky with SARS,” says Härtl.¶ We

may have dodged a bullet with SARS, but the gun is still loaded and pointed in our direction. For this reason, many experts in infectious diseases believe it’s not a matter of if we’ll have another pandemic outbreak, but when. “My personal opinion is that there’s a 100 per cent chance of another influenza pandemic in the next 100 years,” says Martin Meltzer, senior health economist at the Centres for Disease Control and Prevention in Atlanta, USA.¶ What no one knows is whether the next outbreak will be cut short like SARS, or whether it’ll unfold into a global pandemic, perhaps even more devastating than the pandemic of 1918, which claimed more

than 40 million lives. The problem is, even with our advanced ability to detect and treat disease and communicate rapidly, our globalised nature means that an outbreak could spread around the world in a matter of days.¶ Also, increased population densities and more intermingling with animals means there are more opportunities for diseases to make the leap from animals to humans. “We have more people, more pigs and more poultry since the last pandemic. Therefore, in terms of the mixing needed to produce a new strain, we probably face a greater risk than in 1968 [when more than 40

million died],” says Meltzer.¶ So what would be the impact of a new pandemic? The WHO estimates a ‘best case’ scenario as likely to cause up to 7.4 million deaths, while a worst-case scenario could be even worse than the 1918 pandemic. And the economic cost? According to the World Bank, a major outbreak leading to 70 million deaths would cost around five per cent of global GDP, or up to US$2,000 billion.¶

Impact HIV/AIDs

The Infection of HIV is Rising Rapidly-Developing a vaccine is crutial to tens of millions of lives-The impact is mass global death.Obijiofor, Professor at University of Queensland, 11 (Levi, 6/17/11, Nigeria Village Square, “HIV-AIDS: African mothers and babies face extinction”, http://www.nigeriavillagesquare.com/levi-obijiofor/hiv-aids-african-mothers-and-babies-face-extinction.html, 6/29/14

The statistics on HIV-AIDS are uninviting. Across the world, 30 million people were reported to have lost their lives through AIDS and 16 million children have been turned into orphans. Still, about 33 million people are known to be living with HIV and for every new day, about 7,000 people are infected. That's not all the bad news. A report issued by the European Commission in 2009 stated that one in three people who were infected with HIV were unaware that they were carrying the virus. This is seen to account for a rapid rise in the rate of infection.Nevertheless, in the struggle against the deadly virus, the development of a vaccine or cure remains a priority. Also, the cost of accessing antiretroviral drugs must be further reduced in order for more patients, particularly those in poorer countries, to access the medication. Healthcare deserves priority attention. And the battle against HIV-AIDS deserves even a higher consideration for the reason that a nation with a sick population is a deceased country. Unfortunately, rather than provide funds to uplift the poor standards of healthcare, African countries are quick to allocate huge sums of money to arms build-up to be used to defend autocratic leaders' grip on power and to suppress pro-democracy movements.

HIV The World’s Leading Infectious Killer- without a vaccine, millions continue to die. AIDS, No Date (U.S. Department of Health & Human Services, “Global AIDS Overview”, http://aids.gov/federal-resources/around-the-world/global-aids-overview/, 6/29/14, ML)

35.3 million people worldwide are currently living with HIV/AIDS, including 2.1 million adolescents (10-19 years).HIV is the world’s leading infectious killer. According to the World Health Organization (WHO), an estimated 36 million people have died since the first cases were reported in 1981 and 1.6 million people died of HIV/AIDS in 2012. According to WHO, an estimated 3.34 million children worldwide are living with HIV. Most of these children live in sub-Saharan Africa and were infected by their HIV-positive mothers during pregnancy, childbirth or breastfeeding. Over 700 children become newly infected with HIV each day.

Unless We Find a Vaccine, Millions of People Will Be Infected With And Killed By HIVAIDS, No Date (U.S. Department of Health & Human Services, “Vaccines”, http://aids.gov/federal-resources/around-the-world/global-aids-overview/, 6/27/14, ML)

Today, more people living with HIV have access to life-saving antiretroviral therapy (ART) than ever before, which is good for their health and reduces the likelihood that they will transmit the virus to others if they adhere to their HIV medication. In addition, others who are at high risk for HIV infection have access to Pre-exposure Prophylaxis (PrEP), or ART being used to prevent HIV. Yet, unfortunately, approximately 50,000 Americans and 2.3 million people worldwide still become newly HIV-infected

each year. To control and ultimately end HIV globally, we need a powerful array of HIV prevention tools that are widely accessible to all who would benefit from them. Developing safe, effective and affordable vaccines that can prevent HIV infection in uninfected people is the best hope for controlling and/or ending the HIV epidemic. Vaccines historically have been the most effective means to prevent and even eradicate infectious diseases. They safely and cost-effectively prevent illness, disability and death. Like smallpox and polio vaccines, a preventive HIV vaccine could help save millions of lives.

Impact – AIDS – Economy

AIDS Plummets the EconomyUnited Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs, No Date (United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs/Population Division, “The Impact of AIDS”, http://www.un.org/esa/population/publications/AIDSimpact/91_CHAP_VIII.pdf, 6/29/14, ML)

The AIDS epidemic will slow or reverse growth in the labor supply. The economic impact can vary according to the sector of the economy, the degree the which HIV/AIDS affects hard to replace skilled labor and whether or not there is a substantial pool of “surplus labor”. The AIDS epidemic may also divert public spending from investments in physical and human capital to health expenditures, leading over time to slower growth of the gross domestic product. Foreign and domestic private investment might also decline if potential investors become convinced that the epidemic is seriously undermining the rate of return to investment. The HIV/AIDS epidemic may also deepen the poverty of the most affected countries by decreasing the growth rate of per capita income and by selectively impoverishing the individuals and families that are directly affected.

Economy

UQ

The US Economy growth is currently very low.Kurtz 6/16(Annalyn, Senior writer for CNN, 6/16/2014, CNN Money, “US Economy: Not So Good”, http://money.cnn.com/2014/06/16/news/economy/imf-us-forecast/, 6/25/2014, AC)

At the start of the year, economists were optimistic. Perhaps the economy would grow 3% this year, they said, instead of the measly 2% pace it's been stuck at for the prior three years. So much for that hopeful thinking. Half-way through the year, forecasts are being slashed. The latest Zorro move comes from the International Monetary Fund. The organization said Monday that the U.S. economy would only grow 2% this year, down from it earlier forecast of 2.8%. This comes on the heels of the World Bank announcement last week that it was cutting its prediction for the United States and the broader world economy. Many expect Federal Reserve policymakers to do the same downward revision when they meet this week. What went wrong? Blame it on the deep freeze that caused a very weak start to 2014. "In the early part of the year, as a harsh winter conspired with other factors... momentum faded in the U.S economy," the IMF said. Even though the economy is now starting to bounce back, the IMF doesn't believe the comeback will be strong enough to completely offset the terrible first quarter. I worked in finance. Now I'm a nurse I worked in finance. Now I'm a nurse Here's how bad the first quarter was: The data already show the economy contracted in the first quarter, but now it looks like that contraction was the deepest decline since the Great Recession. The housing market slowed, businesses invested less money in new equipment and buildings, and exports of American goods declined. Is it a big deal? Economists still believe the first quarter downturn is a one-time blip, caused mostly by brutal winter. Snowstorms put new home construction on hold, slowed shipments of goods, and dissuaded people from going out to car lots to buy new cars. The one bright spot supposedly came from consumers spending more of their money, particularly on services like health care. With Obamacare coming into effect, the Commerce Department assumed health care spending rose dramatically in the first quarter. Now, it looks like that assumption was flawed. Related: 6 things that worry Dr. Doom about the economy A Census report released Friday shows health care spending was far weaker than expected in the first quarter. As a result, economists are now forecasting the economy contracted at an annual rate of 1.5% to 2.4% in the first three months of the year, even weaker than the 1% contraction already reported by the Commerce Department. (The Commerce Department will revise its GDP numbers next week). If that's the case, achieving 3% growth for 2014 overall will be next to impossible. The economy would have to grow at around a 4.6% annual pace for the next three quarters in a row. The United States has not had a growth spurt that strong since late 2003 to early 2004. Growth in 2015 and beyond: If there's a silver lining in the latest downgrades of U.S. economic growth for 2014, it's that many are still forecasting a pickup in 2015. The IMF predicts the U.S. will grow 3% in 2015. But the report is also quick to point out problems that will put a drag on the U.S. economy in the coming years such as population aging and "modest prospects for productivity growth." To boost output, the IMF urges the U.S. to undertake a "skills-based approach" to immigration reform and to lift restrictions on U.S. oil exports.

US economy on decline—lack of GDP growth provesBoesler, Degree in Economics from University of Michigan, 13(Matthew, 11/13/13, Business Insider, “Economists Are Starting To Wonder Whether The US Economy Can Ever Again Grow Like It Used To,” http://www.businessinsider.com/is-us-potential-gdp-in-structural-decline-2013-11#ixzz36041o21X, 6/28/14, SM)Many on Wall Street believe the American economy will finally pick up in 2014.¶ BofA Merrill Lynch chief investment strategist Michael Hartnett argues "escape velocity" is "tantalizingly close."¶ Nonetheless, it hasn't happened yet, and the ultimate debate about the future of the U.S.

economy is still this: can it?¶ If recent trends in sub-par GDP and labor market growth reflect a structural decline in the economy's potential, the answer might be no. If we are still just working through the cyclical damage from the recession that gripped the U.S. six years ago, on the other hand — and the persistent fiscal drag that

has weighed on the economy in more recent years — then perhaps the answer is yes.¶ The government shutdown seemed to bring out a fair amount of pessimism toward the matter.¶ Jonathan Laing wrote of a "stark reality that many politicians and their constituents are unaware of"

in an October 28 Barron's article.¶ "U.S. economic growth figures to slow dramatically over the next 20 years or so," said Laing, "generating far less money to achieve the Republican goal of a balanced budget or the Democratic aim of continued social spending."¶ The discussion was taking a tilt toward the bearish side among investors as well.¶ "We've noticed investor sentiment shift decisively

through the course of the year," wrote Dario Perkins, director of global economics at Lombard Street Research, in an October 17 note. "The economy’s recent sluggishness has made our clients more sceptical of our strong 2014 forecast."¶ In an August report, JPMorgan economist Michael Feroli broke down the argument that the country's future isn't what it used to be by

demonstrating that potential GDP growth – a proxy for the long-run trend growth rate – in the United States has fallen below 2%. ¶ "As recently as the late 1990s, potential growth in the U.S. was estimated to be around 3.5%; by our estimates that figure has recently fallen by half, to 1.75%," wrote Feroli.¶

US economic decline now—GDP decline provesDavidson, MBA from the City University of New York, PhD at the University of Pennsylvania, 6/25(Paul, 6/25/14, USA Today, “Economy shrank 2.9% in 1Q, worst drop since '09,” http://www.usatoday.com/story/money/business/2014/06/25/economy-first-quarter/11332011/, 6/28/14, SM)The U.S. economy turned in its worst quarter in five years during the first three months of 2014, shrinking more sharply than previously estimated.¶ The nation's gross domestic product in the first quarter fell at a 2.9% annual rate, vs. the 1% contraction previously believed, the Commerce Department said Wednesday.

Economists surveyed by Bloomberg expected a 1.8% drop in output from the fourth quarter.¶ The decline was the sharpest since growth tumbled 5.4% in the first quarter of 2009, during the Great Recession. It was also one of the worst falloffs outside of a recession since 1960. ¶ The last time the economy shrank was in the first quarter of 2011, almost two years after the 2007-2009 recession ended, when it slipped 1.3%. ¶ STOCKS WEDNESDAY: Markets react¶ The more dramatic drop last quarter was largely the result of smaller growth in household consumption than previously estimated. Consumer spending increased just 1%, vs. the 3.1% gain previously estimated as health care spending dipped slightly. The government previously said that medical expenditures contributed about a percentage point to growth, as the Affordable Care Act began to cover more Americans. On Wednesday, it said health care spending subtracted 0.16% from growth.¶ Also, exports declined 8.9%, vs. the 6%

drop previously estimated. Businesses replenished their stocks even more slowly than believed after aggressively adding to inventories late last year.

Economic Downturn Last QuarterIrwin, The New York Times, 6/25(Neil, 6/25/14, The New York Times, http://www.nytimes.com/2014/06/26/upshot/economy-in-first-quarter-was-a-lot-worse-than-everybody-thought.html?_r=0, 6/29/14, TH)

The beginning of the year was not just bad for the United States economy; it was — on paper at least — the worst quarter since the last recession ended five years ago. The Commerce Department revised its estimates of first-quarter

gross domestic product to show that overall economic activity contracted at a 2.9 percent annual rate, much

bleaker than the previous estimate of a 1 percent decline. A combination of shrinking business inventories, terrible winter weather

in much of the country and a surprise contraction in health care spending drove the first-quarter fall, which was the worst since the first quarter of 2009, when the economy shrank at a 5.4 percent rate. What makes the sharply negative number all the more stunning is that it did not feel like an economic contraction at all in the first quarter. Employers kept adding jobs at a reasonably healthy pace. Many measures of business activity and consumer confidence were stable. Moreover, forecasters are expecting a healthy pop of growth in the second quarter, which ends next week. That was underscored by a separate data release Wednesday showing orders for nondefense capital goods excluding aircraft — a proxy for investment by businesses apart from the most volatile sector — rose a healthy 0.7 percent. That was enough for consulting firm Macroeconomic Advisers to increase its forecast for second quarter growth to 3.5 percent, from 3.3 percent. The saving grace of the weak report is that G.D.P., while the broadest measure of economic activity, is also among the most backward-looking. After all, the period covered by this report ended nearly three months ago. More

contemporaneous measures of the economy have looked healthier, particularly job creation. Markets were hardly fazed by the negative report,

with the Standard & Poor’s 500-stock index up half a percent Wednesday. Still, though 2014 is only around halfway over, the brutal math of G.D.P. means that the nation now looks consigned to another year of sluggish growth at best — and that’s true even if there is a pickup over the remainder of the year. For example, if the economy were to grow at a 4 percent pace each of the three final quarters of 2014 — a level only attained twice in the last five years, and never in consecutive

quarters — the overall growth rate for 2014 would still work out to only a tepid 2.2 percent. “The economy now must attempt to dig itself out from an even larger hole than previously expected,” Lindsey M. Piegza, chief economist of Sterne Agee, said in a research note. The sharp contraction was driven by an unlikely combination of negative forces that conspired to turn what had once seemed set to be another quarter of so-so growth into a considerably gloomier experience.

Economists had expected the revised number to show a 1.8 percent annual rate of contraction, and were caught off-guard by the far more negative result. The key thing they missed: consumer spending, the mainstay of economic activity, was far weaker than either government numbers or private analysts had previously thought, particularly spending on health care. Previous G.D.P. numbers, released in late May, showed that health care spending contributed 1 percentage point to economic growth. The new report now finds that health care spending actually subtracted 0.16 of a percentage point from the growth rate. The health care spending data in G.D.P. are a measure of how much President Obama’s sweeping health law is reshaping health care spending patterns, and it is now showing opposite results from those reported two months ago, when the first-quarter data was initially released. On one hand, the health reform effort aims to increase the number of Americans with health care coverage, which would tend to increase reported spending. On the other hand, it also aims to reduce costs, which could depress the sector’s contribution to economic growth (even if desirable over the longer-term). “Looking forward, the volatility in the measurement of health care services represents a risk to our G.D.P. forecasts,” Doug Handler, chief United States economist at IHS Global Insight, wrote in a note. “Since this volatility is not business-cycle related, its impact should

be heavily discounted in assessing the general health of the economy.” Other causes of the first-quarter contraction were already well known. Businesses pulled back on their inventories, which subtracted 1.7 percentage points from growth (an earlier estimate had been a loss of 1.6 percentage points). The good news is that the negative inventory swing, if underlying demand stays solid, may encourage companies to rebuild their stocks of goods in the future. And the rough winter weather did not help many categories of business activity. It slowed home-building activity (residential investment subtracted 0.13 of a percentage point)

and commercial building work (which subtracted 0.22 of a percentage point). But the fact that the economy as a whole could show such a sharply negative result thanks to a few idiosyncratic factors is also a reflection of the underlying weakness in the economy. When growth is strong, even some bad weather and an unexpected inventory swing do not cause a contraction in the economy, or at least not a contraction on the scale reported for the first quarter of 2014. But because the pattern of growth has been roughly in the 2 percent range or a bit below for years now, the economy is more vulnerable to shocks that leave activity in negative territory.

Prospects of Economic Growth Low NowKurtz 6/16(Annalyn Kurtz, CNN, 6/16/14, “US Economy: Not Looking So Good”, http://money.cnn.com/2014/06/16/news/economy/imf-us-forecast/, 6/29/14, AG)At the start of the year, economists were optimistic. Perhaps the economy would grow 3% this year, they said, instead of the measly 2% pace it's been stuck at for the prior three years.¶ So much for that hopeful thinking. Half-way through the year, forecasts are being slashed. The latest Zorro move comes from the International Monetary Fund. The organization said Monday that the U.S. economy would only grow 2% this year, down from it earlier forecast of 2.8%.¶ This comes on the heels of the World Bank announcement last week that it was cutting its prediction for the United States and the broader world economy. Many expect Federal Reserve policymakers to do the same downward revision when they meet this week.¶ What went wrong?¶ Blame it on the deep freeze that caused a very weak start to 2014.¶

"In the early part of the year, as a harsh winter conspired with other factors... momentum faded in the U.S economy," the IMF said. Even though the economy is now starting to bounce back, the IMF doesn't believe the comeback will be strong enough to completely offset the terrible first quarter.¶ ¶

Here's how bad the first quarter was: The data already show the economy contracted in the first quarter, but now it looks like that contraction was the deepest decline since the Great Recession. The housing market slowed, businesses invested less money in new equipment and buildings, and exports of American goods declined.¶ Is it a big deal?¶ Economists still believe the first quarter downturn is a one-time blip, caused mostly by brutal winter. Snowstorms put new home construction on hold, slowed

shipments of goods, and dissuaded people from going out to car lots to buy new cars.¶ The one bright spot supposedly came from consumers spending more of their money, particularly on services like health care. With Obamacare coming into effect, the Commerce Department assumed health care spending rose dramatically in the first quarter. Now, it looks like that assumption was flawed.¶ Related: 6 things that worry Dr. Doom about the economy¶ A Census report released Friday shows health care spending was far weaker than expected in the first quarter. As a result, economists are now forecasting the economy contracted at an annual rate of 1.5% to 2.4% in the first three months of the year, even weaker than the 1% contraction already reported by the Commerce Department. (The Commerce Department will revise its GDP numbers next week).¶ If that's the case, achieving 3% growth for 2014 overall will be next to impossible. The economy would have to grow at around a 4.6% annual pace for the next three quarters in a row.¶ The United States has not had a growth spurt that strong since late 2003 to early 2004.

Economic Collapse in 2014 ExpectedEFT News 4/11(EFT News, 4/11/14, “Evidence Points to an economic collapse in 2014”, http://etfdailynews.com/2014/04/11/evidence-points-to-an-economic-collapse-in-2014/, 6/29/13, AG)Earlier this week economic strategist Marc Faber warned that some time in the next 12 months the U.S. stock market will experience a crash worse than the massive drop seen in 1987.¶ He’s not alone. Many contrarian economists seem to agree. And given the state of economic and geo-political affairs they could well be right, much to our detriment.¶ On the domestic front, the much touted economic recovery is in significant danger of being revealed for the illusion that it really is. Nationwide home sales, for example, have dropped off in record numbers in the last few months and a report released this morning indicates

that mortgage originations are as bad today as they were just before the Lehman crisis of 2007. Couple that with a jobs market that is at best stagnating and at worst completely falling apart, and you can probably deduce that if there is any economic growth at all taking place it is about to come to a standstill. Internationally, the world is fed up with The Fed and the U.S. government’s unabashed debt growth. China, Russia, Iran, India and a host of other countries are establishing trade relationships that are bypassing the U.S. dollar altogether, a move that will soon see the world’s reserve currency lose purchasing power and status. In anticipation of this imminent collapse gold is being hoarded by private and public entities from Berlin to Beijing in an effort to preserve wealth

before the Tsunami hits.¶ In light of these developments, former Undersecretary of the Treasury Paul Craig Roberts suggests that there are only two possible outcomes given our dilemma –World War Or The End Of The Dollar – neither of which bodes well for global economic, financial, social and political stability.

K2 Jobs

The US has lost countless jobs due to lack of tourism.Thompson, writer for the Atlantic, 11(Derek, 7/14/14, The Atlantic, How Tourism Can Help Save the U.S. Economy, http://www.theatlantic.com/business/archive/2011/06/how-tourism-can-help-save-the-us-economy/240429/, 6/25/14, JW)An export is foreign money in exchange for a domestic good or service. When Caterpillar sells China a machine, it's an export. When Bain consulting takes on an Indian client, it's an export. Tourism is an export too, even if it doesn't feel like one. A family enters the U.S., uses our services, buys our goods, and spends an average of $4,000 a trip. But since 9/11, tourism has waned. There are three plausible explanations. First, intrusive security policies are scaring away families. Second, foreign countries -- especially in Europe -- have upped their travel promotion game. Third, the United States hasn't. Today, the countries in the European Union spend nearly a billion dollars on tourism promotion. The U.S. government doesn't have a federal tourism promotion policy. The impact of the tourism deficit is deep, and the story can be told in three graphs. First, consider the raw numbers. International arrivals to the US fell dramatically in the years after 2000 even as the dollar fell and international tourism added almost 50 million more customers. But even that image fails to capture the shortfall in foreign visits. The U.S. Travel Association estimated the number of tourists the U.S. would have if we kept pace with the rest of the world in the 2000s. This second graph illustrates that missed opportunity. Finally, the McKinsey Global Institute used our tourism shortfall to estimate the potential jobs lost by sector. The third graph pulls out that estimate: GIVE US YOUR MONEY! The U.S. isn't doing enough to attract the world's emerging middle glass, says the McKinsey Global Institute. Although a weak dollar should lure tourists from China, Indian and Brazil, MGI finds that more Chinese tourists visit France than the United States. How do we convince foreign travelers to give us more of their money? Here are three big ideas from MGI: 1. Increase Promotional Spending. The European Union spends about $800 million on travel promotion. The United States should adopt a similar national travel promotion strategy. 2. Make New Visa Rules. In the R&R business, it's our visa policy that could use some real relaxation. We should find a way to make the visa approval process "steamlined and predictable" and simplify immigration rules to attract more foreign students and make it easier for immigrant graduates to stay, spend money, and ultimately (we hope) create jobs. 3. Find Productivity Gains. "Hospitality industry leaders believe they could streamline operations in cities such as New York and San Francisco but say they are constrained by unions and local regulations," MGI reports. The bottom line is that if the U.S. had maintained its share in global tourism throughout the 2000s, we would have attracted 67 million more tourists and received $214 billion in additional spending, which would have produced 400,000 more jobs across the economy. If Washington is looking to move beyond the stimulus versus austerity debate, tourism would be a smart place to begin.

Coral reefs support jobs, tourism, and fisheriesNOAA, 14(NOAA, 3/12/14, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, “How do coral reefs benefit the economy?”, http://oceanservice.noaa.gov/facts/coral_economy.html, 6/25/14, JW)

Healthy coral reefs support commercial and subsistence fisheries as well as jobs and businesses through tourism and recreation. Approximately half of all federally managed fisheries depend on coral reefs and related habitats for a portion of their life cycles. The National Marine Fisheries Service estimates the commercial value of U.S. fisheries from coral reefs is over $100 million. Local economies also receive billions of dollars from visitors to reefs through diving tours, recreational fishing trips, hotels, restaurants, and other businesses based near reef ecosystems. Despite their great economic and recreational value, coral reefs are severely threatened by pollution, disease, and habitat destruction. Once coral reefs are damaged, they are less able to support the many creatures that inhabit them. When a coral reef supports fewer fish, plants, and animals, it also loses value as a tourist destination.

Coral reefs support jobs, tourism, and fisheriesFlorida Keys National Marine Sanctuary, 11(Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary, 12/8/11, National Ocean Service, “Coral reefs support jobs, tourism, and fisheries”, http://floridakeys.noaa.gov/corals/economy.html, 6/25/14, JW)From tourism to marine recreation and sport fishing, coral reefs play an important role in the economies of countries all around the world. By one estimate, coral reefs provide economic goods and services worth about $375 billion each year. NOAA suggests that coral reefs in southeast Florida have an asset value of $8.5 billion, generating $4.4 billion in local sales, $2 billion in local income, and 70,400 full and part-time jobs. The fish that grow and live on coral reefs are a significant food source for people worldwide. In the United States, about half of all federally managed fisheries depend on coral reefs. NOAA’s National Marine Fisheries Service estimates the annual commercial value of U.S. fisheries from coral reefs to be over $100 million. Reef-based recreational fisheries generate over $100 million annually in the United States

Reefs K2 Tourism

Coral Reefs essential to economy-K to many industriesRJD Marine Conservation Program, 13( “Artificial Reefs, Biodiversity, and Biodiversity”, http://rjd.miami.edu/conservation/artificial-reefs-biodiversity-and-ecotourism, 6/25/14, AVEN)Coral reefs are a very important part of the ecosystem, and over the years, the condition of the world’s coral reefs has changed drastically; this condition has not changed for the better. There are many resources that coral reefs provide to the world. Some of these include tourism value and the fact that they provide a natural nursing area for fisheries. A lot of research has been done on corals and what features of a reef, give the reef more monetary value. This research has found some conflicting results. While, some claim that fish biodiversity is more valued than coral biodiversity, some claim the opposite. Although, this research has looked at many aspects of what makes a reef valuable, not a lot has been done with looking at the value of each component of the biological attributes of a reef. This study aimed to look at different levels of biodiversity in fish and corals, in addition to, looking at each condition under different levels of conservation effort. This study also looked at whether or not artificial reefs could be used to cause an increase in ecotourism across the world.¶ Researchers from the Ben Gurion University of Negev and the Interuniversity Institute for Marine Sciences at Eliat in Israel created a survey to give to divers in the city of Eliat in Israel to see what monetary values they would put on these artificial reefs. The survey presented a number of different biological conditions of artificial reefs and at varying levels of conservation effort. These biological conditions were coral size, coral diversity, fish abundance, coral abundance, varying numbers of fish and corals, and different levels of biodiversity of fish and coral. The survey also asked about how much money they would be willing to pay for each scenario and why they decided on that monetary amount.

Tourism of coral reefs generates $6.4 billion and creates 70,400 jobs NOAA, ’01, (2001, NOAA, “Tourism and Recreation”, http://coralreef.noaa.gov/aboutcorals/values/tourismrecreation/ 6/24/14, AG)

US – Florida In 2000–2001, the artificial and natural reefs off the four-county area of southeast Florida (Palm Beach, Broward, Miami-Dade and Monroe counties) supported almost 28 million person-days of recreational diving, fishing and viewing

activities. These activities generated about $4.4 billion in local sales, almost $2 billion in local income, and 70,400 full and part-time jobs . In that same time frame, when visitors to those reefs in these four counties were polled, they

were willing to spend between $23 million and $64 million (values varied by county) per year to maintain the natural coral reefs in the county. These reefs also had an asset value of $8.5 billion .

Coral reefs key to tourism NOAA 2014(National Ocean and Atmospheric Association, 6/25/14, “Coral Reefs Support Jobs, Tourism, and Fisheries”, http://coralreef.noaa.gov/aboutcorals/facts/coral_economy.html, 6/25/14, AG)

Local economies also receive billions of dollars from visitors to reefs through diving tours, recreational fishing trips, hotels, restaurants, and other businesses based near reef ecosystems. Globally, coral reefs provide a net benefit of $9.6 billion/year from tourism and recreation revenues and $5.7 billion/year from fisheries. The NOAA National Marine Fisheries Service estimates the annual commercial value of US fisheries from coral reefs to be over $100

million. Reef-based recreational fisheries generate over $100 million annually in the US. [b] Despite their great economic and recreational value, coral reefs are severely threatened by climate change, impacts of fishing, and land-based sources of pollution, among other threats. Once coral reefs are damaged, they are less able to support the many

creatures that inhabit them. When a coral reef supports fewer fish, plants, and animals, it also loses value as a tourist destination and lessens its ability to support fisheries.

Preservation key to tourism and local revenue NY Times ‘07(New York Times, 6/24/07, “Saving Coral Reefs Becomes a Tourism Priority”, http://www.nytimes.com/2007/06/24/travel/24headsup.html?pagewanted=all&_r=0, 6/25/14, AG)

GREEN sea turtles, cascades of glittering reef fish, blooming coral pillars — countless travelers have come nose to nose with a thriving undersea universe while on vacation. But increasingly, divers and snorkelers are swimming over bleached hunks of coral devastated by shore runoff or overfishing. From the South Pacific to the Caribbean, coral reefs — which are among the most delicate of marine ecosystems — are bearing the brunt of climate change and other human-driven activities — including coastal development, deforestation and unrestricted tourism. Now, many in the tourist industry are trying to halt the damage. And it is no wonder. The dollars involved in reef-based tourism are significant: Australia’s Great Barrier Reef alone draws about 1.9 million visitors a year, supporting a $4.2 billion industry. According to the Nature Conservancy, the annual economic value of coral reefs to world tourism is $9.6 billion.

Reefs Have Economic Value- Tourism and fisheries have economic income. NOAA, 08 (3/25/2008, National Ocean Service, “Importance of Coral Reefs”, http://oceanservice.noaa.gov/education/kits/corals/coral07_importance.html, 6/24/14, ML

Storehouses of immense biological wealth, reefs also provide economic and environmental services to millions of people. Coral reefs may provide goods and services worth $375 billion each year. This is an amazing figure for an environment that covers less than 1 percent of the Earth’s surface (Costanza et al., 1997). Healthy reefs contribute to local economies through tourism . Diving tours, fishing trips, hotels, restaurants, and other businesses based near reef systems provide millions of jobs and contribute billions of dollars all over the world. Recent studies show that millions of people visit coral reefs in the Florida Keys every year. These reefs alone are estimated to have an asset value of $7.6 billion (Johns et al., 2001). The commercial value of U.S. fisheries from coral reefs is over $100 million (NMFS/NOAA, 2001). In addition, the annual value of reef-dependent recreational fisheries probably exceeds $100 million per year. In developing countries, coral reefs contribute about one-quarter of the total fish catch, providing critical food resources for tens of millions of people (Jameson et al., 1995). Coral reefs buffer adjacent shorelines from wave action and prevent erosion, property damage and loss of life. Reefs also protect the highly productive wetlands along the coast, as well as ports and harbors and the economies they support. Globally, half a billion people are estimated to live within 100 kilometers of a coral reef and benefit from its production and protection.

Artificial Reefs Key To Philippines Tourism Arin et all, Marine Pollution Bulletin, 00(Tijen, Alan T. White, Helge P. Vogt, 7/00, Elsevier Publication, Marine Pollution Bulletin, http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0025326X00000229, 6/25/14, TH)

In the Philippines, coral reef fisheries provide livelihood for more than a million small-scale fishers who contribute almost US$ 1 billion annually to the country’s economy. The rapidly growing population needs increasing amounts of fish and other marine organisms. However, overfishing, destructive fishing methods and sedimentation have damaged or destroyed many reef areas. Fish catches have fallen well below the sustainable levels of healthy reefs. The economic losses to the coastal fishing population are considerable. Various programmes have and are trying to counter coral reef decline by establishing sustainable management regimes. The economic benefits of such programmes appear to exceed their investment costs. As an example, the start-up and maintenance costs of a successful island marine reserve project have been compared to the losses caused by reef destruction and the gains from reef management. The results clearly show that the economic benefits

from a managed reef area due to higher catches and revenue from small-scale tourism far exceed costs. Coral reefs are also a major attraction for an increasing number of local and international tourists. In addition to providing income for the tourism industry, these reef visitors are often willing to contribute to the costs for reef management. The annual willingness-to-pay assessed in three popular diving destinations are significant. An estimated US$ 300 000 could be collected annually as entrance fees or donations in Mabini, Batangas alone. It is estimated that the 27 000 km2 of reef in their degraded condition still contribute at least US$ 1.35 billion annually to the economy. Reef management involving local fishing communities, local governments and other concerned organizations is a cost-effective way to alleviate the pressure on the numerous threatened coral reefs. In addition, economic valuation and cost-benefit analysis can provide essential information to support more investment in reef conservation.

Coral Reef’s in South Africa Lead to TourismSamways et all, University of Natal, 01(R.M.D and M.J., 12/01, SpringerLink, Department of Invertebrate Conservation Research, http://link.springer.com/article/10.1023/A:1013197926580, 6/25/14, TH)

SCUBA ecotourism provides economic support for local human communities and for conservation. Such support should be sustainable and as ecologically non-destructive as possible to its coral reef foundation. In recent years, the major increase in

SCUBA activity has become a significant consideration at some locations. Among these are the South African coral reefs at Sodwana Bay, which receive 80 000 dives per year. Between May 1998 and January 1999, assessments using line-intercept and belt transects showed that 5.9% of hard corals and 4.0% of soft corals were damaged from various causes, while only 0.02% of the hard corals were dead. Of the 222 diver contacts observed, only 1.63% produced instant and visually-clear damage, with no measurable decline in overall coral reef health. Direct observations on 89 recreational divers showed that photographers made damaging contacts on nine out of ten dives, while novice divers made one such contact per six dives, moderately experienced divers about once every 14 dives, and very experienced divers about once every 123 dives. Increased time lapsed since the last dive increased diver damage by novices. We calculated that the 80 000 dives were equivalent to 1 m2 of reef receiving 2.3 diver contacts per year. Acropora austera was by far the most significantly damaged coral, with one out of four branches broken per year. But as this species accounted for only 0.2% of reef benthos cover, this impact was not representative of overall reef health. This heavy species-specific impact makes A. austera a good bio-monitor.

Coral Reefs essential to economy-K to many industriesRJD Marine Conservation Program, 13( “Artificial Reefs, Biodiversity, and Biodiversity”, http://rjd.miami.edu/conservation/artificial-reefs-biodiversity-and-ecotourism, 6/25/14, AVEN, TH)Coral reefs are a very important part of the ecosystem, and over the years, the condition of the world’s coral reefs has changed

drastically; this condition has not changed for the better. There are many resources that coral reefs provide to the world. Some of these include tourism value and the fact that they provide a natural nursing area for fisheries. A lot of research has been done on corals and what features of a reef, give the reef more monetary value. This research has found some conflicting results. While, some claim that fish biodiversity is more valued than coral biodiversity, some claim the opposite. Although, this research has looked at many aspects of what makes a reef valuable, not a lot has been done with looking at the value of each component of the biological attributes of a reef. This study aimed to look at different levels of biodiversity in fish and corals, in addition to, looking at each condition under different levels

of conservation effort. This study also looked at whether or not artificial reefs could be used to cause an increase in ecotourism across the world.¶ Researchers from the Ben Gurion University of Negev and the Interuniversity Institute for Marine Sciences at Eliat in Israel created a survey to give to divers in the city of Eliat in Israel to see what monetary values they would put on these artificial reefs. The survey presented a number of different biological conditions of artificial reefs and at varying levels of conservation effort. These biological conditions were coral size, coral diversity, fish abundance, coral abundance, varying numbers of fish and corals, and different levels of biodiversity of fish and coral. The survey also asked about how much money they would be willing to pay for each scenario

and why they decided on that monetary amount. This study showed that many of the divers would be willing to pay money for a more diverse environment that could be created by artificial reefs. The greatest motivation for paying more

money was for their own enjoyment, but many of them also wanted to pay money to ensure that the reef would continue to exist. The survey showed that the divers wanted to pay more for fish species richness over abundance and they wanted to pay more for coral abundance rather than species richness.

Tubbataha Reef Leads To Substantial TourismTaylor and Francis, 10(Taylor and Francis, 6/24/10, Gonzaga University Library Online, http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/citedby/10.1080/08920750490247463#tabModule, 6/25/14, TH)

The Tubbataha Reefs Natural Marine Park, a UNESCO World Heritage Site in the Sulu Sea, Philippines, is an offshore marine protected area well known throughout the scuba diving community for its coral reefs and marine diversity. To address the perennial problem of park financing, the Tubbataha Management Board developed a fee collection and permit system in cooperation with the diving community. A willingness-to-pay survey conducted among divers in 1999 showed that the average diver was willing to pay U.S.$41 per visit. Using these results, a two-tiered pricing scheme was developed for foreign and local divers. After two years of fee collection, the total fee collected amounted to U.S.$65,000, which covered 28% of the annual recurring costs and nearly 41% of the core costs to protect Tubbataha. The experience shows the contribution of willingness-to-pay surveys in instituting user fees for long-term sustainable financing.

Coral reefs key to US economyNOAA 2013(NOAA, 2/13, “The Total Economic Value of US Coral Reefs”, http://www.ivm.vu.nl/en/Images/PvB%20USVI%20report%20valuemetaanalysis_tcm53-363870.pdf, 6/27/14, AG)The preceding section presented total economic values for seven US states and territories, and for the US as a whole. Such total values are useful for highlighting the magnitude of economic welfare derived from coral reefs in their current state. In addition, the reporting of total values associated with each coral reef service provides an indication of the distribution of value across different groups of beneficiaries. This information provides an economic argument for investment in coral reef conservation. However, in order to compare the values of coral reef services across different locations and make decisions regarding the most beneficial allocation of conservation efforts it is necessary to have information on average values. The value of coral reefs in Hawaii is higher than for any other state/territory but there are also more coral reefs in Hawaii than any other territory; by comparing average values per unit of area of coral cover we are able to more directly examine differences in the productivity, in terms of ecosystem services, of coral reefs across states and territories.

Coral Reefs key to sustainable tourismCoral Reef Alliance 2014

(Coral Reef Alliance, 2014, “Ensure Sustainable Tourism”, http://coral.org/what-we-do/ensure-sustainable-tourism/, 6/27/14, AG)Yet if tourism is managed in a way that protects the reef, it can offer great economic benefits to local communities. The benefits of sustainable tourism provides a powerful incentive for communities to protect their reef and its fish.CORAL has developed a set of voluntary standards for hotels, dive operators and shops, and other businesses that wish to make sure their marine recreation and tourism operations are protective of coral reefs. Sites in Hawai`i, Mexico, and Honduras have adopted voluntary standards for sustainable tourism.

Coral Reefs Key to Generate TourismThe Coral Reef Alliance no date(The Coral Reef Alliance, no date, “Coral Reefs and Sustainable Marine Recreation”, http://coralreef.noaa.gov/education/educators/resourcecd/guides/resources/recreation_g.pdf, 6/27/14, AG)Every year, millions of tourists travel to tropical resort destinations to¶ experience the beauty and vibrancy of coral reef ecosystems. Snorkeling,¶ scuba diving, recreational boating and a variety of other water sports activities¶ make up a significant portion of the tourism market in several regions of¶ the world. The economies of many island nations in particular are heavily¶ dependent on this type of coastal tourism-generated revenue. As the following¶ examples illustrate, the value of coral reefs for marine-related tourism is¶ extremely high in areas that regularly receive high numbers of visitors:¶ • Coral reefs have been estimated to provide the world with US $375 billion in¶ goods and services (Status of Coral Reefs of the World, 2002).¶ • In Hawaii, it is estimated that coral reefs generate US $360 million annually¶ in state revenues (NOAA, 2002).¶ • Tourism in the Caribbean generated approximately US $34 billion in 2002,¶ and is projected to increase to US $74.1 in 2012 (WTTC, 2002).¶

• The World Resources Institute estimates that coral reefs in Southeast Asia¶ are worth US $700 to $111,000 per square kilometer of reef for tourism.¶ (Reefs at Risk in Southeast Asia, 2002).¶ • Worldwide there are more than 15 million certified recreational divers. Many¶ of these divers regularly seek out coral reef ecosystems (World Atlas of Coral¶ Reefs, 2001).¶ • By 2005, it is projected that the scuba diving industry alone will generate¶ $1.2 billion in worldwide revenues. (The Ocean Conservancy, 2003)

Reefs key to Food and Ecomony – Countries depend on itBurke, Senior Associate in the Food, Forest and Water Program of the World Resources Institute, 2004 (Lauretta, No date, World Resources Institute, "Reefs at Risk in the Caribbean", URL, 6/27/14, SJ)

Food production is one of the most direct and tangible benefits associated with coral reefs. Reef fisheries are a vital¶ source of protein for

millions of people living in the¶ Caribbean region.182 Reef fish are popular on tourist menus ¶ and support a valuable export industry. The fisheries sector¶ in the Caribbean is predominantly small-scale and artisanal,¶ employing more than 120,000 full-

time fishers183 and many¶ part-time workers. Fisheries also indirectly provide jobs for thousands of people in processing, marketing, boat building , net making, and other support services.184 The export value of all

fish, crustaceans, and mollusks¶ harvested in the Western Atlantic region (excluding the¶ United States) was approximately US$1.9 billion in¶ 2000,185 but this includes fish, such as tuna, not directly¶ related to coral reefs. (Available statistics do not distinguish¶ the size or value of reef fish catches from other fish and often fail to account for the very large sector of the fisher that operates outside the formal

markets, notably for home¶ and local consumption.) ¶ For this analysis of the economic value of coral-reef-related fisheries, the study looked at productivity differentials between fisheries located on healthy and degraded¶ reefs. The Reefs at Risk Threat Index was used as a proxy¶ for future reef condition in 2015 and estimated the area of¶ coral reef in each threat category (high, medium, and low).¶ Based on reports in the literature186 a productivity coefficient for fisheries on healthy reefs was set at a maximum¶ sustained yield of 4 metric ton (mt) of fish per sq km per¶ year. Yields from reefs rated at medium or high threat were¶ assumed to be significantly lower, ranging from 0.7 to 2.9¶ mt per sq km per year. (See Table 3.)¶ Using these assumptions, the study estimated maximum sustainable fisheries yield for the 26,000 sq km of¶ Caribbean coral reef at a little over 100,000 mt of fish per¶ year. This estimate focuses on reef crest, which is a smaller¶ area than is typically fished, but assumes that all reefs were¶ fully fished and are in good condition, which is better than¶ the current case. These assumptions are considered to¶ roughly offset one another. Considering reef degradation¶ that has already occurred or is projected to occur in the near¶ future, annual fisheries production could decline from¶ about 100,000 mt to about 60,000 to 70,000 mt by 2015,¶ a loss of some 30 to 45 percent from the

estimated maximum catch on healthy reefs. (See Table 3.) ¶ At current market prices (about US$6 per kg on average ),187 gross fisheries revenue from healthy Caribbean reefs ¶ was estimated at about US$625 million per year . Gross revenue e from reefs degraded by 2015 was estimated to be 30¶ to 45 percent lower, representing potential lost gross revenues of approximately US$190 million to US$280 million. 188 Net revenues from fishing—adjusted for the costs of¶ vessels, fuel, gear, etc.—are considerably smaller, perhaps¶ only 50 percent of gross revenues.189Thus, the study estimated annual net benefits of fisheries on healthy coral reefs¶ at about US$310 million, while annual net benefits from¶ fisheries on reefs degraded by 2015 could fall to around¶ US$175 million to US$215 million, a

loss of about US$95¶ million to US$140 million per year. The loss of millions of¶ dollars worth of annual net benefits from fisheries could ¶ have significant consequences for local areas and national ¶ economies that rely on fishing to provide livelihoods, meet ¶ nutritional needs, and generate export earnings .

Reefs Help the Economy-The US, Caribbean, and Southeast Asia all benefit.NOAA, 11 (NOAA, May 13, 2011, “Tourism and Recreation”, http://coralreef.noaa.gov/aboutcorals/values/tourismrecreation/, 6/27/14, ML)

For example, in the US, reef-related recreation and tourism account for an estimated $364 million in added value to Hawai`i's economy each year and its nearshore reefs annually contribute nearly $1 billion in gross revenues for the state. [b] Caribbean countries, which attract millions of visitors annually to their beaches and reefs, derive, on average, half of their gross domestic product from the tourism industry. [c] In Southeast Asia, it is estimated that each square kilometer of healthy reef (in areas with tourism potential) has a potential net benefit of $23,100 to $270,000.

Coral reefs bring in tourists- generates 11.4 billionNOAA (NOOA, “Coral Reefs- An Important Part of our Future”, http://www.noaa.gov/features/economic_0708/coralreefs.html, accessed 6/28/14 SH)

Healthy coral reefs also provide income through tourism and recreation. Local communities receive billions of dollars from visitors to reef areas through diving tours, recreational fishing, hotels, restaurants, and other businesses. In Hawaii alone, tourism connected to reefs attracted an estimated 6.7 million visitors and generated $11.4 billion in 2004. Numerous studies have shown that tourists are often willing to pay more for their vacations in exchange for the opportunity to visit healthy reef ecosystems.

reefs have great economic value – preservation key to retaining value.NOAA, 11(NOAA, 5/13/11, National Ocean and Atmospheric Administration, “Tourism and Recreation”, http://coralreef.noaa.gov/aboutcorals/values/tourismrecreation/, 6/27/14, JW)Healthy coral ecosystems support local businesses and economies, as well as provide jobs through tourism and recreation. Every year, millions of scuba divers and snorkelers visit coral reefs to enjoy their abundant sea life. Even more tourists visit the beaches protected by these reefs. Local economies

receive billions of dollars from these visitors to reef regions through diving tours, recreational fishing trips, hotels, restaurants, and other businesses based near reef ecosystems. One estimate places the total global value of coral-reef based recreation and tourism at $9.6 billion of the total global net benefit of coral reefs. [a] For example, in the US, reef-related recreation and tourism account for an estimated $364 million in added value to Hawai`i's economy each year and its nearshore reefs annually contribute nearly $1 billion in gross revenues for the state. [b] Caribbean countries, which attract millions of visitors annually to their beaches and reefs, derive, on average, half of their gross domestic product from the tourism industry. [c] In Southeast Asia, it is estimated that each square kilometer of healthy reef (in areas with tourism potential) has a potential net benefit of $23,100 to $270,000. [d] Diving is one of the key components of reef tourism and recreation; divers generally look for high-quality coral reef habitats (as indicated by live coral coverage), coral and fish diversity, and water clarity. As a result, half of all diving in the Caribbean occurs within the region's marine protected areas, although these reefs represent a small fraction (about 20 percent) of all reefs within the region. Divers in the region have indicated a willingness to pay an average of an additional $25 per diver per year to keep the Caribbean coral reefs healthy. [e] One estimate predicts a loss of growth in the Caribbean dive industry of between 2 and 5 percent by 2015 due to reef degradation, which would result in a region-wide loss of annual net benefits of between $100 and $300 million. [e] Despite their great economic and recreational value, coral reefs are threatened by a number of factors. Recreation and tourism are "high value" industries that are especially sensitive to reef condition, and thus particularly vulnerable to degradation. [f] Once coral reefs are damaged, they are less able to support the many creatures that make their home on the reef and in turn lose value as a destination for tourists. Reef degradation has a direct economic impact on people whose livelihoods rely on reef tourism.

Scuba diving near artificial reefs has huge economic advantagehttp://www.dgt.uns.ac.rs/turizam/arhiva/vol_1704_2.pdfThe researchers who studied the economic effects of artificial reef construction, support the hypothesis that submerging artificial structures near the coral reefs can mitigate the damage caused by human interference, while at the same time providing the means for the development of scuba-diving centers that contribute to the local economy (US Department of Commerce, 2012; Leeworthy, 2011). For example, a study by Johns determined that the income of the Monroe County from the artificial reef was 32 million dollars, opening 2.300 new jobs. According to the study, there is great interest in the artificial reefs along the coast of Florida. The study estimates that the annual expense of artificial reef maintenance amounts to 9.4 million dollars, while the use value (the amount of money that the divers are ready to pay for the maintenance of the artificial reefs, as well as the construction of new ones) is 2.1 million dollars. As an example of the positive socio-economic effects of the artificial reefs, we will examine the study of sunken warships in the Florida Keys coral archipelago, in USA. Socio-economic studies have shown that the sunken warships, U.S.S. Vandenberg and U.S.S. Spiegel Grove contribute to the development of the local economy through wreck diving. The study shows that after the sinking of U.S.S. Spiegel Grove in June 2002. scuba-diving on natural coral reefs has decreased while diving on artificial reefs has increased. The local economy also recorded an increase in cash inflow (US Department of Commerce, 2012; Leeworthy, et al., 2006). The study also shows that the annual worker wage has increased by a total of 961.800 dollars, and that there were 70 new job openings. The study related to U.S.S. Vandenberg shows similar results. The U.S.S. Vandenberg, missile range instrumentation ship, was sunken in the water of Florida Keys, in May 2009. Following the deployment of the U.S.S. Vandenberg the net changes in the total recreational expenditures from the preto post-deployment period indicated that there was an increase of 6.5 million dollars in total recreational expenditures, which generated a total impact on sales of 7.29 million dollars, about 3.2 million dollars in income, and the creation of 105 new jobs. After the sinking of aforementioned ships,

the scuba-diving centers in Florida Keys recorded a 188.9% business increase, or 49.000 more clients. Both studies aimed to show that the sinking of ships to reefs can be successfully promoted, thereby contributing to growth and development of the local economy and tourism (US Department of Commerce, 2012). In Australia, scuba-diving tourism industry is of great importance, and it is estimated to bring in about 1 billion Australian dollars in revenue (Edney, 2006; Harriott, 2002). Ship wreck SS Yongala, rests near the Great Barrier Reef in Queensland, and is officially one of the best artificial reefs in the world. The scuba-diving tourism industry plays a major role in the local economy (Edney, 2006; Cuthill, 1998). It is estimated that Yongala brings in 1 million Australian dollars annually from organized visits, not counting the profits from scuba-gear rental centers, airlines, accommodation services and restaurants (Edney, 2006; Delgado, 1998). The significance of scuba-diving tourism industry is acknowledged by the government as well. An example of this is the ship Brisbane, retired and sunken on the 31st of July 2005. near Sunshine Coast, for the purpose of creating a new attractive scuba-diving destination. It is estimated that the new destination will attract about 25.000 additional divers annually, increase scuba-diving activity in the region by 5%, generate about 1 million Australian dollars in revenue and create about 200 new job openings (Environment Protection Agency, 2005). Ship wrecks in Chuuck Lagoon, within the Federal States of Micronesia, are one of the best artificial reefs in the world, and are promoted as scuba-diving destinations. These ship wrecks are the main tourist attractions of the Chuuk State, as well as the main source of income for the local economy. It is assessed that the high value of these wrecks comes from the possibility to see the contents of the ships, such as vehicles, tanks, ammunition and aircraft. The ship wrecks are very popular among divers, and also very beneficial to the local economy. The sustainable use of these assets is necessary not just because of the cultural value of the ships, but also because of the tourism industry and local communities that depend on the income from these assets. The questionnaire consists of two parts. The first part is related to the attitude of the divers towards artificial reefs and wreck diving, while the second part is related to the socio-demographic characteristics of respondents. The first part is divided into 4 categories with the following themes: how many times did they participate in wreck diving, at which destinations, general attitude towards scuba-diving (motivation for scuba-diving and the reasons for not going scuba-diving), while the fourth category explores their experience with wreck diving and how artificial reefs affect the surrounding environment. In the second part of the questionnaire, the questions are related to gender, age, education and employment status. After the questionnaires were filled in, we proceeded to process the data. Concerning the experience of the divers, 33% of the respondents claimed that they went wreck diving more than 40 times, while 56% went wreck diving up to 20 times (of which 28% went wreck diving up to 5 times). Most of them were diving in Egypt, Montenegro and Turkey, but other destinations like Aegean Sea, Bermuda, Thailand, North America, Russia and Micronesia are also present. 25% of the respondents fully agreed that they dive for the sake of exploration, while 11% dive professionally. Most of the respondents agreed that that they participate in scuba-diving because of adventure and beauty of the destination, with relaxation and escape from everyday life being the second most popular motive. From the total number of respondents, 78% thinks that artificial reefs are attractive and interesting. Also 78% of them think that artificial reefs contribute to the affirmation of the destination as a wreck diving destination, and that they give the destination a good image. 69% of the respondents fully agreed that artificial reefs positively affect marine life, while 6% of them fully disagreed with this statement. It is a solid fact that artificial reefs attract a large number of divers and most of the respondents partially of fully agreed that they contribute to faster construction of scuba-diving centers. When the effects of artificial reefs on marine life are concerned, the questionnaire affirmed that the effects are strictly positive. 71% of the respondents fully agreed that artificial reefs contribute to preservation of endangered species and habitats, as well as that they can increase their productivity. When scuba-diving is concerned, it can be argued that the effects of the activity are mostly neutral, but can potentially be both positive and negative. To elaborate: the scuba-diving activity itself

does not directly affect marine life on the artificial reef, but we can argue that there are both beneficial and harmful types of scuba-diving activities. Scuba-diving with the aim of monitoring the development of the artificial reef is certainly beneficial, while unprofessional behavior such as collecting artifacts as souvenirs is an example of the later. Although 94% of the respondents 162 TURIZAM | Volume 17, Issue 4, 155-165 (2013) Impacts of Artificial Reefs and Diving Tourism fully agreed that breaking off parts of the reef to keep as souvenirs and damaging the reef is not acceptable, 6% of them still answered that they mostly disagree. This raises the question whether all of the divers are acting professionally while underwater. On the question whether wreck diving negatively affects marine life, 66% of the respondents agreed that it does not, 17% did not have an opinion on it, while 11% mostly agreed that it does.

Coral reefs boost the US economy—highly valuableBeukering, PhD in economics from Vrije University in Amsterdam, Brander, Masters in Environmental and Resource Economics at University College London, 11(Pieter van, 7/31/11, Luke Brander, Boris van Zanten, Els Verbrugge, Karin Lems, IVM Institute for Environmental Studies, “The Economic Value of the Coral Reef Ecosystems of the United States Virgin Islands,” http://www.ivm.vu.nl/en/Images/The%20Economic%20Value%20of%20the%20Coral%20Reefs%20of%20the%20USVI_tcm53-232341.pdf, 6/28/14, SM)Table 9.1 shows the composition of the main economic benefits of the coral reefs in ¶ The USVI. The average annual value of the coral reef ecosystem amounts to US$ 722 ¶ million (based on 2007 USD). This high number certainly suggests that this ecosystem ¶ is highly valuable and worth conserving, from an ecological, social and economic ¶ perspective. Several ecosystem services contribute to this overall value: ¶ • With an average annual benefit of US$ 103 million, the tourist value dominates the ¶ overall value. This implies that almost 51% of the value of The USVI’s coral reefs is ¶ dependent on tourism, and vice versa, that tourism is very dependent on the state ¶ of the coral reef of the • The second most important component the local use and non-use value of coral ¶ reefs in the USVI. Despite the relatively small population of the USVI, local ¶ recreational and cultural importance of the coral reefs is still substantial: ¶ approximating US$51 million per year. This also implies that local support for coral ¶ reef management is likely to be substantial. ¶ • The same can be said for the amenity value, which is reflected in higher house ¶ prices. Although this surplus in house price is relatively small, it still amounts to a ¶ value of US$37 million per annum. ¶ • The coastal protection service of coral reefs in the USVI is valued at US$7 million ¶ per year, which accounts for 3% of the TEV. With the USVI exposed to frequent ¶ storms, the role of coral reefs in dissipating wave energy is crucial and thus of ¶ important value. ¶ • The importance of the fishery in the TEV is often perceived as an important ¶ component. In actual fact, with an annual value of US$3 million the fishery (both ¶ commercial and recreational) is one of the lesser values derived from the coral reef ¶ ecosystem in the USVI. ¶ • One value that has not been described in the report is the value that research and ¶ educational organization derive from the coral reefs of the USVI. Because of lack of ¶ data, value transfer has been conducted on the basis of similar values of ¶ comparable islands. The average coral reef-related research and education budget ¶ is estimated at US$1 million per year.

Tourism K2 Econ

Tourism generates local revenue Endangered Species International 2012(Endangered Species International, 2012, “Coral Reefs: A Source of Recreation and Tourism”, http://www.endangeredspeciesinternational.org/coralreefs5.html, 6/25/14, AG)Coral reefs provide opportunities for a number of recreational activities such as swimming, snorkelling and SCUBA-diving and can attract visitors from across the globe. While some recreational activities may be undertaken privately, many require the support of local tour operators providing further livelihood opportunities for local populations. More than 100 countries and territories currently benefit from reef-associated tourism. In 2010, the global net benefits of reef tourism were valued at US$ 11.5 billion.

Tourism is the fastest growing industry in coastal economiesNOAA no date(NOAA, no date, “Threats”, http://www.coris.noaa.gov/activities/coral_demographics/02_Threats.pdf, 6/25/14, AG)Tourism and recreation are by far the fastest growing sector of coastal economies. Coral reefs, in particular, have a major economic value. In the Florida Keys alone, over three million tourists visit the area and purchase about $1.2 billion in services annually. Recreational activities on U.S. coral reefs include snorkeling, scuba diving, boating, and fishing. The intensity of each activity varies widely from region to region, but can be considerable in some areas. In southeast Florida, residents and visitors spent 28 million person-days fishing and nearly 5 million person-days snorkeling and scuba diving during June 2000 through May 2001. Divers and snorkelers can have a significant negative impact on coral reefs in terms of physical damage and a reduction in their aesthetic appeal. Increasing tourism will also have an overall effect on coastal development and population.

Tourism is the fastest growing industry in coastal economiesNOAA no date(NOAA, no date, “Threats”, http://www.coris.noaa.gov/activities/coral_demographics/02_Threats.pdf, 6/25/14, AG)Tourism and recreation are by far the fastest growing sector of coastal economies. Coral reefs, in particular, have a major economic value. In the Florida Keys alone, over three million tourists visit the area and purchase about $1.2 billion in services annually. Recreational activities on U.S. coral reefs include snorkeling, scuba diving, boating, and fishing. The intensity of each activity varies widely from region to region, but can be considerable in some areas. In southeast Florida, residents and visitors spent 28 million person-days fishing and nearly 5 million person-days snorkeling and scuba diving during June 2000 through May 2001. Divers and snorkelers can have a significant negative impact on coral reefs in terms of physical damage and a reduction in their aesthetic appeal. Increasing tourism will also have an overall effect on coastal development and population.

About half of all fisheries depend on tourism from coral reefs.¶

NOAA ‘14¶ (National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, 3/14/14, “How do Coral Reefs Benefit From the Economy?”, http://oceanservice.noaa.gov/facts/coral_economy.html, 6/25/14, JY)¶

Healthy coral reefs support commercial and subsistence fisheries as well as jobs and businesses through tourism and recreation. Approximately half of all federally managed fisheries depend on coral reefs and related habitats for a portion of their life cycles. The National Marine Fisheries Service estimates the commercial value of U.S. fisheries from coral reefs is over $100 million.¶ Local economies also receive billions of dollars from visitors to reefs through diving tours, recreational fishing trips, hotels, restaurants, and other businesses based near reef ecosystems.¶ Despite their great economic and recreational value, coral reefs are severely threatened by pollution, disease, and habitat destruction. Once coral reefs are damaged, they are less able to support the many creatures that inhabit them. When a coral reef supports fewer fish, plants, and animals, it also loses value as a tourist destination.

Reefs provide services and goods which, if destroyed, the U.S would suffer significantly within its economy.Burke et al ‘03(Lauretta, Senior Associate in the Food, Forest and Water Program of the World Resources Institute, 3/14, “The Economics of Worldwide Reef Degradation”, http://coralreef.noaa.gov/redirect.html?newURL=http://assets.panda.org/downloads/cesardegradationreport100203.pdf, 6/25/14,JY)

Reefs provide a variety of goods and services, which create economic benefits to society. These economic benefits are often taken for granted, yet if these goods and services were taken away or destroyed, we would be forced to provide other methods to supply these benefits at significant costs. Table 3 illustrates the potential net benefit streams for the world in the order of US$ 30 billion per year if coral reefs were well managed and intact, based on new calculations. The corresponding global asset value of coral reefs is estimated at nearly US$ 800 billion, calculated at a 3% discount rate and a 50 year timeframe.

Tourism generates local revenue¶ ESI‘12¶ (Endangered Species International, 2012, “Coral Reefs: A Source of Recreation and Tourism”, http://www.endangeredspeciesinternational.org/coralreefs5.html, 6/25/14, AG)¶ Coral reefs provide opportunities for a number of recreational activities such as swimming, snorkeling and SCUBA-diving and can attract visitors from across the globe. While some recreational activities may be undertaken privately, many require the support of local tour operators providing further livelihood opportunities for local populations. More than 100 countries and territories currently benefit from reef-associated tourism. In 2010, the global net benefits of reef tourism were valued at US$ 11.5 billion.

Places like Caribbean countries, Hawaii, and Southeast Asia depend to make a large part of their GDP on the tourism industry derived off of reefs, empirics prove. NOAA, 11(National Oceanic and Atmosphere Administration, 5/13/11, NOAA, http://coralreef.noaa.gov/aboutcorals/values/tourismrecreation/, 6/24/14, JYHealthy coral ecosystems support local businesses and economies, as well as provide jobs through tourism and recreation. Every year, millions of scuba divers and snorkelers visit coral reefs to enjoy their

abundant sea life. Even more tourists visit the beaches protected by these reefs. Local economies receive billions of dollars from these visitors to reef regions through diving tours, recreational fishing trips, hotels, restaurants, and other businesses based near reef

ecosystems. One estimate places the total global value of coral-reef based recreation and tourism at $9.6 billion of the total global net benefit of coral reefs. [a] For example, in the US, reef-related recreation and tourism account for an estimated $364 million in added value to Hawai`i's economy each year and its nearshore reefs annually contribute nearly $1 billion in

gross revenues for the state. [b] Caribbean countries, which attract millions of visitors annually to their beaches and reefs,

derive, on average, half of their gross domestic product from the tourism industry. [c] In Southeast Asia, it is

estimated that each square kilometer of healthy reef (in areas with tourism potential) has a potential net benefit of $23,100 to $270,000. [d]

Tourism key to econWorld Travel and Tourism Council, 12(World Travel and Tourism Council, November 2012, World Travel and Tourism Council, The Comparative Economic Impact of Travel & Tourism, http://www.wttc.org/site_media/uploads/downloads/The_Comparative_Economic_Impact_of_Travel__Tourism.pdf, 6/25/14, JW)Over the last two decades, Travel & Tourism has played an increasingly important role in the economic growth of many countries. Various factors drive increased travel across the globe: higher real incomes, more leisure time, improved and highly accessible transportation systems, highly effective communication systems that facilitate marketing, and significant numbers of tourism services and options have been coming online in many countries. Travel & Tourism is a particularly attractive option to stimulate development in rural and low income countries and regions that previously relied heavily on agriculture and natural resource extraction. Tourism development often provides the dual advantages of generating employment and income while promoting cultural heritage and traditions.1 Promoting Travel & Tourism can support economic development, in part, because the industry cuts across and is linked to many other industries in the economy, generating additional demand in a wide range of services and professions.2 In addition to the direct and indirect effects, Travel & Tourism also generates valuable spinoff benefits by developing infrastructure that other industries can use, and by boosting trade, skills, and investments in other industries that are not directly related. This section builds on the previous one and analyzes the wider economic impacts that are attributable to the Travel & Tourism sector. These include: • Improved access to international markets and increased trade opportunities; • Increased foreign investments; • Investments in public and private infrastructure; and • Local economic development.

Tourism could be key to solve the US economyMarket Wired, 08

(Market Wired, 8/12/8, MarketWire, “Globalysis: Attracting Foreign Tourism -- A Remedy for U.S. Economic Woes?”, http://www.marketwired.com/press-release/globalysis-attracting-foreign-tourism-a-remedy-for-us-economic-woes-888415.htm, 6/26/14, JW)LAS VEGAS, NV--(Marketwire - August 12, 2008) - Globalysis Ltd., a leading international boutique strategy consultancy, issued its Strategic Perspective white paper suggesting that attracting more foreign tourism could be a significant component to boosting the United States economy. The Globalysis strategy white paper states that there are significant gains to be made from increasing the role of foreign tourism in the United States economy, especially due to the weakened state of the U.S. dollar making the United States more attractive as a destination to foreign tourists. In particular, Globalysis suggests that the United States federal government strategically invest US$100 million in international advertising campaigns, initially focusing on 10 key international inbound markets over a 6-month period. The white paper also recommends the streamlined issuance policy of tourist visas at U.S. embassies around the world to foreigners intending to visit the United States. Mr. Jonathan Galaviz, a founding Partner at Globalysis Ltd., said, "While the U.S. economy continues to suffer from the housing downturn, the timing of enacting specific policies that stimulate foreign tourist visitation to hard hit cities such as Las Vegas and Miami is now ripe. The tourism sector is a very strong economic contributor to many developed economies around the world, and the U.S. should be no different. A coordinated approach between American public and private sector entities to attract significant increases in foreign visitation to the U.S. will pay valuable dividends in this difficult economic environment." The white paper further suggests that a more welcoming environment be created for international visitors at all points of entry to the country, especially at airports. According to the U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis, the tourism industry in the United States contributed a total output of US$1.32 trillion to the United States' GDP in 2007.

Impact - War

Economic decline causes war- studies proveRoyal DOCTR@Department of Defense 10 (Jedediah Director of Cooperative Threat Reduction at the U.S. Department of Defense 2010, Economic Integration, Economic Signaling and the Problem of Economic Crises, in Economics of War and Peace: Economic, Legal and Political Perspectives, ed. Goldsmith and Brauer, 2010. p. 213-215)

Less intuitive is how periods of economic decline may increase the likelihood of external conflict. Political science literature has contributed a moderate degree of attention to the impact of economic decline and the security and defence behaviour of interdependent stales. Research in this vein has been considered at systemic, dyadic and national levels. Several notable contributions follow. First, on the systemic level. Pollins (20081 advances Modclski and Thompson's (1996) work on leadership cycle theory,

finding that rhythms in the global economy are associated with the rise and fall of a pre-eminent power and the often bloody transition from one pre-eminent leader to the next. As such, exogenous shocks such as economic crises could usher in a redistribution of relative power (see also Gilpin. 19SJ) that leads to uncertainty about power balances, increasing the risk of miscalculation (Fcaron. 1995). Alternatively, even a relatively certain redistribution of power could lead to a permissive environment for conflict as a rising power may seek to challenge a declining power (Werner. 1999). Separately. Pollins (1996) also shows that global economic cycles combined with parallel leadership cycles impact the likelihood of conflict among major, medium and small powers, although he suggests that the causes and connections between global economic conditions and security conditions remain unknown. Second, on a dyadic level. Copeland's (1996. 2000) theory of trade expectations suggests that 'future expectation of trade' is a significant variable in understanding economic conditions and security behaviour of states. He argues that interdependent states arc likely to gain pacific benefits from trade so long

as they have an optimistic view of future trade relations. However, if the expectations of future trade decline, particularly for difficult to replace items such as energy resources, the likelihood for conflict increases, as states will be inclined to use force to gain access to those resources. Crises could potentially be the trigger for decreased

trade expectations either on its own or because it triggers protectionist moves by interdependent states.4 Third, others have considered the link between economic decline and external armed conflict at a national level. Mom berg

and Hess (2002) find a strong correlation between internal conflict and external conflict, particularly during periods of economic downturn. They write. The linkage, between internal and external conflict and prosperity are strong and mutually reinforcing. Economic conflict lends to spawn internal conflict, which in turn returns the favour. Moreover, the presence of a recession tends to amplify the extent to which international and external conflicts self-reinforce each other (Hlomhen? & Hess. 2(102. p. X9> Economic decline has also been linked with an increase in the likelihood of terrorism (Blombcrg. Hess. & Wee ra pan a,

2004). which has the capacity to spill across borders and lead to external tensions. Furthermore, crises generally reduce the popularity of a sitting government. "Diversionary theory" suggests that, when facing unpopularity arising from economic decline, sitting governments have increased incentives to fabricate external military conflicts to create a 'rally around the flag' effect. Wang (1996), DcRoucn (1995), and Blombcrg. Hess, and Thacker (2006) find supporting evidence showing that economic decline and use of force arc at least indirecti) correlated. Gelpi (1997). Miller (1999). and Kisangani and Pickering (2009) suggest that Ihe tendency towards diversionary tactics arc greater for democratic states than autocratic states, due to the fact that democratic leaders are generally more susceptible to being removed from office due to lack of domestic support. DeRouen (2000) has provided evidence showing that periods of weak economic performance in the United

States, and thus weak Presidential popularity, are statistically linked lo an increase in the use of force. In summary, rcccni economic scholarship positively correlates economic integration with an increase in the frequency of economic crises, whereas political science scholarship links economic decline with external conflict al systemic, dyadic and national levels.' This implied connection between integration, crises and armed conflict has not featured prominently in the economic-security debate and deserves more attention.

Economic collapse leads to nuclear war Harris and Burrows, NIC counselor NIC’s Long Range Analysis Unit, 09

(Jennifer and Mathew, 8/09, , The Washington Quarterly, “Revisiting the Future: Geopolitical Effects of the Financial Crisis”, http://www.ciaonet.org/journals/twq/v32i2/f_0016178_13952.pdf, accessed:6/29/14 SH)

Increased Potential for Global Conflict Of course, the report encompasses more than economics and indeed believes the future is likely to be the result of a number of intersecting and interlocking forces. With so many possible permutations of outcomes, each with ample opportunity for unintended consequences, there is a growing sense of insecurity. Even so, history may be more instructive than ever. While we continue to

believe that the Great Depression is not likely to be repeated, the lessons to be drawn from that period include the harmful effects on fledgling democracies and multiethnic societies (think Central Europe in 1920s and 1930s) and on the sustainability of multilateral institutions (think League of Nations in the same period). There is no reason to think that this would not be true in the twenty-first as much as in the twentieth century. For that reason, the

ways in which the potential for greater conflict could grow would seem to be even more apt in a constantly volatile economic environment as they would be if change would be steadier. In surveying those risks, the report stressed the likelihood that

terrorism and nonproliferation will remain priorities even as resource issues move up on the international agenda. Terrorism’s appeal will decline if economic growth continues in the Middle East and youth unemployment is reduced. For

those terrorist groups that remain active in 2025, however, the diffusion of technologies and scientific knowledge will place some of the world’s most dangerous capabilities within their reach . Terrorist groups in 2025 will likely be a combination of descendants of long established groups inheriting organizational structures, command and control processes, and training

procedures necessary to conduct sophisticated attack and newly emergent collections of the angry and disenfranchised that become self-radicalized, particularly in the absence of economic outlets that would become narrower in an economic downturn. The most dangerous casualty of any economically-induced drawdown of U.S. military presence would almost certainly be the Middle East. Although Iran’s acquisition of

nuclear weapons is not inevitable, worries about a nuclear-armed Iran could lead states in the region to develop new security arrangements with external powers, acquire additional weapons, and consider pursuing their own nuclear ambitions. It is not clear that the type of stable deterrent relationship that existed

between the great powers for most of the Cold War would emerge naturally in the Middle East with a nuclear Iran. Episodes of low intensity conflict and terrorism taking place under a nuclear umbrella could lead to an unintended escalation and broader conflict if clear red lines between those states involved are not well established. The close proximity of potential nuclear rivals combined with underdeveloped surveillance capabilities and mobile dual-capable Iranian missile systems also will produce

inherent difficulties in achieving reliable indications and warning of an impending nuclear attack. The lack of strategic depth in neighboring states like Israel, short warning and missile flight times, and uncertainty of Iranian intentions may place more focus on preemption rather than defense, potentially leading to escalating crises. Types of conflict that the world continues to experience, such as over resources, could reemerge, particularly if protectionism grows and there is a resort to neo-mercantilist practices. Perceptions of renewed energy scarcity will drive countries to take actions to assure their future access to energy supplies. In the worst case, this could result in interstate conflicts if government leaders deem assured access to energy resources , for example, to be essential for maintaining domestic stability and the survival of their regime. Even actions short of war, however, will have important geopolitical implications. Maritime security concerns are providing a rationale for naval buildups and modernization efforts, such as China’s and India’s development of blue water naval capabilities. If the fiscal stimulus focus

for these countries indeed turns inward, one of the most obvious funding targets may be military. Buildup of regional naval capabilities could lead to increased tensions, rivalries, and counterbalancing moves, but it also will create

opportunities for multinational cooperation in protecting critical sea lanes. With water also becoming scarcer in Asia and the Middle East, cooperation to manage changing water resources is likely to be increasingly difficult both within and between states in a more dog-eat-dog world. What Kind of World will 2025 Be? Perhaps more than lessons, history loves patterns. Despite widespread changes in the world today, there is little to suggest that the future will not resemble the past in several

respects. The report asserts that, under most scenarios, the trend toward greater diffusion of authority and power that has been ongoing for a couple of decades is likely to accelerate because of the emergence of new global players, the worsening institutional deficit, potential growth in regional blocs , and enhanced strength of non-state actors and networks. The multiplicity of actors on the international scene could either strengthen the international system, by

filling gaps left by aging post-World War II institutions, or could further fragment it and incapacitate international cooperation. The diversity in both type and kind of actor raises the likelihood of fragmentation occurring over the next two decades, particularly given the wide array of transnational challenges facing the international community. Because of their growing geopolitical and economic clout, the rising powers will enjoy a high degree of freedom to customize their political and economic policies rather than fully adopting Western norms. They are also likely to cherish their policy freedom to maneuver, allowing others to carry the primary burden for dealing with terrorism, climate change, proliferation, energy security, and other system maintenance issues. Existing multilateral institutions, designed for a different geopolitical order, appear too rigid and cumbersome to undertake new missions, accommodate changing memberships, and augment their resources. Nongovernmental organizations and philanthropic foundations, concentrating on specific issues, increasingly will populate the landscape but are unlikely to affect change in the absence of concerted efforts by multilateral institutions or governments. Efforts at greater inclusiveness, to reflect the emergence of the newer powers, may make it harder for international organizations to tackle transnational challenges. Respect for the dissenting views of member nations will continue to shape the agenda of organizations and limit the kinds of solutions that can be

attempted. An ongoing financial crisis and prolonged recession would tilt the scales even further in the direction of a fragmented and dysfunctional international system with a heightened risk of conflict . The report concluded that the rising BRIC powers (Brazil, Russia, India, and China) seem averse to challenging the international system, as Germany and Japan did in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, but this of course could change if their widespread hopes for greater prosperity become frustrated and the current benefits they derive from a globalizing world turn negative .

Nuclear winter causes food shortages-U.S and Tambora prove

Robock environmental scientists@RutgersU 12 (Alan, 4/12, Climate Change, “Impacts of a nuclear war in South Asia on soybean and maize production in the Midwest”,http://climate.envsci.rutgers.edu/pdf/ozdogan_etal_may2012_final.pdf, accessed 6/25/14 SH)In the event of nuclear war, targets in cities and industrial areas would release light- absorbing particles (i.e., black carbon, soot, or elemental carbon) into the atmosphere from fires. By blocking sunlight, elemental carbon would cause significant changes to solar radiation, temperature, and precipitation patterns. For example, evidence suggests “volcanic winters” and “years without summers” follow large volcanic eruptions such as Tambora in 1815. Under these conditions, unusual mid- to late-summer cooling and frost have caused crop failure over millions of hectares of cultivated areas (Post, 1977; Stommel and Stommel, 1979, 1983; Harrington, 1992; Oppenheimer, 2003). Less known, however, is whether similar crop failure might be caused by a regional nuclear conflict. Vulnerability of agricultural systems to nuclear war was recognized in the 1980s and a number of studies investigated the relationship between agricultural productivity and climatic perturbations. Ehrlich et al. (1983) reported subfreezing temperatures, low light levels and high doses of UV light as drivers of large-scale decline in crop productivity in the Northern Hemisphere following a large-scale nuclear war. Harwell and Cropper (1985), in a comprehensive assessment, investigated the agricultural effects of a large-scale nuclear war using both an empirical approach and simple crop growth models and concluded that significant reduction in crop yields and associated production could occur, primarily caused by shortening of the growing season and reduction of thermal time needed by crops to reach physiological maturity. Sinclair (1986) used a physiologically-based model to simulate potential soybean production during slow climatic recovery following a nuclear winter in Midwestern U.S. That study showed that temperature reductions of 2-4°C throughout the growing season substantially reduced soybean yields.-4-

Impact – Poverty

Economic downturn causes “deep poverty”Parrott Counselor for Human Services Policy 08 (Sharon, 11/24/08, Center on Budget and Policy Priorities, “Recession Could Cause Large Increases in Poverty and Push Millions into Deep Poverty”, http://www.cbpp.org/cms/index.cfm?fa=view&id=1290, accessed 6/25/14 SH)

Like previous recessions, the current downturn is likely to cause significant increases both in the number of Americans who are poor and the number living in “deep poverty,” with incomes below half of the poverty line. Because this recession is likely to be deep and the government safety net for very poor families who lack jobs has weakened significantly in recent years, increases in deep poverty in this recession are likely to be severe . There are a series of steps that federal and state policymakers could take to soften the recession’s harshest impacts and limit the extent of the increases in deep poverty, destitution, and homelessness.[1]¶ Goldman Sachs projects that the unemployment rate will rise to 9 percent by the fourth quarter of 2009 (the firm has increased its forecast for the unemployment rate a couple of times in the last month). If this

holds true and the increase in poverty relative to the increase in unemployment is within the range of the last three recessions, the number of poor Americans will rise above its 2006 level by 8.4-10.9 million, the number of poor children will rise by 2.6-3.9 million, and the number of children in deep poverty will climb by 1.5-2.4 million. (This increase will not take place in a single year, but will occur over several years.)

Poverty is the deadliest form of structural violence – it is equivalent to an ongoing nuclear war. Gilligan, Former Director of Mental Health for the Massachusetts Prison System 96’ (James, 1996, Violence, p.)

In other words, every fifteen years, on the average, as many people die because of relative poverty as would be killed in a nuclear that caused 232 million deaths ; and every single year, two to three times as many people die from poverty throughout the world as were killed by the Nazi genocide of the Jews over a six-year period. This is, in effect, the equivalent of an ongoing, unenending, in fact accelerating, thermonuclear war, or genocide, perpetuated on the weak and poor ever year of every decade, throughout the world.

Poverty / Structural violence kills-India proves malnourishment and shortened life expectancy Todhunter English Journalist 12 ( Colin, 10/10/12, Global Research, “India: Structural Violence, Mass Poverty and Social Inequality”, http://www.globalresearch.ca/india-structural-violence-mass-poverty-and-social-inequality/5307173, accessed 6/25/14 SH)Poverty is not benign. It encompasses a range of issues, including health, housing, education, nutrition and life expectancy. It is pervasive across all aspects of life and throughout the duration of life. If you look up a dictionary definition of violence, ‘intense force’ will be included somewhere. You may also find ‘injurious physical force or treatment’ and perhaps an ‘unwarranted exertion of force or power’ (all terms are found to describe violence on Dictionary.com). If we take these terms as our starting point, we may justifiably claim poverty to be a form of violence. But this type of violence often goes unnoticed and is so institutionalised that it is seldom regarded as actually constituting violence. The fact that many do not regard poverty as violence is thanks mainly to what philosopher and social theorist Michael Foucault suggested is our taken for granted knowledge about the world in general and how we regard ourselves in it. This ‘common sense’ knowledge may seem benign and neutral, but must be viewed within the context of power: it is part of the discourse of the powerful. Today, individualism, inequality and capitalism are an accepted form of ‘truth’, of reality, and of how many people view the world and

evaluate others. Endless glossy commercials and TV shows that wallow in the veneration of money, fame and narcissism are conveying the message that greed is good, that material wealth represents the epitome of success and the individual is king. This is, of course, based on a false assumption, on a lingering lie. And part of that lie is the joining of bogus notions of success and failure at the hip. Notions of failure are implicit in the messages surrounding individualism, money and wealth. If you are not on the Forbes rich list, or at least aspiring to be on it, you are somehow a failure. If you don’t buy this product or wear that item, you somehow don’t cut it. In true Foucauldian style, the ideology of modern capitalism is a power play concerned with redefining who we are or what we should be. Consumerism, the worship of fame and a notion of ‘the self’ in terms of individualism, not the collective, dovetail neatly with the ‘free market’ ideology of the day. And poverty is regarded as a legitimate outcome, as a badge of failure, of having failed. This has been and continues to be part of mainstream ideology, particularly within Western countries. India is congratulated by the West as capitalism’s poster boy, as indicated by the presence of Indians on the latest rich list, the steel and glass world of Gurgaon near Delhi or the cyber parks of Bangalore or Hyderabad. The message is that if the wealth hasn’t trickled down to the lower half of society just yet, wait 20 years and it will. The problem here is that it has already been over 20 years since India embraced neo-liberalism and the poverty alleviation rate is still stuck where is was back then. How long should people wait? How many generations are to be sacrificed? As India opens its economy further to Western interests whose own economies have been devastated, it begs one to wonder why would the economic dogma and corporations responsible for that mess bring anything but a similar form of profiteering and chaos to the shores on India. The lie is sold nevertheless. But the cracks are now there for all to see. Even people like Martin Sorrell, chief executive of media company WPP, has stated that inequality and the concentration of wealth is increasingly emerging as one of the underlying causes of the financial crisis and subsequent recession. Sorrell has argued that a more equal spread of wealth would mean more money is recycled back into the economy thereby creating stable demand. He is not alone. Former IMF chief Dominique Strauss-Kahn was voicing similar concerns prior to his dethronement. For supporters of neo-liberalism, however, it is convenient to forget about all those neighbourhoods in India with sweatbox dhabas, grimy hardware stores, world-weary faces and vegetable stalls, where children cling to their mothers’ shoulders, perched side saddle on saree-covered hips. But that India is here and now; it is also ‘modern India’ – the version inhabited by the majority. But it doesn’t fit the fairytale. It doesn’t fit the myth. It’s not the much celebrated steel and glass modern India inhabited by the minority. A privileged minority, whose reservation quota is never questioned, is barely acknowledged. By accident of birth, whether through class or caste, or a combination of both, its members were always in prime position to take advantage of the privileges afforded by background in the brave new world of economic neo-liberalism. In a heavily stratified society skewed either in your favour or against you long before you ever leave the womb. Since 1991 in India, politicians and their corporate seducers have presided over a system that has shifted wealth from the real wealth producers – the labouring classes – to the rich and privileged. In doing so, we have been witnessing not only the robbing of people’s income, but their life expectancy, their life chances, their access to food, their access to education, their access to health, decent housing and all other things that contribute towards people achieving their proper potential in life. There is no shock and awe, not unless you have been invaded by the military or paramilitary forces, forcibly evicted from your land or village or subjected to the ongoing looting and pillaging of natural resources in Chhattisgarh, Orissa or elsewhere. In the main, the process is slow and ongoing, yet is all pervasive. Its practical effects result in lives marked by hardship, struggle and blight. The malnourished children, whose food has been stolen from their bellies. The child who dies in the womb, whose life was robbed before it ever had a chance, if indeed it would have ever had a chance anyway. The preventable diseases, the lakhs of farmers who took their own lives as a result of corporate collusions with successive administrations, the lack of access to drinking water and the lack of basic human rights and dignity that financial security can so often bring.

Ocean Acidification

UQ

Oceans are acidifying 10 times faster than the last extreme acidification event.Iacurci, BS in Allied Health Sciences @ Uconn 14 (Jenna, 6/3/14, Nature World News, “Ocean Acidification Rate 10 Times Faster than Ancient Upheaval”, http://www.natureworldnews.com/articles/7379/20140603/ocean-acidification-rate-10-times-faster-than-ancient-upheaval.htm, 6/25/14, KM)

These days the ocean is acidifying at a rate 10 times faster than it did during a similar upheaval 56 million years ago. ¶ During those ancient days, researchers estimate that ocean acidity increased by about 100 percent in a few thousand years or more, and levels didn't bounce back to normal for another 70,000 years. Some species were able to adapt and evolve to such radical environmental changes, while others perished and died off. Also during this time, a wave of carbon dioxide (CO2) surged into the atmosphere, raising global temperatures, and scientists have long suspected that ocean acidification caused the crisis. ¶ For the first time, researchers are using the chemical composition of fossils to reconstruct surface ocean acidity at the Paleocene-Eocene Thermal Maximum (PETM), a period of intense warming on land and throughout the oceans due to high CO2. ¶ "This could be the closest geological analog to modern ocean acidification," study co-author Bärbel Hönisch, a paleoceanographer at Columbia University's Lamont-Doherty Earth Observatory, said in a statement. "As massive as it was, it still happened about 10 times more slowly than what we are doing today." ¶ Since the Industrial Revolution, oceans have absorbed about a third of the carbon humans have pumped into the air, helping to cool the Earth. Consequentially, chemical reactions caused by that excess CO2 have made seawater grow more acidic, depleting it of the carbonate ions that corals, mollusks and calcifying plankton need to build their shells and skeletons. ¶ "We are dumping carbon in the atmosphere and ocean at a much higher rate today - within centuries," said study co-author Richard Zeebe, a paleoceanographer at the University of Hawaii. "If we continue on the emissions path we are on right now, acidification of the surface ocean will be way more dramatic than during the PETM." ¶ The studied fossils - ancient plankton taken from Japanese waters - reveal that the ocean pH has indeed dropped, and will continue to do so. ¶ Researchers still aren't sure what caused the upheaval of CO2 into the atmosphere so long ago. They speculate that the Earth's warming may have sent methane from the seafloor into the air, triggering the aforementioned events.

Need coral reef preservation now with warming accelerating—multiple signals:

a. Increase in ocean temperatures Sullivan, Bachelor of Science from Lehigh University, 14(Brian K., 6/23/14, Bloomberg Business Week, “World Posted Warmest May on Record as Oceans Heat Up,” http://www.businessweek.com/news/2014-06-23/world-posted-warmest-may-on-record-as-oceans-heat-up, 6/24/14, SM)The world had its warmest May in more than a century as the planet’s oceans also set a record for heat, the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration said.¶ The globe’s combined land and sea temperature for May was 59.93 degrees Fahrenheit (15.5 Celsius), or 1.33 degrees warmer than the 20th century average, breaking the mark of 1.3 degrees

set in 2010, NOAA said in a monthly climate report today.¶ “The globally averaged temperature over land and ocean surfaces for May 2014 was the highest for May since record keeping began in 1880,” the agency said. “The last below-average global temperature for May occurred in 1976 and the last below-average temperature for any month occurred in February

1985.”¶ The oceans contributed the most to the overall temperature, with a record of 62.4 degrees, while the period from January to May was the fifth-warmest start to any year, NOAA said.¶ In the Arctic, ice covered 4.9 million square miles, 4.6 percent below the 1981-2010 average, or the third-smallest extent for May since record-keeping began in 1979, NOAA’s National Snow and Ice Data Center said.¶ Antarctic sea ice covered 4.6 million miles, the most for May on record.¶

b. Arctic Ocean become more acidic—more CO2CICERO 13(Center for International Climate and Environmental Research-Osio, 5/6/13, CICERO, “Comprehensive study of Arctic Ocean Acidification,” http://www.cicero.uio.no/webnews/index_e.aspx?id=11909, 6/24/14, SM)The Arctic Ocean is rapidly accumulating carbon dioxide leading to increased ocean acidification – a long-term decline in seawater pH. This ongoing change impacts Arctic marine ecosystems already affected by rising temperatures and melting sea

ice.¶ Globally, oceans are being affected by ocean acidification. Ocean acidification is a result of oceans absorbing large quantities of CO2 emitted to the air by human activities.¶ ¶ Three-year assessment¶ The Arctic Council’s Arctic Monitoring and Assessment Programme (AMAP) has commissioned an international group of scientists to undertake the first ever comprehensive assessment of Arctic Ocean Acidification. The results of their three-year assessment are released in Bergen on the AMAP

International Conference on Arctic Ocean Acidification.¶ ¶ Many stresses on marine ecosystems ¶ Over the past 200 years, the average acidity of surface ocean waters worldwide has increased by about 30 percent. The Arctic Ocean is particularly sensitive. CO2 is more readily absorbed into cold water and the increasing amounts of fresh water entering the Arctic Ocean from rivers and melting ice are reducing the Arctic Ocean’s capacity to neutralize acidification.¶ ¶ "Many changes will happen to Arctic marine ecosystems and geochemical systems. Traditionally these have thought to be mainly been warming, freshening, and changes in nutrient supply. But now we have what can be considered the new kid on the block – ocean acidification", says Richard Bellerby, Research Scientist at the Norwegian Institute for Water research - NIVA.¶ ¶ The ocean's capacity to absorb CO2 from the atmosphere is now drastically reduced. The CO2 that is in the atmosphere already and the CO2 we will put in the air in the coming decades is causing ocean acidification to become a global problem.¶ ¶ "The ocean has been performing a huge climate service over the last 200 years by having a great capacity to absorb CO2. It has taken up 50 percent of the CO2that we have emitted and is currently still taking up 25 percent of the CO2 that we are

producing", says Bellerby.¶ ¶ "Arctic ocean acidification is happening at a faster rate than found in other global regions. This is

because that climate change such as warming and freshening of the oceans is acting in tandem with the enormous oceanic uptake of CO2."

Oceans at highest acidity now, and acidification threatens extinctionHarvey, Environment Correspondent for the Guardian, 13(Fiona, 10/2/13, The Guardian, “Rate of ocean acidification due to carbon emissions is at highest for 300m years,” http://www.theguardian.com/environment/2013/oct/03/ocean-acidification-carbon-dioxide-emissions-levels, 6/27/14, SM)The oceans are becoming more acidic at the fastest rate in 300m years, due to carbon dioxide emissions from burning fossil fuels, and a mass extinction of key species may already be almost inevitable as a result, leading marine scientists warned on Thursday.¶ An international audit of the health of the oceans has found that overfishing and pollution are also contributing to the crisis, in a deadly combination of destructive forces that are imperilling marine life, on which billions of people depend for their nutrition and livelihood.¶ In the starkest warning yet of the threat to ocean health, the International

Programme on the State of the Ocean (IPSO) said: "This [acidification] is unprecedented in the Earth's known history. We are entering an unknown territory of marine ecosystem change, and exposing organisms to intolerable evolutionary pressure. The next mass extinction may have already begun." It published its findings in the State of the Oceans report, collated every two years from global monitoring and other research studies.¶ Alex Rogers, professor of biology at Oxford University, said: "The health of the ocean is spiralling downwards far more rapidly than we had thought. We are seeing

greater change, happening faster, and the effects are more imminent than previously anticipated. The situation should be of the gravest concern to everyone since everyone will be affected by changes in the ability of the ocean to support life on Earth."¶ Coral is particularly at risk. Increased acidity dissolves the calcium carbonate skeletons that form the structure of reefs, and increasing temperatures lead to bleaching where the corals lose symbiotic algae they rely on. The report says that world governments' current pledges to curb carbon emissions would not go far enough or fast enough to save many of the world's reefs. There is a time lag of several decades between the carbon being emitted and the effects on seas, meaning that further acidification and further warming of the oceans are inevitable, even if we drastically reduce emissions very quickly. There is as yet little sign of that, with global greenhouse gas output still rising.¶ Corals are vital to the health of fisheries, because they act as nurseries to young fish and smaller species that provide food for bigger ones.¶ Carbon dioxide in the atmosphere is absorbed by the seas – at least a third of the carbon that humans have released has been dissolved in this way, according to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change – and makes them more acidic. But IPSO found the situation was even more dire than that laid out by the world's top climate scientists in their landmark report last week.¶ In absorbing carbon and heat from the atmosphere, the world's oceans have shielded humans from the worst effects of global warming, the marine scientists said. This has slowed the rate of climate change on land, but its profound effects on marine life are only now being understood.¶ Acidification harms marine creatures that rely on calcium carbonate to build coral reefs and shells, as well as plankton, and the fish that rely on them. Jane Lubchenco, former director of the US National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration and a marine biologist, said the effects were already being felt in some oyster fisheries, where young larvae were failing to develop properly in areas where the acid rates are higher, such as on the west coast of the US. "You can actually see this happening," she said. "It's not something a long way into the future. It is a very big problem."¶ But the chemical changes in the ocean go further, said Rogers. Marine animals use chemical signals to perceive their environment and locate prey and predators, and there is evidence that their ability to do so is being impaired in some species.¶ Trevor Manuel, a South African government minister and co-chair of the Global Ocean Commission, called the report "a deafening alarm bell on humanity's wider impacts on the global oceans".¶ "Unless we restore the ocean's health, we will experience the consequences on prosperity, wellbeing and development. Governments must respond as urgently as they do to national security threats – in the long run, the impacts are just as important," he said.¶

Current rates of carbon release into the oceans are 10 times faster than those before the last major species extinction, which was the Paleocene-Eocene Thermal Maximum extinction, about 55m years ago. The IPSO scientists can tell that the current ocean acidification is the highest for 300m years from geological records.

Oceans acidifying at an unprecedented speedMarshall, MSc in Science Communication, 12(Michael, 3/1/12, Environmental editor at the New Scientist, New Scientist, “Oceans acidifying at unprecedented speed,” http://www.newscientist.com/article/dn21534-oceans-acidifying-at-unprecedented-speed.html#.U65DCI2wKrY, 6/27/14, SM)Humanity's greenhouse gas emissions may be acidifying the oceans at a faster rate than at any time in the last 300 million years. The sheer speed of change means we do not know how severe the consequences will be.¶ As well as

warming the planet, carbon dioxide seeps into the oceans and forms carbonic acid. As a result the water becomes more acidic.¶ The pH is currently dropping by about 0.1 per century. This ocean acidification harms organisms such as corals that rely on dissolved carbonate to make their shells. It also disrupts behaviour in some animals.¶ Bärbel Hönisch of Columbia University in Palisades, New York, and colleagues used the chemical record preserved in rocks to gauge previous ocean acidification events.¶ The best match

for current changes was the Palaeocene-Eocene thermal maximum of 55 million years ago, when vast amounts of methane were released into the atmosphere causing rapid global warming, ocean acidification, and mass extinction. But even then, it took at least 3000 years for ocean pH to drop by 0.5. "That is an order of magnitude slower than today," Hönisch says.¶ The 300-million-year period that Hönisch and colleagues studied includes the biggest extinction of them all: the end-Permian extinction. This event, 252 million years ago, wiped out up to 96 per cent of marine species. But it probably had other causes.¶ Acidification is not the only threat to the oceans from greenhouse gases, says Nicolas Gruber of the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Zurich in Switzerland. Marine life also faces a threat from rising water temperatures and less dissolved oxygen.¶ "We have to think about these effects co-occurring," Gruber says. While we have information on the consequences of each individual factor, we have no idea what the combined effect will be.

Ocean acidification will accelerateInternational Council for Science 13(11/13/13, Science Daily, “Expert assessment: Ocean acidification may increase 170 percent this century,” http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2013/11/131113213854.htm, 6/27/14, SM)In a major new international report, experts conclude that the acidity of the world's ocean may increase by around 170% by the end of the century bringing significant economic losses. People who rely on the ocean's ecosystem services -- often in developing countries -- are especially vulnerable.¶ A group of experts have agreed on 'levels of confidence' in relation to ocean acidification statements summarising the state of knowledge. The summary was led by the International Geosphere-Biosphere Programme and results from the world's largest gathering of experts on ocean acidification ever convened. The Third Symposium on the Ocean in a High CO2 World was held in Monterey, California (September 2012), and attended by 540 experts from 37 countries. The summary will be

launched at the UNFCCC climate negotiations in Warsaw, 18 November, for the benefit of policymakers.¶ Experts conclude that marine ecosystems and biodiversity are likely to change as a result of ocean acidification, with far-reaching consequences for society. Economic losses from declines in shellfish aquaculture and the degradation of tropical coral reefs may be substantial owing to the sensitivity of molluscs and corals to ocean acidification.¶ One of the lead authors of the summary, and chair of the symposium, Ulf Riebesell of GEOMAR Helmholtz Centre for Ocean Research Kiel said: "What we can now say with high levels of confidence about ocean acidification sends a clear message. Globally we have to be prepared for significant economic and ecosystem service losses. But we also know that reducing the rate of carbon dioxide emissions will slow acidification. That has to be the major message for the COP19 meeting."¶ One outcome emphasised by experts is that if society continues on the current high emissions trajectory, cold water coral reefs, located in the deep sea, may be unsustainable and tropical coral reef erosion is likely to outpace reef building this century. However, significant emissions reductions to meet the two-degree target by 2100 could ensure that half of surface waters presently occupied by tropical coral reefs remain favourable for their growth.¶ Author Wendy Broadgate, Deputy Director at the International Geosphere-Biosphere Programme, said: "Emissions reductions may protect some reefs and marine organisms but we know that the ocean is subject to many other stresses such as warming, deoxygenation, pollution and overfishing. Warming and deoxygenation are also caused by rising carbon dioxide emissions, underlining the importance of reducing fossil fuel emissions. Reducing other stressors such as pollution and overfishing, and the introduction of large scale marine protected areas, may help build some resilience to ocean acidification."¶ The summary for policymakers makes 21 statements about ocean acidification with a range of confidence levels from "very high" to "low."¶ These include:¶ Very high confidence¶

Ocean acidification is caused by carbon dioxide emissions from human activity to the atmosphere that end up in the ocean.¶ The capacity of the ocean to act as a carbon sink decreases as it acidifies¶ Reducing carbon dioxide emissions will

slow the progress of ocean acidification.¶ Anthropogenic ocean acidification is currently in progress and is measurable¶ The legacy of historical fossil fuel emissions on ocean acidification will be felt for centuries.

Corals K2 Ocean Acidification

By Regulating Ph Levels, Coral Reefs Solve For Ocean Acidification

Montagna, member of the National Research Council, 12 (Paolo, 4/1/12, Nature Climate Change, “Coral resilience to ocean acidification and global warming through pH up-regulation”, http://shadow.eas.gatech.edu/~kcobb/ocean_acid/McCulloch%20et%20al%202012.pdf, 6/29/14, AEG) Rapidly rising levels of atmospheric CO2 are not only causing ocean warming, but also lowering seawater pH hence the carbonate saturation state of the oceans, on which many marine organisms depend to calcify their skeletons1,2. Using boron isotope systematics3, we show how scleractinian corals up-regulate pH at their site of calcification such that internal changes are approximately one-half of those in ambient seawater. This species-dependent pH-buffering capacity enables aragonitic corals to raise the saturation state of their calcifying medium, thereby increasing calcification rates at little additional energy cost. Using a model of pH regulation combined with abiotic calcification, we show that the enhanced kinetics of calcification owing to higher temperatures has the potential to counter the effects of ocean acidification. Up-regulation of pH, however, is not ubiquitous among calcifying organisms; those lacking this ability are likely to undergo severe declines in calcification as CO2 levels increase. The capacity to up-regulate pH is thus central to the resilience of calcifiers to ocean acidification, although the fate of zooxanthellate corals ultimately depends on the ability of both the photosymbionts and coral host to adapt to rapidly increasing ocean temperatures4.

Coral Reefs Offset Ocean Acidification Through Biogeochemical Responses

Andersson, Assistant Professor- Geosciences Research, 14 (Andreas, 2014, Scripps Institution of Oceanography, “Partial offsets in ocean acidification from changing coral reef biogeochemistry”, http://scrippsscholars.ucsd.edu/aandersson/content/partial-offsets-ocean-acidification-changing-coral-reef-biogeochemistry-0, 6/29/14, AEG) Concerns have been raised about how coral reefs will be affected by ocean acidification(1,2), but projections of future seawater CO2 chemistry have focused solely on changes in the pH and aragonite saturation state (Omega(a)) of open-ocean surface seawater conditions surrounding coral reefs(1-4) rather than the reef systems themselves. The seawater CO2 chemistry within heterogeneous reef systems can be significantly different from that of the open ocean depending on the residence time, community composition and the main biogeochemical processes occurring on the reef, that is, net ecosystem production (NEP = gross primary production autotrophic and heterotrophic respiration) and net ecosystem calcification (NEC = gross calcification gross CaCO3 dissolution), which combined act to modify seawater chemistry(5-7). On the basis of observations from the Bermuda coral reef, we show that a range of projected biogeochemical responses of coral reef communities to ocean acidification by the end of this century could partially offset changes in seawater pH and Omega(a) by an average of 12-24% and 15-31%, respectively.

Corals found in Palau prove the future is open NSF,14 (1/16, "Palau's coral reefs surprisingly resistant to ocean acidification",www.nsf.gov/news/news_summ.jsp?cntn_id=130129, 6/25/14, AVEN)

Marine scientists working on the coral reefs of Palau have made two unexpected discoveries that could provide insight into corals' resistance and resilience to ocean acidification. ¶ The team collected water samples at nine points along a transect that stretched from the open ocean, across a barrier reef, into a lagoon, and into the bays and inlets around the Rock Islands of Palau in the western Pacific Ocean.¶ With each location they found that the seawater became increasingly more

acidic as they moved toward land.¶ "When we first plotted those data, we were shocked," said chemical oceanographer Kathryn Shamberger of the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution (WHOI). "We had no idea the level of acidification we would find. We're looking at reefs today that have levels that we expect for the open ocean in that region by the end of the century."¶ Shamberger conducted the fieldwork with other WHOI researchers, including biogeochemist Anne Cohen, as well as with scientists from the Palau International Coral Reef Center.¶ The National Science Foundation (NSF) funded the research through its Ocean Acidification Program, part of the agency's Science, Engineering and

Education for Sustainability Investment.¶ "This important study documents a coral reef system that's apparently resistant to the effects of ocean acidification," said David Garrison, program director in NSF's Division of Ocean Sciences. "Understanding what factors account for this will be critical follow-on research."¶ While ocean chemistry varies naturally at different locations, it is changing around the world due to increased levels of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere.¶ The ocean absorbs atmospheric carbon dioxide, which reacts with seawater, lowering the water's overall pH and making it more acidic.¶ This process also removes carbonate ions needed by corals and other organisms to build their skeletons and shells.¶ Corals growing in low pH conditions, both in laboratory experiments that simulate future conditions and in other naturally low pH ocean environments show a range of negative effects.¶ These include juveniles of various species with difficulty constructing skeletons, fewer varieties of corals, less coral cover, more algae growth and more porous corals with greater signs of erosion from other organisms.¶ The new research results, published in a paper in Geophysical Research Letters, a journal of the American Geophysical Union, explain the biological and geomorphological causes of the more acidic waters

near Palau's Rock Islands.¶ The paper also describes a surprising second finding--that the corals living in those more acidic waters were unexpectedly diverse and healthy. ¶ The unusual finding, contrary to what has been observed in other naturally low pH coral reef ecosystems, has important implications for the conservation of corals in all parts of the world.¶ "When you move from a high pH reef to a low pH neighboring reef, there are big changes, and they are negative changes," said Cohen, a co-author of the paper and principal investigaor of the project.¶ "However, in Palau wherever the water is most acidic, we see the opposite. There's a coral community that is more diverse, hosts more species and has greater coral cover than in the non-acidic sites.¶ "Palau is the exception to other places scientists have

studied."¶ Through analysis of the water chemistry in Palau, the scientists found that the acidification is primarily caused by the shell-building done by organisms living in the water, called calcification, which removes carbonate ions from seawater. ¶ A second reason is the organisms' respiration, which adds carbon dioxide to the water when they breathe.¶ "These things are all happening at every reef," said Cohen. "What's critical is the residence time of the seawater."¶ "In Palau's Rock Islands, the water sits in the bays for a long time before being flushed out," said Shamberger. "This is a big area that's a maze with lots of channels and inlets for the water to wind around.¶ "Calcification and respiration are continually happening at these sites while the water sits there, allowing the water to become more and more acidic. It's a little bit like being stuck in a room with a limited amount of oxygen--the longer you're in there without opening a window, you're using up oxygen and increasing carbon dioxide."¶ Ordinarily, she added, without fresh air coming in, it would become harder and harder for living things to thrive, "yet in the case of the corals in Palau, we're finding the opposite. Coral cover and diversity actually increase from the outer reefs into the Rock Islands."¶ The next steps are to determine whether the corals are genetically adapted to low pH, or whether Palau provides a "perfect storm" of environmental conditions.¶ "If it's the latter, it means that if you took those corals out of that specific environment and put them in another low pH environment that doesn't have the same combination of conditions, they wouldn't be able to survive," said Cohen. "But if they're genetically adapted to low pH, you could put them anywhere."¶ "These reef communities have developed under these conditions for thousands of years," said Shamberger. "These are conditions that are going to be occurring in a lot of the ocean by the end of the century.¶ "We don't know if other coral reefs will be able to adapt to ocean acidification--the time scale might be too short."¶ The scientists are careful to stress that their findings in Palau are different from every other low pH environment that has been studied.¶ "When we discover a reef like Palau where the coral communities are thriving under low pH, that's an exception," said Cohen.¶ "It doesn't mean that coral reefs around the globe are going to be fine under ocean acidification conditions. It does mean that there are some coral communities out there--and we've found one--that appear to have figured it out. But that doesn't mean that all coral reef ecosystems are going to figure it out."

Super Corals K to stop acidification Aoun, research assistant at CISAC, 13 (Gabriela, 10/22, Huffington Post, Ocean Acidification Has a New Enemy: Super Corals, http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2013/10/21/super-corals_n_4140030.html, 6/25/14, AVEN)In case you hadn’t heard, CO2 levels are rising, the ocean is absorbing the CO2 and ocean waters are becoming more acidic. This means dead coral, which in turn unfortunately means unlivable conditions for the entire ocean ecosystem.There is plenty of speculation about whether we can or can’t reverse the unsustainable amounts of CO2 in the atmosphere, but two scientists are approaching the problem in another way: If the CO2 is here to stay, can we make the corals climate-change resistant?

Super corals can be part of the solution to the ocean’s death sentence, according to University of Hawaii researcher Ruth D. Gates and Australian Institute for Marine Science’s Dr. Madeleine van Oppen. The two just won a grant from the Paul G. Allen Family Foundation through the foundation’s “Ocean Challenge,” a contest that offered $10,000 to “the most promising new science-based concept for mitigating environmental and/or societal impacts of ocean acidification.”Super corals are corals that have proven particularly resistant to acidic conditions and warmer water temperatures. They are not genetically engineered, but rather genetically selected.“Similar to the genetic selection of animals and plants, coral reef organisms could be genetically selected to boost their resilience to environmental stress, but this has not yet been attempted,” Gates and van Oppen told the Allen Foundation.They call it “human-assisted evolution” for corals, and through it, Gates and von Oppen hope to build a stock of super corals that can be used to repopulate dead reef areas and to amplify the contributions of artificial reefs. “It involves pre-conditioning corals to high-acidification scenarios“ van Oppen said. “Our goal is to develop and maintain banks of ecologically important, structurally diverse and geographically widespread coral species.”In science prize standards, $10,000 is a modest amount. But the award is meant to facilitate Gates and von Oppen’s ability to write a grant to apply for full project funding. Even if their idea works, it will be a long time before super coral stocks could be widely implemented around the world’s dying reefs, and by then who knows what the globally-warmed world will look like. Hopefully, super corals can withstand it disproportionately by the poor, who are most vulnerable to the loss of ecosystem services.

Coral reefs solve ocean acidification—best studies proveScripps Institution of Oceanography 13(11/26/13, Scripps Institution of Oceanography UC San Diego, “Can Coral Reefs Delay the Damaging Effects of Ocean Acidification?,” https://scripps.ucsd.edu/news/13963, 6/25/14, SM)According to a paper published in the November issue of the journal Nature Climate Change, coral reefs may respond to ocean acidification in ways that will partially offset expected changes in seawater acidity taking place as the oceans take up human-produced carbon dioxide. Andreas Andersson, a chemical oceanographer at Scripps Institution of

Oceanography at UC San Diego, and lead author of the paper, said that most predictions of seawater acidification on coral reefs are based on observations from the open ocean. But the effects of increasing CO2 on coral reefs are very different than the changes in the open ocean, because the reef itself modifies the chemistry through various biogeochemical processes. The study, based on observations of the Bermuda coral reef ecosystem, predicts that changes to this system in response to ocean acidification could offset human-induced, CO2-driven decreases in pH by 12 to 24 percent. Andersson and colleagues also predict that these reef responses will counteract a predicted decrease in the seawater aragonite saturation state, a measure of the availability of carbonate ions, by 15 to 31 percent. This is an important parameter because corals need these ions to build their calcium carbonate (CaCO3) reefs. “Other researchers have shown that different benthic communities can alter the chemistry on the reef, but we’re the first to show it on this scale, the whole ecosystem scale, over five years of observations,” Andersson said. Atmospheric carbon dioxide has gone up by 42 percent and global average temperatures have increased by 0.8°C (1.4°F) since the Industrial Revolution. These changes have well-defined effects on the open ocean, increasing both the acidity and temperature of surface seawater. This decrease in ocean pH has left many scientists concerned about the detrimental effects it could have on coral reefs. Increasing temperature and decreasing pH make it harder for corals to build calcium carbonate, and also cause calcium carbonate to dissolve more readily. The reef’s total ecosystem organic carbon production (photosynthesis minus organic matter consumed) will also be affected. All of these processes – calcification, dissolution, and ecosystem organic carbon production – affect seawater pH. By modeling how the balance between these processes will change in the future,

Andersson and his coauthors discovered that the expected changes may actually increase the pH on the reef relative to the open ocean, thus partially offsetting the decrease in pH owing to uptake of CO2 from the atmosphere.

Coral reefs solve ocean acidification—regulate pH levelsMatz, RJD Intern, 14(Hanover, 1/17/14, R.J. Dunlap Marine Conservation Program, “Coral Reefs and the Threat of Ocean Acidification,” http://rjd.miami.edu/conservation/coral-reefs-and-the-threat-of-ocean-acidification, 6/25/14, SM)Is there any hope for coral reefs? Is it at all possible that they can adapt to the threat of ocean acidification? One study does indicate that some

corals may have the ability to adjust to decreasing ocean pH. McCulloch et al. published a study in 2012 that

focused on the ability of corals to up-regulate their internal pH levels. Corals precipitate new calcium carbonate in a fluid between the existing skeleton and part of the polyp known as the calicoblastic ectoderm. At this calicoblastic layer,

corals are capable of increasing the pH relative to the pH of ambient seawater in order to facilitate calcification. The study results indicate that for some coral species, as the ambient seawater pH decreases due to acidification, the corals are capable of further up-regulating their internal pH in response in order to reduce the overall internal change in pH and to continue to calcify. This up-regulation of internal pH results in higher coral calcification rates compared to abiotic or chemical precipitation of calcium carbonate at the same seawater pH. The coral species demonstrate an ability to adjust their internal pH in order to continue calcifying in acidic conditions. Does this mean these coral species will be better able to survive increasing ocean acidification? Perhaps, but the study indicates that it is necessary for the corals to maintain their symbiotic relationship with zooxanthellae in order to produce the energy needed for calcification. The loss of zooxanthellae to stress or bleaching events would reduce the effectiveness of this ability. While some corals may exhibit less sensitivity to pH changes than others based on their ability to up-regulate internal pH, all coral species will likely have difficulty adapting to not only ocean acidification, but the combined effects of ocean acidification, changes in ocean temperature, and the impact of human pollution.

Reefs k2 Warming

Coral reefs solve warming—release DMSPSchultz, B.S.c in Physical Science and Philosophy, 13 (Colin, 10/24/13, Smithsonian, "Coral Reefs Are Fighting Back Against Global Warming," http://www.smithsonianmag.com/smart-news/coral-reefs-are-fighting-back-against-global-warming-5190065/?no-ist=, 6/24/14, SM)Coral reefs are on the receiving end of the battering ram that is anthropogenic climate change. With their vibrant colors and exotic fish, they’re the poster child of ocean degradation, and they get a lot of attention because they’re on the front lines—their habitats are among the most

sensitive to the warming waters. But new research, led by Jean-Baptiste Raina, has found that coral are fighting back: coral can release a chemical, dimethylsulphoniopropionate (DMSP), that helps them engineer their environment and stave off global warming. ¶ When DMSP is released to the environment, bacteria living in the water convert it into a different related gas, dimethylsulphide (DMS). DMS, the scientists say, can control the local climate by spurring clouds to form. More DMS means more clouds, and more clouds means cooler ocean waters for the coral to live in.¶ The discovery marks the first time that an animal has been found to produce DMSP. Previously, scientists thought it was the algae living in the coral that made the gas, but the new research found that the coral itself can churn it

out. And, perhaps more importantly, corals’ DMSP production goes up when the coral gets stressed.¶ The idea of “DMS-as-climate-regulator,” says Hannah Waters for her blog, Culturing Science, “rose to fame when it starred in one infamous Earth-as-organism idea—the Gaia hypothesis—just a few decades ago.”¶ The Gaia hypothesis, pitched by James Lovelock, is largely bunk, but dimethylsulphide’s effect on the temperature is not. “In order for clouds to form, water has to transition from a gas to liquid—and to do that, it needs a small particle in the air to adhere onto, known as a cloud condensation nucleus. Sulfur aerosols, which are easily formed from DMS, do

the trick,” says Waters.¶ The discovery that corals can pump out dimethylsulponiopropionate, and hence DMS, say

the researchers in their study, adds another reason to worry about their decline. Raina et al:¶ Considering declining trends in coral cover and predicted increases in coral mortality worldwide caused by anthropogenic stressors, the associated decline in sulphur aerosol production from coral reefs may further destabilize local climate regulation and accelerate degradation of this globally important and diverse ecosystem.¶

Impact – Biodiversity

Ocean acidification kills biodiversity and resiliency—pH declineFabricius et al, PhD from University of Munich, Langdon, Professor of Marine Biology and Ecology at the University of Miami, 11 (Katharina E., 5/30/11, coral reef ecologist since 1988, Diplom in Biology from University of Munic, PhD from University of Munich, Chris Langdon, Sven Uthicke, Craig Humphrey, Sam Noonan, Glenn De’ath, Remy Okazaki, Nancy Muehllehner, Martin S. Glas, Janice M. Lough Science Daily, "Ocean acidification will likely reduce diversity, resiliency in coral reef ecosystems," http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2011/05/110529184043.htm, 6/24/14, SM)A new study from University of Miami (UM) Rosenstiel School of Marine & Atmospheric Science scientists Chris Langdon, Remy Okazaki and Nancy Muehllehner and colleagues from the Australian Institute of Marine Science and the Max-Planck Institute for Marine Microbiology in

Germany concludes that ocean acidification, along with increased ocean temperatures, will likely severely reduce the diversity and resilience of coral reef ecosystems within this century.¶ The research team studied three natural volcanic CO2 seeps in Papua New Guinea to better understand how ocean acidification will impact coral reefs ecosystem diversity. The study details the effects of long-term exposure to high levels of carbon dioxide and low pH on Indo-Pacific coral reefs, a condition that is

projected to occur by the end of the century as increased human-made CO2 emissions alter the current pH level of seawater, turning the oceans acidic.¶ "These 'champagne reefs' are natural analogs of how coral reefs may look in 100 years if ocean acidification conditions continue to get worse," said Langdon, UM Rosenstiel School professor and co-principal investigator of the study.¶

The study shows shifts in the composition of coral species and reductions in biodiversity and recruitment on the reef as pH declined from 8.1 to 7.8. The team also reports that reef development would cease at a pH below 7.7. The IPCC 4th

Assessment Report estimates that by the end of the century, ocean pH will decline from the current level of 8.1 to 7.8, due to rising atmospheric CO2 concentrations.¶ "The seeps are probably the closest we can come to simulating the effect of human-made CO2 emissions on a coral reef," said Langdon. "They allow us to see the end result of the complex interactions between species under acidic ocean conditions."¶ The reefs detailed in this study have healthy reefs nearby to supply larvae to replenish the reefs. If pH was low throughout the region -- as projected for year 2100 -- then there would not be any healthy reefs to reseed damaged ones, according to Langdon.¶

Ocean Acidification Destroys Reefs—Rising CO2 levels increases acidity of the ocean; killing animals.Melker, PBS Producer, 12 (Saskia, December 5 2012, Lehrer Productions, “Coral Reefs and Shellfish Battle Acidifying Oceans”, http://www.pbs.org/newshour/updates/climate-change-july-dec12-acidification_12-05/, 6/24/14, ML)CO2 decreases the pH of the water. The lower the pH, the higher the acidity. Oceans have acidified by 30 percent from pre-industrial levels, and scientists expect that number will climb to 100 percent by the end of this century. Slight changes in pH levels can have dramatic effects. Consider this: the pH of the blood running through your arteries is between

7.35 and 7.45. A drop of .2 pH units can cause seizures, heart arrhythmia or even send a person into a coma. We can already see ocean

acidification at work in the oceans. In recent years, oyster larvae on the northwest coast have been dying off by the billions. The seawater is so corrosive that it eats away at the young oyster shells before they can form. This leaves the animals more vulnerable to

disease, pollution, and predators. And that has cascading effects for the rest of the ecosystem, all the way up to

human communities, said Paul McElhany of NOAA’s Northwest Fisheries Science Center studies the effects of acidification on marine species. Shellfish and corals are the foundation of marine ecosystems. Reefs provide habitat for thousands of other animals, and more than a quarter of all fish live in coral reefs at some point in their lives. And many shellfish are at the bottom of the marine food chain and are eaten by

fish and other animals. “We’ve seen that these increases in acidification can really reorganize these food webs, both directly and indirectly,” McElhany said, adding “What happens in the marine environment is likely to affect you.”

Ocean Acidification Destroys Bio D in ReefsElperin, Huffington Post, 11 (Juliet, Duke University, “The Dangers of Ocean Acidification to Tropical Coral Reefs”, http://sites.duke.edu/writing20_12_f2011/2011/09/04/the-dangers-of-ocean-acidification-to-tropical-coral-reefs/, 6/26/14, ML)http://sites.duke.edu/writing20_12_f2011/2011/09/04/the-dangers-of-ocean-acidification-to-tropical-coral-reefs/The ocean has absorbed carbon dioxide (CO2) from the atmosphere since the beginning of time. The ocean is known as a carbon dioxide sink because of its absorption capabilities. This has been viewed as a positive in the past few decades since global warming has become a pressing

issue. The ocean absorbs CO2 from the atmosphere, which helps lessen the threat of global warming to the earth. Carbon dioxide levels have risen since the Industrial Revolution due to automobile emissions, cement production, industrial power plants and other contributing factors. Now, with the ocean is absorbing absorbing about 1/3 of the earth’s carbon dioxide, the sea chemistry is being affected. The ocean cannot handle such high levels of CO2 as a result, its pH is becoming more acidic. This effect is known as ocean acidification. Like all ecosystems, marine ecosystems are comprised of a vast array of interactions between different species and different types of organisms (both

alive and dead) and the physical environment. Therefore, a change in any of these aspects will lead to a plethora of changes throughout the rest of the ecosystem. Because of the sheer quantity of life present and the significant interactions

between species, coral reefs are prime candidates to be affected greatly by ocean acidification. These reefs provide food and shelter to hundreds of thousands of marine organisms so when the reef is harmed by acidification, so are all of the organisms that interact with it. When global warming, one of the world’s most alarming environmental threats directly affects the coral reef, one of the ocean’s most important ecosystems, the ramifications are dire. Coral reefs are created by large calcium carbonate colonies known as coral. These reef structures are the home and feeding grounds to a wide array of organisms. Coral reef

ecosystems have been called “cradles of evolution” because more marine organisms evolve from coral reefs than from any other ecosystem. Ocean acidification may actually alter the physical structure of coral reefs. Acidification affects the organisms that build the reef because it lowers calcification rates and pH, inhibiting the creature’s skeletal growth. Without these reef-building organisms, coral reefs cannot exist. Aside from hindering the organisms that physically build the reefs, ocean acidification also increases the probability that existing reef structures may dissolve. Reef erosion is likely, given the vulnerability inevitable with increased acidification. Acidification raises the possibility of coral mortality. It can cause coral bleaching, which can cause the coral to die. As the coral tries to survive and is in a weakened state, they become vulnerable to encroachment by other marine organisms. Some species can benefit from higher water acidity, like macroalgae. As these algae thrive, they block sunlight from getting to the coral and they may be abrasive to coral structures as they move through the water in the current. Both low light and abrasive contact can weaken the coral, or even kill the reef structure. Dissolving and eroding coral reefs, as well as coral that is lost because of displacement by other organisms that can survive better in the high acidity all lead to what is known as “reef flattening”. This is a phenomenon that creates a loss in the “architectural complexity” of the reef. This affects all of the organisms that live within and rely on the reef as a key part of their survival methods. Reef flattening diminishes reef structure and habitats, and reduces organism populations and biodiversity. Coral reefs are home to over 25% of all known species of fish and exhibit the highest biodiversity of any ecosystem in the entire ocean. Threats to coral reefs are a threat to thousands of other organisms, so as we see ocean acidification harming our world’s coral reefs, we should be very concerned. Ocean acidification does not mean that the oceans will die, but the survivors may be algae and jellyfish. For the ocean to be sustainable in its present form, with coral reefs the prominent sanctuaries for marine

life, the pH of the ocean has to maintain acidity within relatively narrow boundaries. With the alarming increase in CO2 being absorbed into our great carbon dioxide sink known as the ocean, the coral reef is in jeopardy.

Ocean acidification negatively affects fish—cognitive issuesValentine, BA in Journalism and minor in ecology from University of Georgia, 14(Katie, 4/14/14, Climate Progress, “Ocean Acidification Could Make Fish Lose Their Fear Of Predators, Study Finds,” http://thinkprogress.org/climate/2014/04/14/3426351/fish-predators-acidification/, 6/29/14, SM)Add “losing fear of predators” to the long list of impacts acidifying oceans could have on fish and other marine life.¶ A new study published in Nature Climate Change has found that elevated CO2 levels in marine waters make reef fish attracted to the smell of their predators, rather than being repelled. Researchers looked at multiple species of reef fish living near natural volcanic CO2 seeps in Papua New Guinea, an environment the study says is acidified to levels comparable to projections of what the entire ocean’s acid content will be in the next 100 years. They compared the behavior of the fish living in the acidified environment to fish in nearby, less acidified reefs, and found that, while fish in the nearby control reefs avoided water streams

that contained predator odor, fish from the acidified reef spent 90 percent of their time in water streams that

smelled of their predators.¶ On top of that, fish that lived under high-CO2 conditions were bolder than other fish — meaning that they emerged more quickly from their hiding places after a disturbance and ventured farther from their hiding places than other fish — and

couldn’t differentiate the smells of different habitats. Fish from the control reef spent more than 80 percent of their time in hiding, while two species of damselfish from the acidified reef spent less than 12 percent of their time in shelter, and two other fish species studied spent no time in shelter, preferring to swim in more exposed, open water¶ Danielle Dixson, assistant professor at Georgia Tech and co-author of the study, told ThinkProgress that the results of the study were surprising because scientists long believed that fish would be able to deal with ocean acidification due to their natural mechanism for coping with increased levels of CO2. When fish are exposed to high acid environments, they absorb the acid into their bodies, and to compensate for the increased acid, they increase the amount of bicarbonate — a base — their bodies produce.¶ “The thing that people didn’t really think about

was that when they up-regulate all this bicarbonate, it interacts with neurological pathways,” Dixson said.¶ Dixson said that when there’s too much bicarbonate in the fish’s system, their GABA receptor stops working properly, causing the cognitive issues the researchers recorded. These effects have major implications for the future of the ocean ecosystem. The balance of the acidified reef ecosystem in the study did not suffer as a result of the cognitive problems of the fish, mainly because there were fewer predators in the environment and because, when young fish were killed by predators in the acidified environment, other young fish would migrate from nearby, less acidified reefs to replace them. But when all the oceans are at the level of the CO2 seep ecosystem, this replacement from fish in less acidified waters won’t be an option.¶ “It is hopeful that there are still fish that live [in the CO2 seep sites] and that they’re metabolically the same as the fish that live in the non-CO2 seep site, but the degree of aid that the control sites are providing the CO2

sites is unknown,” Dixson said. “As the world acidifies — in 100 years when the ocean is expected to be the equivalent of a CO2 seep reef — there won’t be these safe havens that can help.”¶ The study isn’t the first to

document ocean acidification’s wide-reaching effects on fish and other marine species. Another study from August also found that fish could

become confused and hyperactive as acid levels increase in the ocean, and also found evidence that the metabolism of fish could change. That study also found that when atmospheric carbon levels reached 500 to 650 parts per million — levels that are predicted by 2100 — corals, echinoderms (such as starfish), mollusks and fish were negatively impacted. Researchers have also predicted that ocean acidification could lead to a decline in shellfish, and that coral will struggle to build its skeleton as acidity rises. The effects of acidification could be so harmful to coral that Oceana predicts some species of coral could become functionally extinct within 20 years.

Impact – Warming

Ocean acidification exacerbates warming—decrease in atmospheric sulfurBarford, BSc in Biochemistry from Imperial College London, 13(Eliot, 8/25/13, MSc in Science Communication, Nature, “Rising ocean acidity will exacerbate global warming,” http://www.nature.com/news/rising-ocean-acidity-will-exacerbate-global-warming-1.13602, 6/27/14, SM)The slow and inexorable increase in the oceans’ acidity as they soak up carbon dioxide from the atmosphere could itself have an effect on climate and amplify global warming, according to a new study. Acidification would lead certain marine organisms to emit less of the sulphur compounds that help to seed the formation of clouds and so keep the planet cool.¶ Atmospheric sulphur, most of which comes from the sea, is a check against global warming. Phytoplankton — photosynthetic microbes that drift in sunlit water —

produces a compound called dimethylsulphide (DMS). Some of this enters the atmosphere and reacts to make sulphuric acid, which clumps into aerosols, or microscopic airborne particles. Aerosols seed the formation of

clouds, which help cool the Earth by reflecting sunlight.¶ James Lovelock and colleagues proposed in the 1980s that DMS could provide a feedback mechanism limiting global warming1, as part of Lovelock’s ‘Gaia hypothesis’ of a self-regulating Earth. If warming increased plankton productivity, oceanic DMS emissions might rise and help cool the Earth. More recently, thinking has shifted towards predicting a feedback in the opposite direction, because of acidification. As more CO2 enters the atmosphere, some dissolves in seawater, forming carbonic acid. This is decreasing the pH of the oceans, which is already down by 0.1 pH units on pre-industrial times, and could be down by another 0.5 in some places by 2100. And studies using 'mesocosms' — enclosed volumes of seawater — show that seawater with a lower pH produces less

DMS2. On a global scale, a fall in DMS emissions due to acidification could have a major effect on climate, creating a positive-feedback loop and enhancing warming.¶

Ocean acidification makes global warming worseSandle, Ph.D from Keele University, 13(Tim, 8/31/13, Digital Journal, “Levels of ocean acidity affects global warming,” http://www.digitaljournal.com/article/357412, 6/27/14, SM)Scientists have warned that continued acidification of the oceans may lead to lower sulfur levels in the atmosphere, worsening the effects of climate change.¶ The link between rising levels of acidity in the world's seas and the climate comes from increased levels of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere, which leads to ocean acidification. This is formed as the greenhouse gas interacts with water to form carbonic acid in the ocean. In turn, ocean acidification appears to lead to decreased cloud formation and therefore worsening global warming over time.¶ This is all linked to the ecological process whereby sulfuric acid seeds cloud formation. The majority of sulfur in the atmosphere is emitted from the ocean, often in the form of dimethylsulfide (DMS) produced by phytoplankton. The problem is that in acidified ocean water, phytoplankton produce less DMS, leading to fewer clouds. Fewer clouds could lead to increased global temperatures.

Warming Impact - Extinction

Warming leads to extinction—positive feedback loopDean, PhD at the University of New South Wales, 09(Tim, 1/7/9, Cosmos, “Doomsday: Five catastrophes that could wipe out civilization,” http://cosmosmagazine.com/features/doomsday/, 6/27/14, SM)CLIMATE CATASTROPHE¶ WE’VE ALL HEARD THE HORROR STORIES of future climate catastrophes: rising sea levels, rampant droughts, thousands of species under threat of extinction. And we’ve all heard the sceptics warning us not to get carried away by the panicked cries of climate alarmists.¶ Well, it might actually be time for alarm. Because recent findings by climate scientists such as Pieter Tans, from the U.S.

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, suggest we’re pumping carbon dioxide into the atmosphere faster than we thought. “When they started measurements in the 1960s average growth was 0.7 ppm [parts per million] a year,” he says. “But in the last five years it’s been at 2 ppm, which is more or less proportional to the rate at which we are burning fossil fuels.”¶ As a result, our temperature trajectory is looking even more dramatic than the worst-case scenarios posited in 2007 by the United Nations Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), a scientific body made up of thousands of senior scientists who evaluate the risk of climate change caused by human activity. This makes it even more likely that we’ll see warming of more than a few degrees this century.¶ This alone would be costly to our society, but there’s an even more troubling scenario that

has climate scientists like Tans sweating. And that’s if a feedback mechanism kicks in that drives temperatures even higher. ¶ One such mechanism is the prospect of widespread melting of Arctic ice, which would rapidly release vast amounts of stored carbon and methane into the atmosphere. This could increase temperatures by as much as 10°C by the end of the century – and no amount of cuts in fossil fuel use or emissions can stop the process once it starts.¶ The thing is, no one knows at what point this feedback mechanism might kick in. It might happen after 5°C of warming, or it might start after just 3°C … or even less.¶ BEYOND THIS TIPPING POINT, the impact on us would be dramatic, says Mark Lynas, environmental campaigner and author of Six

Degrees, winner of the prestigious Royal Society Science Book Prize. “If positive feedbacks send the warming process spinning out of control, then the consequences for life on Earth as a whole will be catastrophic,” he says.¶

“Human society depends on a relatively intact biosphere for its continued survival. It would not take even a worst-case scenario warming to give human civilisation a knockout punch.”¶ Stephen Schneider, a climatologist at Stanford University in California, agrees that an increase in global temperatures of even 3 to 5°C would have a massive impact on civilisation. “We’d see a dramatic increase in sea level; an increase in the intensity of hurricanes; more massive forest fires in warmer climates; health problems associated with heat; movement of diseases into new regions; and widespread water shortages.” Agriculture is another area of concern.¶ “We could see major reductions in food production, perhaps tens of per cent of yields, and this wouldn’t be good in a world of nine billion people,” he says.

Runaway climate change leads to extinction—reduced food yields, disaster, and disease.Snow, Senior Writer @ Fairfaxmedia and Hannam, AB @ Harvard University 14 (Deborah and Peter, 3/31/14, The Sydney Morning Herald, “Climate change could make humans extinct, warns health expert”, http://www.smh.com.au/environment/climate-change/climate-change-could-make-humans-extinct-warns-health-expert-20140330-35rus.html, 7/1/14, KM)

The Earth is warming so rapidly that unless humans can arrest the trend, we risk becoming ''extinct'' as a species, a leading Australian health academic has warned. ¶ Helen Berry, associate dean in the faculty of health at the University of Canberra, said while

the Earth has been warmer and colder at different points in the planet's history, the rate of change has never been as fast as it is today. ¶ ''What is remarkable, and alarming, is the speed of the change since the 1970s, when we started burning a lot of fossil fuels in a massive way,'' she said. ''We can't possibly evolve to match this rate [of warming] and, unless we get control of it, it will mean our extinction eventually.'' ¶ Professor Berry is one of three leading academics who have contributed to the health chapter of a Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) report due on Monday. She and co-authors Tony McMichael, of the Australian National University, and Colin Butler, of the University of Canberra, have outlined the health risks of rapid global warming in a companion piece for The Conversation, also published on Monday. The three warn that the adverse effects on population health and social stability have been ''missing from the discussion'' on climate change. ¶ “Human-driven climate change poses a great threat, unprecedented in type and scale, to wellbeing, health and perhaps even to human survival,'' they write. ¶ They predict that the greatest challenges will come from undernutrition

and impaired child development from reduced food yields; hospitalisations and deaths due to intense heatwaves, fires and other

weather-related disasters; and the spread of infectious diseases. ¶ They warn the ''largest impacts'' will be on poorer and vulnerable populations, winding back recent hard-won gains of social development programs. ¶ Projecting to an average global warming of 4 degrees by

2100, they say ''people won't be able to cope, let alone work productively, in the hottest parts of the year''. ¶ They say that action on climate change would produce ''extremely large health benefits'', which would greatly outweigh the costs of curbing emission growth. ¶ A leaked draft of the IPCC report notes that a warming climate would lead to fewer cold weather-related deaths but the benefits would be ''greatly'' outweighed by the impacts of more frequent heat extremes. Under a high emissions scenario, some land regions will experience temperatures four to seven degrees higher than pre-industrial times, the report said. ¶ While some adaptive measures are possible, limits to humans' ability to regulate heat will affect health and potentially cut global productivity in the warmest months by 40 per cent by 2100. ¶ Body temperatures rising above 38 degrees impair physical and cognitive functions, while risks of organ damage, loss of consciousness and death increase sharply above 40.6 degrees, the draft report said.Farm crops and livestock will also struggle with thermal and water stress. Staple crops such as corn, rice, wheat and soybeans are assumed to face a temperature limit of 40-45 degrees, with temperature thresholds for key sowing stages near or below 35 degrees, the report said.

Warming Impact - BioD

Warming leads to the loss of genetic biodiversityRomm, Senior Fellow at American Progress, 11(Joe, 9/20/11, Ph.D. in physics from MIT, Founding Editor of Climate Progress, ClimateProgress, “Global Warming May Cause Far Higher Extinction of Biodiversity Than Previously Thought,” http://thinkprogress.org/climate/2011/09/20/323639/global-warming-extinction-of-biodiversity/, 6/27/14, SM)If global warming continues as expected, it is estimated that almost a third of all flora and fauna species worldwide could become extinct. Scientists … discovered that the proportion of actual biodiversity loss should quite

clearly be revised upwards: by 2080, more than 80% of genetic diversity within species may disappear in certain groups of organisms, according to researchers in the title story of the journal Nature Climate Change. The study is the first world-wide to quantify the loss of biological diversity on the basis of genetic diversity.¶ That’s from the news release of a study, “Cryptic biodiversity loss linked to global climate change” (subs. req’d). The recent scientific literature continues to paint a bleak picture of what Homo sapiens ‘sapiens’ is doing to the other species on the planet.¶ In 2007, the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change warned that “as global average temperature increase exceeds about 3.5°C [relative to 1980 to 1999], model projections suggest significant extinctions (40-70% of species assessed) around the globe.” That is a temperature rise over pre-industrial levels of a bit more than 4.0°C. So the 5°C rise we are facing on our current emissions path would likely put extinctions beyond the high end of that range.¶ Last fall, the Royal Society ran a special issue on “Biological diversity in a changing world,” concluding “There are very strong indications that the current rate of species extinctions far exceeds anything in the fossil record.”¶ I realize that the mass extinction of non-human life on this planet isn’t going to be a great driver for human action. Most people simply don’t get that the mass extinctions we are causing could directly harm our children and grandchildren as much as sea level rise. Such extinctions threaten the entire fabric of life on which we depend for food, among other things. This may be clearest in the case of marine life — see “Geological Society (8/10): Acidifying oceans spell marine biological meltdown “by end of century.” And then there’s

the worst-case scenario in Nature Stunner — “Global warming blamed for 40% decline in the ocean’s phytoplankton”: “Microscopic life crucial to the marine food chain is dying out. The consequences could be catastrophic.” ¶ Life matters . Here’s more from the release:¶ Most common models on the effects of climate change on flora and fauna concentrate on “classically” described species, in other words groups of organisms that are clearly separate from each other morphologically. Until now, however, so-called cryptic diversity has not been taken into account. It encompasses the diversity of genetic variations and deviations within described species, and can only be researched fully since the development of molecular-genetic methods. As well as the diversity of ecosystems and species, these genetic variations are a central part of global biodiversity.¶ In a pioneering study, scientists from the Biodiversity and Climate Research Centre (BiK-F) and the Senckenberg Gesellschaft für Naturkunde have now examined the

influence of global warming on genetic diversity within species.¶ Over 80 percent of genetic variations may become extinct¶ The distribution of nine European aquatic insect species, which still exist in the headwaters of streams in many high mountain areas in Central and Northern Europe, was modelled. They have already been widely researched, which means that the regional distribution of the inner-species diversity and the existence of morphologically cryptic, evolutionary lines are already known.¶ If global warming does take place in the range that is predicted by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), these creatures will be pushed back to only a few small refugia, e.g. in Scandinavia and the Alps, by 2080, according to model calculations. If Europe’s climate warms up by up to two degrees only, eight of the species examined will survive, at least in some areas; with an increase in temperature of 4 degrees, six species will probably survive in some areas by 2080. However, due to the extinction of local populations, genetic diversity will decline to a much more dramatic extent.¶

According to the most pessimistic projections, 84 percent of all genetic variations would die out by 2080; in the “best case,” two-thirds of all genetic variations would disappear. The aquatic insects that were examined are representative for many species of mountainous regions of Central Europe.¶ Slim chances in the long term for the emergence of new species and species survival¶ Carsten Nowak of the Biodiversity and Climate Research Centre (BiK-F) and the Senckenberg Gesellschaft für Naturkunde, explains: “Our models of future distribution show that the “species” as such will usually survive. However, the majority of the genetic variations, which in each case exist only in certain places, will not survive. This means that self-contained evolutionary lineages in other regions such as the Carpathians, Pyrenees or the German Central Uplands will be lost. Many of these lines are currently in the process of developing into separate species, but will become

extinct before this is achieved, if our model calculations are accurate.Ӧ Genetic variation within a species is also important for adaptability to changing habitats and climatic conditions. Their loss therefore also reduces the chances for species survival in the long term.

Warming Impact - Disease

Climate change/warming fuels a rise in deadly diseasesMukherjee, Health Reporter for Think Progress, 13(Sy, 7/17/13, Climate Progress, “How Climate Change Is Fueling A Rise In Deadly Diseases,” http://thinkprogress.org/health/2013/07/17/2317471/climate-change-deadly-diseases/, 6/29/14, SM)In the summer of 2012, the mosquito-borne West Nile virus made a surprising comeback in America. In Dallas, the most affected region, 400 people contracted the disease and 19 of them died. That came as a shock to public health officials, since West Nile virus was thought to be in such precipitous decline that it was practically eradicated.¶ Now, a little detective work has led epidemiologists

to the reason for its resurgence: warmer winters and wetter springs. In other words, the consequences of global climate change are fueling West Nile. And it’s just the tip of the iceberg. Health officials expect the number of people contracting other infectious diseases to rise right alongside global temperatures. ¶ The diseases that are propagated by climate change tend to come in fungal, algal, tick-borne, and mosquito-borne forms. For instance, dengue fever — which causes a high fever, painful head and body aches, and rashes — will likely continue infecting Americans in hot and humid climates, as well as regions that are close to warming oceans: That’s because warmer waters allow mosquitoes, which are the primary vessels for dengue fever transmission, to breed and live more freely. According to the World Health Organization (WHO), “Mosquito species such as the Anopheles gambiae complex, A. funestus, A. darlingi, Culex quinquefasciatus and Aedes aegypti are responsible for transmission of most vector-borne diseases, and are sensitive to temperature changes as immature stages in the aquatic environment and

as adults.”¶ Mother Jones notes that warming oceans also affect aquatic wildlife like reef fish. Dangerous algal blooms, which are caused by warmer waters and dying coral reefs, can infect fish that eventually makes its way into the human food chain. In 2007, nine North Carolina residents contracted ciguatera, or fish poisoning, from infected fish that had been caught off the coast of Florida.¶ But it’s not just coastal and humid regions that are feeling the effects of diseases that are propped up by climate change. In the western United States, states like New Mexico, Arizona, and California are experiencing an inexplicable rise in Valley fever, which causes head and neck aches, serious respiratory problems, has no cure or vaccine, and can be lethal. The condition is caused by fungus that resides in spores in the soil that are lifted off of the ground due to dry weather that is a consequence of

global warming-related drought.¶ Furthermore, illnesses that currently impact other countries could flourish in the United States if they were to find their way here. Rift Valley fever — which causes fever, vertigo, and neck stiffness — is also spread through mosquitoes.¶ Public health officials in Europe and the U.S. Centers for Disease Control (CDC) have publicly warned that

populations should prepare for a rise in these diseases as a consequence of global climate change. But currently, only eight states have taken measures to prepare to combat the public health consequences of climate change.

Warming Impact – Fishing

Fishing industry poised to lose billions because of climate changeValentine, BA in Journalism and minor in ecology from University of Georgia, 14(Katie, 5/29/14, Climate Progress, “The Fishing Industry Is Poised To Lose Billions Due To Climate Change, Report Finds,” http://thinkprogress.org/climate/2014/05/29/3442537/fishing-lose-billions-climate/, 6/29/14, SM)The global fishing industry is poised to lose $17 to $41 billion by 2050 due to climate change’s effects on the marine environment, according to a new report.¶ The report, published by the Sustainable Fisheries Partnership and the University of Cambridge, outlines the range of challenges that increasing ocean temperatures and acidification will bring to the seafood

industry, based on findings from the IPCC’s Fifth Assessment Report. The authors found that climate change puts the 400 million people who depend heavily on fish for food at risk, especially small-scale fishermen in the Tropics. That’s because

yields are expected to fall by 40 to 60 percent in the Tropics and Antarctica — in the high latitudes, however, the report said yields are likely to increase 30 to 70 percent.¶ Some fish stocks will be able to migrate to cooler or more food- or oxygen-rich waters, which is good news for those fish populations but can lead to conflicts among countries as to which nations are entitled to the displaced stocks, and also could lead to more illegal fishing. The report singles out the recent shift of Atlantic mackerel to Icelandic waters over the last few summers as

one example — with these new fish stocks, Iceland and the Faroe Islands have been fishing mackerel outside of international agreements. Top predators like tuna are some of the most likely to move, putting economic strain on small island nations in particular.¶ “This report is a wake up call for the seafood industry to recognize the scale of the threat to ocean resources from climate change and acidification,” Blake Lee-Harwood of Sustainable Fisheries Partnership said in a statement.¶ The report also highlighted the danger ocean acidification and warming waters pose to coral reefs, with those in Southeast Asia and parts of the Pacific as some

of the most at risk. Reefs serve as nurseries or habitats to 10 to 12 percent of fish caught in tropical countries, and coral reef fisheries around the world are already being fished unsustainably. The report estimates coral reef fish production in the Pacific could decrease by up to 20 percent by 2050, due in part to the habitat damage climate change will inflict on reefs.

Impact - Extinction

Ocean acidification leads to mass extinctionRomm, Senior Fellow at American Progress, 12(Joe, 3/2/12, Ph.D. in physics from MIT, Founding Editor of Climate Progress, Climate Progress, “Science: Ocean Acidifying So Fast It Threatens Humanity’s Ability to Feed Itself,” http://thinkprogress.org/climate/2012/03/02/436193/science-ocean-acidifying-so-fast-it-threatens-humanity-ability-to-feed-itself/, 6/29/14, SM)The world’s oceans may be turning acidic faster today from human carbon emissions than they did during four major extinctions in the last 300 million years, when natural pulses of carbon sent global temperatures soaring, says a new study in Science. The study is the first of its kind to survey the geologic record for evidence of ocean acidification over this vast time period.¶ “What we’re doing today really stands out,” said lead author Bärbel Hönisch, a paleoceanographer at Columbia University’s Lamont-Doherty Earth Observatory. “We know that life during past ocean acidification events was not wiped out—new

species evolved to replace those that died off. But if industrial carbon emissions continue at the current pace, we may lose organisms we care about—coral reefs, oysters, salmon.”¶ James Zachos, a paleoceanographer at University of California, Santa Cruz, with a core of sediment from some 56 million years ago, when the oceans underwent acidification that could be an analog to ocean changes today. That’s the news release from a major 21-author Science paper, “The Geological Record of Ocean Acidification”

(subs. req’d).¶ We knew from a 2010 Nature Geoscience study that the oceans are now acidifying 10 times faster today than 55 million years ago when a mass extinction of marine species occurred. But this study looked back over 300 million and found that “the unprecedented rapidity of CO2 release currently taking place” has put marine life at risk in a frighteningly unique way:¶ … the current rate of (mainly fossil fuel) CO2 release stands out as capable of driving a combination and magnitude of ocean geochemical changes potentially unparalleled in at least the last ~300

My of Earth history, raising the possibility that we are entering an unknown territory of marine ecosystem change.¶ That is to say, it’s not just that acidifying oceans spell marine biological meltdown “by end of century” as a 2010 Geological Society

study put it. We are also warming the ocean and decreasing dissolved oxygen concentration. That is a recipe for mass extinction. A 2009 Nature Geoscience study found that ocean dead zones “devoid of fish and seafood” are poised to expand and “remain for thousands of years.“¶

Impact – Food Security

Ocean acidification threatens food securityRomm, Senior Fellow at American Progress, 12(Joe, 2/27/12, Ph.D. in physics from MIT, Founding Editor of Climate Progress, Climate Progress, “Bad Acid Trip: USGS Study Finds Humans Are Acidifying ‘The Air, Oceans, Freshwaters And Soils’ http://thinkprogress.org/romm/2012/02/27/344096/bad-acid-trip-usgs-study-humans-acidifying-everything-we-touch/, 6/29/14, SM)Call it the reverse Midas touch. Everything homo sapiens touches turns to acid.¶ A study led by the U.S. Geological Survey finds, “Human use of Earth’s natural resources is making the air, oceans, freshwaters, and soils more acidic.” The USGS news release explains:¶ This comprehensive review, the first on this topic to date, found the mining and burning of coal, the mining and smelting of metal ores, and the use of nitrogen fertilizer are the major causes of chemical oxidation processes that generate acid in the Earth-surface environment.¶ These widespread activities have increased carbon dioxide in the atmosphere, increasing the acidity of oceans; produced acid rain that has increased the acidity of freshwater bodies and soils; produced drainage from mines that has increased the acidity of

freshwater streams and groundwater; and added nitrogen to crop lands that has increased the acidity of soils.¶ Previous studies have linked increased acidity in oceans to damage to ocean food webs, while increased acidity in soils has the potential to affect their ability to sustain crop growth.¶ In short, global acidification is one more threat to global food security, which is already under grave threat by climate change, our idiotic biofuels policies, population growth and demographic changes (see Oxfam Predicts Climate Change will Help Double Food Prices by 2030: “We Are Turning Abundance into Scarcity”).

Rising CO2 emissions threaten fish survival and global food securityRomm, Senior Fellow at American Progress, 12(Joe, 1/23/12, Ph.D. in physics from MIT, Founding Editor of Climate Progress, Climate Progress, “Carbon Dioxide Is “Driving Fish Crazy” and Threatening Their Survival, Study Finds’,” http://thinkprogress.org/climate/2012/01/23/409139/carbon-dioxide-is-driving-fish-crazy-study-finds/, 6/29/14, SM)Rising human carbon dioxide emissions may be affecting the brains and central nervous system of sea fishes with serious consequences for their survival , an international scientific team has found.¶ Carbon dioxide concentrations predicted to occur in the ocean by the end of this century will interfere with fishes’ ability to hear, smell, turn and evade predators, says Professor Philip Munday of the ARC Centre of Excellence for Coral Reef Studies and James Cook University.¶ “For several years our team have been testing the performance of baby coral fishes in sea water containing

higher levels of dissolved CO2 – and it is now pretty clear that they sustain significant disruption to their central nervous system, which is likely to impair their chances of survival,” Prof. Munday says.¶ That’s from an ARC news release on a

new Nature Climate Change study, “Near-future carbon dioxide levels alter fish behaviour by interfering with neurotransmitter function” (subs. req’d).¶ The authors “report world-first evidence that high CO2 levels in sea water disrupts a key brain receptor in fish, causing marked changes in their behaviour and sensory ability.”¶ We’ve known for quite some time about the threat global warming and human activity poses to marine life (see Nature Geoscience study concludes ocean dead zones “devoid of fish and seafood” are poised to expand and “remain for thousands of years“). And we’ve known the threat ocean acidification poses to shell-forming mollusks and crustaceans (see The Great Oyster Crash and Why Ocean Acidification Is “A Ticking Time Bomb” for Both Marine Life and Humanity and links below).¶ Here’s more on this ground-breaking new paper:¶ “We’ve found that

elevated CO2 in the oceans can directly interfere with fish neurotransmitter functions, which poses a direct and previously unknown threat to sea life,” Prof. Munday says.¶ Prof. Munday and his colleagues began by studying how baby clown and damsel fishes performed alongside their predators in CO2-enriched water. They found that, while the predators were somewhat affected, the baby fish suffered much higher rates of attrition.¶ “Our early work showed that the sense of smell of baby fish was harmed by higher CO2 in the water – meaning they found it harder to locate a reef to settle on or detect the warning smell of a predator fish. But we suspected there was much more to it than the loss of ability to smell.”¶ The team then examined whether fishes’ sense of hearing – used to locate and home in on reefs at

night, and avoid them during the day – was affected. “The answer is, yes it was. They were confused and no longer avoided

reef sounds during the day. Being attracted to reefs during daylight would make them easy meat for predators.”¶ Other work showed the fish also tended to lose their natural instinct to turn left or right – an important factor in schooling behaviour which also makes them more vulnerable, as lone fish are easily eaten by predators.¶ “All this led us to suspect it wasn’t simply damage to their individual senses that was going on – but rather, that higher levels of carbon dioxide were affecting their whole central nervous system.”¶ The team’s latest research shows that high CO2 directly stimulates a receptor in the fish brain called GABA-A, leading to a reversal in its normal function and over-excitement of certain nerve signals.¶ While most animals with brains have GABA-A receptors, the team considers the effects of elevated CO2 are likely to be most felt by those living in water, as they have lower blood CO2 levels normally. The main impact is likely to be felt by some crustaceans and by most fishes, especially those which use a lot of oxygen.¶ Prof. Munday said that around 2.3 billion tonnes of human CO2 emissions dissolve into the world’s oceans every year, causing changes in the chemical environment of the water in which fish and other species live.¶ “We’ve now established it isn’t simply the acidification of the oceans that is causing disruption – as is the case with shellfish and plankton with chalky

skeletons – but the actual dissolved CO2 itself is damaging the fishes’ nervous systems.”¶ The work shows that fish with high oxygen consumption are likely to be most affected, suggesting the effects of high CO2 may impair some species worse than others –

possibly including important species targeted by the world’s fishing industries.¶ Catastrophic global warming from unrestricted emissions of greenhouse gases remains the gravest preventable threat to humanity, biodiversity and food security (see “Nature Publishes My Piece on Dust-Bowlification and the Grave Threat It Poses to Food Security“).¶ The time to act was along time ago, but now is better than waiting until we have irreversibly destroyed our ability to feed the 9 billion people we are projected to have by midcentury.

Ocean acidification threatens global food securityKirshenbaum, Fellow with the Center for Biodiversity and Conservation at the American Museum of Natural History, 11(Sheril, 9/24/11, Climate Progress, “We’re Poisoning the Oceans and It Threatens Our Food,” http://thinkprogress.org/climate/2011/09/24/319739/were-poisoning-the-oceans-and-it-threatens-our-food/, 6/29/14, SM)Marine chemist Richard Feely, a senior scientist with the National Oceanic and Atmosphere Administration, has been collecting water samples in the North Pacific for over 30 years. He’s observed a decrease in pH at the upper part of the water column, notably the region where carbon dioxide from automobile exhaust, coal-fired power plants, and other human activities has collected. This surface water is now acidic enough to dissolve the shells of some marine animals such as corals, plankton, and mollusks in laboratory experiments. Feely’s findings are just one sign of a troubling global phenomenon called ocean acidification.¶ We spend a lot of time worrying about carbon dioxide in the atmosphere, as a form of pollution and also as a key greenhouse gas that traps solar heat. But we pay less attention to the effects emissions have in the ocean. There is

no debate that rapidly increasing seawater acidity is the result of man-made carbon emissions. ¶ “The chemistry of the uptake of carbon dioxide and its changing pH of seawater is very, very clear,” explains Feely.¶ The oceans absorb an estimated 22 million tons of CO2 from the atmosphere every day. This buffers the greenhouse effect by drawing the planet-warming gas out of the atmosphere and storing it in water, but at a great cost to ocean life. This carbon mixes with the salt water to create carbonic acid, which immediately breaks

down, forming bicarbonate and hydrogen. And this excess hydrogen increases the water’s acidity.¶ Higher acidity, in turn, makes life difficult for marine animals by hampering their ability to form shells and skeletons. For microscopic plankton and many other species at the base of marine food chains, this means slower growth and potential population decline. These problems trickle up to affect the large fish that depend on smaller organisms for food.¶ Acidification also causes some coral species to grow more slowly or disappear. Since coral reefs support 25 percent of the ocean’s species of fish, this spells widespread trouble. Marine ecosystems are so interconnected, in fact, that scientists cannot predict the full effects of acidification. They only know that changes in the availability of food and in community structure can scale up quickly.¶ Carbon emissions released since the start of the industrial revolution have sped the process of ocean acidification, leaving little time for plants and animals to adapt to altered conditions. Scientists now anticipate an average pH decline from 8.1 units to 7.8 in oceans by the end of this century. According to John Guinotte, a marine biogeographer at the Marine Biology Conservation Institute, in Washington, D.C., human activity is now increasing the amount of CO2 in the ocean at an accelerating rate. “Unless we alter human behavior,” he warns,

“we may experience irreversible shifts in the marine environment that can have dire consequences for life on Earth.”¶ An international team of marine biologists recently traveled to Papua New Guinea where excess CO2 released from volcanic activity has already decreased local ocean pH to the levels that are expected globally by 2100. In this area, they found that more than 90 percent of the region’s coral reef species were lost. The study provided a glimpse of how oceans might one day change around the world and serves as a warning that we must curb carbon emissions as quickly as possible.¶ For us on land, ocean acidification will do more than raise the cost of seafood. A decline in reefs worldwide, for example, would make coastal communities more vulnerable to storm surges and hurricanes. Meanwhile, the fishing and shellfish industries stand to lose hundreds of millions of dollars, and countless jobs, because of acidification’s effects on shellfish, as well as associated changes in the populations of larger species. In the United States, oyster hatcheries in the Pacific Northwest have already experienced reduced shell growth due to higher acidity levels. No one can predict the full consequences of

ocean acidification, but it’s clear our own species will experience them in many ways.¶ “About one billion people throughout the world depend on protein from fish for survival, so we have to think about what this means for international food security,” explains Feely.

Anthro

Massive Amounts of CO2 in the Ocean Causes Spike in Ocean Acidification- Effecting marine food chains and is anthropogenic. National Geographics, No Date (National Geographic Society, “Ocean Acidification”, http://ocean.nationalgeographic.com/ocean/critical-issues-ocean-acidification/, 6/27/14, ML)

For tens of millions of years, Earth's oceans have maintained a relatively stable acidity level. It's within this steady environment that the rich

and varied web of life in today's seas has arisen and flourished. But research shows that this ancient balance is being undone by a recent and rapid drop in surface pH that could have devastating global consequences. Since the beginning of the industrial revolution in the early 1800s, fossil fuel-powered machines have driven an unprecedented burst of human industry and

advancement. The unfortunate consequence, however, has been the emission of billions of tons of carbon dioxide (CO2) and other greenhouse gases into Earth's atmosphere. Scientists now know that about half of this anthropogenic, or man-made, CO2 has been absorbed over time by the oceans. This has benefited us by slowing the climate change these emissions would have instigated if they had remained in the air. But relatively new research is finding that the

introduction of massive amounts of CO2 into the seas is altering water chemistry and affecting the life cycles of many marine organisms, particularly those at the lower end of the food chain.

Ocean Acidification-Anthropogenic- Decreases life in reefs and habitat.GBRMP, No Date (Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority), No Date (GBRMP, “Impacts of ocean acidification on the Reef”, 6/27/14, ML).

In the long-term, ocean acidification is likely to be the most significant impact of a changing climate on the Great Barrier Reef ecosystem. The oceans absorb carbon dioxide (CO2) from the atmosphere and are estimated to have absorbed about half the excess CO2 released by human activities in the past 200 years. About half of this anthropogenic CO2 (carbon dioxide in the atmosphere resulting from human activities, such as the burning of fossil fuels, rather than natural processes) is in the upper 10 per cent of oceans (less than 1000 metres depth) due to slow ocean mixing processes. This absorbed CO2 is resulting in chemical changes in the ocean, and is estimated to have caused a decrease in oceanic pH of 0.1.

This is referred to as ocean acidification as the oceans are becoming more acidic (though technically they are still alkaline). As carbon dioxide (CO2) is absorbed from the atmosphere it bonds with sea water forming carbonic acid. This acid then releases a bicarbonate ion and a hydrogen ion. The hydrogen ion bonds with free carbonate ions in the water forming another bicarbonate ion. That carbonate would otherwise be available to marine animals for making calcium carbonate shells and skeletons. So the more dissolved carbon dioxide

in the ocean, the less free carbonate ions available for making calcium carbonate. Although the chemistry of ocean acidification is simple and well understood, its effect on marine life is much less well-known as the process has only been recognised for less

than a decade. Even relatively small increases in ocean acidity decrease the capacity of corals to build skeletons, which in turn decreases their capacity to create habitat for the Reef's marine life.

Warming is real and happening now—multiple indicatorsBiello, Associate Editor of Environment and Energy at Scientific American, 13(David, 9/27/13, Biello has been reporting on the environment and energy since 1999, and reports for Yale Environment 360.Scientific American, Scientific American, “Global Warming Is Real IPCC Repeats--Now Can We Do Something about It?,” http://www.scientificamerican.com/article/ipcc-reiterates-global-warming-is-real/, 6/27/14, SM)

Global warming is "unequivocal." Sea levels are creeping up at the fastest rate in 2,000 years. Concentrations of CO2 in the atmosphere have reached "levels unprecedented in at least the last 800,000 years" (or before modern humans evolved). Most importantly "human influence on the climate system is clear" and "continued emissions of greenhouse gases will cause further warming." Those are some of the key messages in the "Summary for Policymakers" of the

physical science of global warming from the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change released on September 27.¶ "The planet is red" in a global map of the change in average surface temperatures, noted Swiss climate scientist Thomas Stocker, co-chair of IPCC Working Group I

responsible for this summary at a press conference. "The world is warming."¶ In the time since the 2007 version of this report, the human effect on the climate has grown more than 40 percent stronger, thanks to continued emissions of greenhouse gases and more precision in measurements, with carbon dioxide leading the charge. That molecule—released by the gigaton from human activities like fossil fuel burning and clearing forests—causes the bulk of global warming. The good news is that extreme global warming by century's end, anything above 3 degrees C or more, seems "extremely unlikely," in the words of the IPCC.¶ That's a fact likely to be seized on by those who wish to deny climate change. But, in some sense, this summary is aimed directly at countering some of the misinformation and misinterpretation around climate change. So the report notes that the current "pause" in new global average temperature records since 1998—a year that saw the second strongest El Nino on record and shattered warming records—does not reflect the long-term trend and may be explained by the oceans absorbing the majority of the extra heat trapped by greenhouse gases as well as the cooling contributions of volcanic eruptions. The Medieval Warm Period was only a regional anomaly, not the kind of global warming seen now. After all, 1983-2012 appears to

have been the warmest period in at least the last 1400 years and the last decade alone is the warmest on record.¶ And the

list of impacts just grows longer. Ice all over the world is melting, particularly in the Arctic, a trend that will continue

unabated. Ocean circulation looks set to change, with unpredictable effects, and the oceans will become more acidic as well. Almost all of the world's coastlines will be affected by sea level rise. And developed countries and emerging economies have burned through more than half of the fossil fuels possible to keep total concentrations of CO2 in the atmosphere at a level that gives the world a chance to keep global warming below 2 degrees Celsius. (Interestingly, the IPCC has shifted from talking about concentrations in the atmosphere, like 400 parts-per-million, to total carbon budget in gigatons. Since 1880, 531 gigatons have been emitted and emissions should not exceed 800 gigatons of C for a better than 50-50 chance at keeping global temperature rise below 2 degree C.) "We cannot emit more than 1000 billion tons of carbon," Stocker says, noting that the IPCC numbers on which such regional and global climate projections are made will be available to anyone. "The higher the cumulative carbon emissions are, the warmer it gets."

Reefs Resilient

New evidence shows reefs have the potential to survive, even with ocean acidificationRichard, Editor of Science and Technology at TreeHugger, 14Rising carbon emission from the burning of fossil fuels is increasing the acidity of Earth's oceans. That's very bad for coral reefs, because in acidic environments they can't form calcium carbonate, the building block of their exoskeletons. This, in turn, is very bad because coral reefs are biodiversity hotspots that contain a disproportionally high percentage of the oceans' species relative to their size. Well, there's at least one exception to every rule, apparently. Scientists have found a coral reef in the western Pacific that is thriving in acidic water conditions. This reef is doing so well in fact that it had higher biodiversity than neighboring reefs despite having a higher level of acidity! The researchers still haven't figured out why these corals are doing so well in these seemingly inhospitable conditions. They think it could be some unique combination of chemical and biological factors, and this discovery shouldn't be taken to mean that coral reefs will do fine in a more acid ocean. This is a local aberration as far as we know, and we still need to do everything we can to reduce carbon emissions, both to combat climate change and save ocean species that depend on a certain PH level to live. But still, studying this special coral reef could help us better understand how ocean acidification affects corals and what we can do to help them.

Coral Reefs ResilientThe Ocean Portal Team, no date(The Ocean Portal Team, no date, Smithsonian Institute, “Ocean Acidification”, http://ocean.si.edu/ocean-acidification, 6/29/14, JW)Reef-building corals craft their own homes from calcium carbonate, forming complex reefs that house the coral animals themselves and provide habitat for many other organisms. Acidification may limit coral growth by corroding pre-existing coral skeletons while simultaneously slowing the growth of new ones, and the weaker reefs that result will be more vulnerable to erosion. This erosion will come not only from storm waves, but also from animals that drill into or eat coral. By the middle of the century, it’s possible that even otherwise healthy coral reefs will be eroding more quickly than they can rebuild. Acidification may also impact corals before they even begin constructing their homes. The eggs and larvae of only a few coral species have been studied, and more acidic water didn’t hurt their development while they were still in the plankton. However, larvae in acidic water had more trouble finding a good place to settle, preventing them from reaching adulthood. How much trouble corals run into will vary by species. Some types of coral can use bicarbonate instead of carbonate ions to build their skeletons, which gives them more options in an acidifying ocean. Some can survive without a skeleton and return to normal skeleton-building activities once the water returns to a more comfortable pH. Others can handle a wider pH range. Nonetheless, in the next century we will see the common types of coral found in reefs shifting—though we can't be entirely certain what that change will look like. On reefs in Papua New Guinea that are affected by natural carbon dioxide seeps, big boulder colonies have taken over and the delicately branching forms have disappeared, probably because their thin branches are more susceptible to dissolving. This change is also likely to affect the many thousands of organisms that live among the coral, including those that people fish and eat, in unpredictable ways. In addition, acidification gets piled on top of all the other stresses that reefs have been suffering from, such as warming water (which causes another threat to reefs known as coral bleaching), pollution, and overfishing.

Biodiversity advantage:

UQ

Biodiversity loss is likely irreversible – Fix it nowFitzpatrick, CDC-trained medical epidemiologist and board-certified infectious diseases physician with both domestic and global experience in public health, 2010(Lisa, No Date, Global Environment Facility, “Defying Extinction: PartnershiPs to safeguard global biodiversity”,http://www.thegef.org/gef/sites/thegef.org/files/publication/defying-extinction.pdf, 6/26/14, SJ)

Of all environmental ills, biodiversity loss is the only ¶ one likely to be irreversible.¶ Unfortunately, biodiversity is being lost today at a scale that will threaten ¶ the life-support systems that sustain societies and economies , particularly ¶ in the developing world. The Global Environment Facility was established ¶ as the financial mechanism of the Convention on Biological Diversity, helping ¶ developing and transition countries to meet their bold commitments before ¶ this international accord. Since 1991, the GEF has invested over $2.9 billion, ¶ leveraging $8.3 billion in co-financing, to support implementation of more ¶ than 1000 projects in more than 155 countries, to conserve and sustainably ¶ use biodiversity

Rate of extinction growing– Must stop nowChappell, Doctor of Philosophy, 2009 (Michael, No date, PUB, "FROM FOOD SECURITY TO FARM TO FORMICIDAE: BELO HORIZONTE, BRAZIL’S SECRETARIA MUNICIPAL DE ABASTECIMENTO AND BIODIVERSITY IN THE FRAGMENTED ATLANTIC RAINFOREST, "http://deepblue.lib.umich.edu/bitstream/handle/2027.42/62417/mjahi_1.pdf?sequence=1L, 6/26/14, SJ)

¶ ¶ Given the scope and complexities involved, exact estimates of biodiversity loss are ¶ ¶ difficult at best, making estimation of the species lost solely due to agriculture or population ¶ ¶ expansion nearly impossible. Today, there are an estimated 13 million species in the world,¶ though

estimates range from 3 million to 111 million. As outlined earlier, the current rate of ¶ ¶ extinction is potentially thousands of times higher than the rate estimated for most of ¶ ¶ evolutionary history , and is only increasing (Lawton and May 1995; Gaston and Fuller 2007). ¶ ¶ Based on studies of prior global extinction events, Alroy (2008) estimated that if similar

levels of ¶ ¶ extinction are seen (from 32 to 81% losses of global biodiversity), it may take between 10 and 40 ¶ ¶ million years for biodiversity levels to recover. Such numbers are clearly a reason for pause: ¶ ¶ Beyond intrinsic and fundamental cultural values offered by the diversity of earth’s lifeforms, ¶ ¶ natural and biodiverse systems offer a number of other ecosystem services, including erosion ¶ ¶ control, groundwater and nutrient retention, carbon sequestration, pollination, pest control, ¶ ¶ nutrient recycling, climate regulation, flood and drought mitigation, air and water remediation, ¶ ¶ aesthetic values, recreation and leisure (Daily 1997; Prugh et al. 2000; Hooper et al. 2005). ¶

Biodiversity Rates are increasing – Resolve the Issue nowUNEP, 2007(UNEP, No Date, "Biodiversity", http://www.unep.org/geo/geo4/report/05_Biodiversity.pdf, SJ)

¶ Although about 2 million species have been ¶ described, the total number of species range between ¶ 5 and 30 million (IUCN 2006, May 1992). Much of ¶ this uncertainty relates to the most species-rich groups ¶ such as invertebrates. ¶ Current documented

rates of extinction are estimated ¶ to be roughly 100 times higher than typical rates in ¶ the fossil record (MA 2005). Although conservation ¶ success in the recovery of several threatened ¶ species has been noted (IUCN 2006), and a few ¶ species that

were presumed extinct have been ¶ rediscovered (Baillie and others 2004), it is feasible ¶ that extinction rates will increase to the order of ¶ 1 000–10 000 times background rates over the ¶ coming decades (MA 2005).¶ Fewer than 10 per cent of the world’s

described ¶ species have thus far been assessed to determine ¶ their conservation status. Of these, over 16 000 ¶ species have been identified as threatened with ¶ extinction . Of the major vertebrate groups that have ¶ been comprehensively assessed, over 30 per cent of ¶ amphibians, 23 per cent of mammals and 12 per cent ¶ of birds are threatened (IUCN 2006).¶ To understand trends in extinction risk, the conservation ¶ status of an entire species group must be assessed ¶ at regular intervals. Currently, this information is only ¶ available

for birds and amphibians, both of which ¶ indicate a continuing increase in the risk of extinction ¶ from the 1980s to 2004 (Baillie and others 2004, ¶ Butchart and others 2005, IUCN 2006). ¶ The threat status of species is not evenly distributed. ¶ Tropical moist forests contain by far the highest ¶ number of threatened species, followed by tropical ¶ dry forests, montane grasslands and dry shrublands. ¶ The distribution of threatened species in freshwater ¶ habitats is poorly known, but regional assessments ¶ from the United States, the

Mediterranean Basin ¶ and elsewhere indicate that freshwater species are, ¶ in general, at much greater risk of extinction than ¶ terrestrial taxa (Smith and Darwall 2006, Stein ¶ and others 2000). Fisheries have also been greatly ¶ depleted, with 75 per cent of the world’s fish stocks ¶ fully or overexploited (see Chapter 4).¶ The Living Planet Index measures trends in the ¶ abundance of species for which data is available ¶ around the world (Loh and Wackernagel 2004). ¶ Despite the fact that invertebrates comprise the vast ¶ majority of species, trend indices for invertebrate ¶ groups only exist for a very small number of species ¶ groups, such as butterflies in Europe (Van Swaay ¶ 1990, Thomas and others 2004a). The existing limited ¶ information suggests that invertebrate and vertebrate ¶ population declines may be similar, but further studies ¶ are required (Thomas and others 2004b).

Biodiversity low now—species extinction rates faster than everNational Science Foundation 12(6/6/12, National Science Foundation, “Ecologists call for preservation of planet's remaining biological diversity,” http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2012/06/120606164938.htm, 6/28/14, SM) Twenty years after the Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro, 17 ecologists are calling for renewed international efforts to curb the loss of Earth's biological diversity.¶ The loss is compromising nature's ability to provide goods and services essential for human well-being, the scientists say.¶ Over the past two decades, strong scientific evidence has emerged showing that decline of the world's biological diversity reduces the productivity and sustainability of ecosystems, according to an international team led by the University of Michigan's Bradley Cardinale.¶ It also decreases ecosystems' ability to provide society with goods and services like food, wood, fodder, fertile soils and protection from pests and disease.¶ "Water purity, food production and air quality are easy to take for granted, but all are largely provided by communities of organisms," said George Gilchrist, program director in the National Science Foundation's Division of Environmental Biology, which funded the research.¶ "This paper demonstrates that it is not simply the quantity of living things, but their species, genetic and trait biodiversity, that influences the

delivery of many essential 'ecosystem services.'''¶ Human actions are dismantling ecosystems, resulting in species extinctions at rates several orders of magnitude faster than observed in the fossil record.

Biodiversity low now—multiple warrants:

a. Introduction of new speciesImtiyaz, Researcher at the Department of Marine Sciences at Bhavnagar University, 13(B. Belim, 5/1/13, P. Dhone Sweta, K. Kaba Prakash, Academia, “Threats to Marine Biodiversity,” http://www.academia.edu/3424137/Threats_to_Marine_Biodiversity, 6/28/14, SM)The introduction of harmful aquatic organisms to new marine environments is believed to be one of the four greatest threats to the world’s oceans. An alien species is one that has been intentionally or accidentally transported and released into an environment outside of its historic geographical range. Such species are described as ‘invasive’ if they are

ecologically and/or economically harmful. Invasive species can dramatically change the structure and function of marine ecosystems by changing biodiversity and eliminating vital components of the food chain. These species are harm-ful to native biodiversity in a number of ways, for example, as competitors, predators, parasites, or by spreading disease. Ships use water as ballast to adjust their position in the water to improve their maneuverability and stability. Mariners typically pump water into ballast tanks at one port and discharge it when taking on cargo at another port. Mariners have unintentionally transplanted locally native marine species to new areas with the ballast water. The arrival of an invasive jellyfish-like organism,¶ Mnemiopsis leidyi¶ , led to a major ecological “regime change” in the Black Sea, which contributed to the collapse of commercial fisheries in the region. Many other species have been introduced as planktonic larvae in ballast water. There are many alien species: Many seaweeds like red alga (¶ Kappaphycus striatum),¶ zebra mussel¶ (Dreisssena polymorpha),¶ lion fish (Aquarium fish),¶ Caulerpa taxifolia

b. OverexploitationImtiyaz, Researcher at the Department of Marine Sciences at Bhavnagar University, 13(B. Belim, 5/1/13, P. Dhone Sweta, K. Kaba Prakash, Academia, “Threats to Marine Biodiversity,” http://www.academia.edu/3424137/Threats_to_Marine_Biodiversity, 6/28/14, SM)OVER EXPLOITATION¶ ¶ Overexploitation can lead to resource depletion and put a number of threatened and endangered species at risk for extinction. A greater variety of species at a higher trophic level is exploited in the sea than on

land: humans exploit over 400 species as food resources from the marine environment. The exponential growth of human population experienced in last decades has lead to an overexploitation of marine living resources to meet growing demand for food. Worldwide, fishing fleets are two to three times as large as needed to take present day catches of fish and other marine species. The

use of modern techniques to facilitate harvesting, transport and storage has accelerated the over exploitation. Thus a total of almost 80% of the world’s fisheries are fully to overexploited, depleted, or in a state of collapse. Recently, a study

showed that 29% of fish and seafood species have collapsed (i.e. their catch has declined by 90%) and are projected to collapse within by 2048, unless immediate action is taken. Worldwide about 90% of the stocks of large predatory fish stocks are already collapsed. Target species are generally the most impacted by over exploitation. Overfishing is far the biggest threat for the species listed as endangered or vulnerable to extinction. Overfishing is threatening many other species, particularly large sized fishes such as tunas, swordfish, and sharks.

c. Habitat destructionImtiyaz, Researcher at the Department of Marine Sciences at Bhavnagar University, 13(B. Belim, 5/1/13, P. Dhone Sweta, K. Kaba Prakash, Academia, “Threats to Marine Biodiversity,” http://www.academia.edu/3424137/Threats_to_Marine_Biodiversity, 6/28/14, SM)HABITAT DESTRUCTION¶ Loss of habitat is the major reason why aquatic biodiversity is declining. Habitat destruction and fragmentation is a process that describes the emergences of discontinuities (fragmentation) or the loss (destruction) of the

environment inhabited by an organism. Approximately 20% of the world’s coral reefs were lost and an additional 20% degraded in the last several decades of the twentieth century, and approximately 35% of mangrove area was

lost during this time. When a species goes extinct, all the genetic information carried by individuals of that species is lost forever, never to be reproduced again. Extinction is a terrible waste of life and a loss of potential solutions to

future problems such as possible cures to disease and solutions for survival in a changing world. Declining biodiversity worldwide is a major and ongoing environmental dilemma. For ex: - Rising temperatures, rising sea levels, and other trends will have an effect on the world’s 6species of sea turtles. All over the world, divers catch the fish that live in and around coral reefs. But the divers want lots of fish and most of them are not very well trained at fish catching. Another way that divers catch coral reef fish is with cyanide a poison. The divers pour poison on the reef, which stuns the fish and kills the coral. This poison kills 90% of the fish that live in the reef and the reef is

completely destroyed both by the poison and then by being ripped apart. Mangrove forests are routinely being cleared, with huge impacts on biodiversity. Healthy mangrove forests provide a critical habitat for many species in intertidal and estuarine

areas and are key to a healthy marine environment. Elevated water temperatures cause bleaching and encourage disease. A combination of melting ice caps and thermal expansion of water in the oceans means that many low lying island states will be submerged. Many coastal areas and estuaries will be flooded by the sea, while an increase in extreme weather patterns will increase erosion and flooding. It is possible that even the fundamental patterns of ocean circulation which largely govern the earth’s climate will be changed, leading to widespread disruption of both ocean and terrestrial ecosystems.

Biodiversity low now—because of human activitiesKnight, environment reporter for CNN, 11(Matthew, 4/6/11, CNN, “New study warns on coral reef diversity,” http://www.cnn.com/2011/WORLD/americas/04/05/coral.reef.destruction.study/, 6/28/14, SM)The world's most diverse coral reef regions may be under greater threat from human populations than previously thought, according to a new global scientific field study.¶ Researchers reporting in the journal PlosBiology say that the

diverse reef fish systems are the most impaired by human populations -- which runs counter to previous experimental findings which have suggested that these areas were best equipped to deal with biodiversity loss.¶ "Before, we thought diversity was an insurance against human stressors but it is actually a weakness," said Camilo Mora from Canada's Dalhousie University, and lead author of the study.¶ The study, which involved researchers from 49 countries, is the first global analysis which tries to link production of coral fish biomass with human population density.¶ Over a two-year period, researchers gathered biological field data from nearly 2000 reef sites worldwide detailing fish species' weight, size and abundance, enabling them to calculate the cumulative weight of individual reefs (standing

biomass). These results were then compared against demographic data.¶ The hampering effects of human activities -- fishing,

coastal development, pollution and tourism -- on reef diversity are well known, but the damage to the ones with most

biodiversity -- many of which are situation in Southeast Asia --alarmed the scientists.¶ Unfortunately, we find again and again that our global population cannot be sustainably supported with the deterioration of the world's natural resources. They don't yet understand why these diverse ecosystems are so adversely affected, but they suggest it could be because of the depletion of larger fish species -- which are more efficient at turning food into biomass.¶ What is clear though, say the scientists, is that the results of the global survey suggest that

biodiversity loss in diverse reef areas has been "considerably underestimated" and that they are more vulnerable to human expansion.¶ With 75% of the world's reefs situated near human settlements -- whose populations are expected to double over the coming century -- the situation can only deteriorate if no action is taken, which poses some uncomfortable questions, Mora thinks.¶ "Human overpopulation is a very sensitive topic across endeavors from science to religion and politics. Unfortunately, we find again and again that our global population cannot be sustainably supported with the deterioration of the world's natural resources..." Mora said.¶ "Thus, identifying socially and politically acceptable solutions to curb human population growth is at the core of finding ultimate solutions for the protection of biodiversity and the prevention of unnecessary hardship," he added. ¶ While the continuing

depletion of reef fish systems is a cause for great concern, on a slightly more positive note, the scientists also found there are no limits to the beneficial effects biodiversity can have on the functioning of reef fish systems.¶ Previous results based on experimental studies have led scientists to conclude that the functioning of coral reefs -- as measured by the standing biomass -- stabilizes once a certain number of species is reached.¶ But the survey data contradicted these findings, showing instead that reef ecosystems have no saturation point, and continue to increase in their efficiency as species' numbers rise.¶ "If you look at all the information we have so far it has been found that the number of species usually doesn't have an additional effect on how well the system functions," Mora said.¶ "In coral reefs

we found the complete opposite. Ecosystems work much better if they have more biodiversity. Every single species has a unique contribution to how well an ecosystem functions."

Reefs Key to BioD

Coral reefs are key to biodiversityBiello ‘10(David, 1/7/10, associate editor of Scientific American, “ Another Reason to Save Coral? Reefs Are Responsible for Ocean Biodiversity”, http://www.scientificamerican.com/article/coral-reefs-responsible-for-ocean-biodiversity/, 6/24/14, AG)

"In the oceans, new species and genera tend to originate in the tropics and in the shallows near shore," says paleobiologist Carl Simpson of Humboldt University in Berlin, one of the researchers on the new paper. By using a massive collection of data on fossils from mollusks to South American mammals, which records where a fossil was found, how often it is found and what accompanied it, Simpson and his colleagues find "that a majority of genera first evolve in reefs and then later expand to other habitats." In fact, of the 6,615 seabed invertebrates surveyed in the so-called Paleobiology Database , 1,426 evolved in a reef ecosystem. And the

result is not just an artifact of reef and shallow-water fossils being relatively more studied. "Reefs are actually rare compared to other habitats," Simpson notes. "If anything, there is a bias against finding that reefs are cradles."The phemonenon of reefs acting as cradles of biodiversity seems to have peaked in the Paleozoic—from 542 million to 251 million years ago—for reasons that are unclear. One possibility is that by seeding other environments with new species, reefs undercut their own preeminence as cradles. "The consequence would be that reefs become one of many important cradles, rather than the most common cradle," Simpson says.And reefs do not seem to have helped the oceans rebound from mass extinction events, like the one at the end of the Paleozoic era that wiped out as much as 90 percent of marine life. That's likely because "reef-building as a process had to recover from mass extinction events, because the ecosystem engineers that built reefs were severely affected," says marine scientist Richard Aronson of the Florida Institute of Technology, who was not involved with the study. "Reefs in general were not available to enhance biodiversity rebound because they first had to be reconstituted as viable ecosystems."But coral reefs do offer a variety of ecological niches and "bumpiness," as Aronson puts it, or a "great variety of physical spaces, [water]

flow regimes and other ecological opportunities." That has made them cradles not just for sponges and the like but also snails, shrimps, urchins, fishes and even extinct animals like trilobites . Plus, vicious competition for space and food on a reef leads to a lot of "turnover," Simpson notes, or extinctions that allow for new species to develop as new habitats form or ecological niches open. "If turnover is high, then the brief window of opportunity for new species is a common occurrence."According to some mathematical estimates, 99.9 percent of all species that have ever existed are now extinct. As it stands, estimates of the number of species on Earth at present range from five million to as many as 100 million, with science having identified only two million members of the biodiversity extant today. That means literally billions of species have come and gone in the 4.5 billion years Earth has existed.New research will be needed to determine exactly why reefs are such efficient cradles for new life-forms. But the threats faced by coral today—from rising ocean acidity to agricultural runoff and rampant disease—do not bode well for marine biodiversity in the near future. After all, it is possible that during mass extinction events the destruction of reefs might have played a role in the decline of diversity in other marine environments, as well. As Aronson asks: "If modern reefs continue to degrade, will that have cascading evolutionary consequences for other ecosystems by cutting off the supply of new genera?"

We Must Preserve Coral Reefs-Freshwater Discharge of Sediments causes their death and in turn, kills Bio-d Marder, Scientific Journalist at PBS, 11 (Jenny, 1/13/11, Lehrer Productions, “Australia Flooding Threatens Already Sensitive Great Barrier Reef”, http://www.pbs.org/newshour/rundown/flooding-threatens-already-sensitive-great-barrier-reef/, 6/25/14, ML)

The Great Barrier Reef is long and vast, stretching 1,430 miles along Australia’s northern coast. Its coral reefs provide habitat and hiding places for tens of thousands of species. The shoreline is the hardest hit by the floods, with flood plumes remaining pressed against the shore by winds and tide. Coral reefs have endured flooding in the past, but today’s floods are bigger, dirtier and more dangerous, scientists say. “Freshwater discharge has always occurred but not with the loads of pollutants we now see,” says Jon Brodie, Principle Researcher for James Cook University’s Australian Centre for Tropical Freshwater Research. Corals are sensitive to any environmental disturbance, and the high level of sediments, mass amounts of fresh water and nutrients from fertilizers and other toxic chemicals all pose high risk.

And coral is already weakened by destructive fishing, ocean acidification and warming water temperatures, which cause bleaching, and death. “The coral reefs now affected have been seeing floods for many hundreds of years,” says Katharina Fabricius, principal research scientist for the Australian Institute of Marine Science. “What has changed is that the loads of nutrients, and sediments have increased four to tenfold.” Fresh water reduces the seawater’s salinity, killing coral. All topsoil carries nutrients, which can smother and clog the corals and block photosynthesis. And sediments remaining for a long time in the system could lead to unchecked growth of algae blooms and reduced biodiversity, as well as an outbreak of crown-of-thorns starfish, a sea star that preys upon coral, Fabricius says. Each female starfish produces 60 million eggs, and scientists are concerned that a flood might produce the first outbreak in 15 years. Plus, seagrass beds and mangroves, which also may be damaged from the floods, normally help to filter out dangerous sediments, says Helen Fox, senior marine scientist in the World Wildlife Fund’s conservation science program. “And you can imagine how big flooding events literally swamp their ability to do that.”

Coral Reefs Key To Bio Diversity- Millions of species build up the diversity that translates into humans lives.WWF, No Date (WWF, “Coral Reefs”, http://wwf.panda.org/about_our_earth/blue_planet/coasts/coral_reefs/, 6/25/14, ML)

Coral reefs are home to 25% of all marine life on the planet. In fact the variety of life supported by coral reefs rivals that of the tropical forests of the Amazon or New Guinea. But without urgent action to address climate change, pollution, overfishing and other threats these beautiful and life-sustaining organisms could disappear. The total area of the world's coral reefs amounts to less than one quarter of 1% of the entire marine environment. Yet some estimates put the total diversity of life found in, on, and around all coral reefs at up to 2 million species. All up, reefs are home to 25% of all marine life, and form the nurseries for about a quarter of the ocean's fish - including commercially important species that could end up on your dinner plate any night of the week. This biodiversity translates directly into food security, income, and a multitude of other benefits to people. For example, although scientists have only just begun to understand how reefs can contribute to medicine, already coral reef organisms are being used in treatments for diseases like cancer and HIV. For many coastal areas, coral reefs also provide an important barrier against the worst ravages of storms, hurricanes, and typhoons. As thousands of communities across the world will tell you, coral reefs are essential not only to ocean health, but also to human health and well-being.

Coral Reefs Key to Bio DUniversity of Michigan Research Laboratories, no date (University of Michigan, http://sitemaker.umich.edu/gc2sec7labgroup3/over-fishing, 6/25/14, ML)

The biodiversity of reefs supports the aquarium and aquaculture industries, biomedical industry and other commercial industries. The management of coral reef fishers falls across several groups, including NOAA through the regional fishery management councils, and state, territory commonwealth and local agencies. Because over-fishing has become a huge problem in the Great Barrier Reefs, the Australian government has had to make plans in order to help future projections. Overfishing of important herbivores

has only been increasing over the past few decades. Direct overexploitation of different fishes and invertebrates by recreational, subsistence, and commercial fisheries has resulted in the rapid decline in populations. The

NOAA has proof that overfishing effects fish size, abundance, species composition and genotypic diversity.

Also, overexploitation of marine organisms contributes to the degradation of coral reef ecosystems as a whole. (Puglise, K.A) A domino effect comes into play when overfishing occurs in or around a coral reef. First we have to take a closer look into the food web of a coral reef. It is important to know that each specific plant and animal species has an important role and function in the coral reef ecosystem, they require certain environments, nutrients and are dependent on other organisms (The Coral Reef Food Chain). These

relationships among other species are crucial to the survival of coral reefs. The food chain goes as follows: producers, which are photosynthetic organisms and have a key role in the reef system because they are not only the base of the food chain but all of the energy for the system comes from them (The Coral Reef Food Chain). Also, these producers are key to reef-building corals (The Coral Reef Food Chain). The reef-building corals have a relationship with the zooxanthellae, plant-like organisms that photosynthesis for reefs (The Coral Reef Food Chain). Then these producers are eaten by the consumers, which are either herbivores or carnivores (The Coral Reef Food Chain). It is important to notice that for coral reefs specifically some carnivores eat and keep in check the coral reefs themselves. “Fishing for a particular species obviously affects that species directly, but it also affects the animals and/or plants in both directions along the food chain -

the predators and the prey of the fish will both be affected, and changes to them will also affect their predators and prey,

and so on” (The Coral Reef Food Chain). A specific example includes the grouper fish, a very popular fish to eat, can be found in the Great Barrier Reef (Coral Reefs). The overfishing of grouper in some cases has led to an increase of damselfish, which is a major food supply for the Grouper fish. Damselfish, help create pockets in corals that are important for coral reef life (Coral Reefs). That's where the algae the damselfish feed upon grow (Coral Reefs). If the damselfish population isn’t controlled by natural predation, these algae can take over a reef,

eventually killing it (Coral Reefs). Overfishing of other herbivorous fishes can also lead to high levels of algal growth in different cases. Destructive fishing techniques can have direct physical impacts on reef environments or create a deceit of certain species in the ecosystem. Unauthorized fishing occurs in areas that are not supposed to be fished causing even further destruction to coral reefs (Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority). “Recreational fishing is also an important activity with about 56,000 privately registered boats fishing in the Great Barrier Reef region” (Sustainable Fishing). “The vulnerability of coral-reef species is partly because of their life-history adaptations to uncertainty in survival of recruits and juveniles in diverse communities where predation and competition are intense. With low rates of survival of recruits, multiple attempts at reproduction are favored through longevity and large size. These traits lead to low rates of

population turnover and special vulnerability to overfishing. Ecosystem overfishing occurs when overfishing affects multispecies assemblage composition, food-web dynamics, or ecosystem function” (Birkeland, Charles).

Overfishing can devastate the marine ecology of the Great Barrier Reef because of the specific needs of the coral reef. Since certain amounts of nutrients, oxygen and salt content the fishes in the coral reef ecosystem help maintain the balance needed by the corals, with out these fishes the coral reef will collapse (Coral Reef). The Great Barrier Reef Park has several methods to manage specific zones of fishing, the created the Australian Commonwealth law to protect critical area.

We Must Regulate Extraction of Reef Species- It causes a chain reaction that affects the whole oceanCommittee on Marine Biotechnology, 02(Committee on Marine Biotechnology: Biomedical Applications of Marine Natural Products, National Research ¶ Council, “Marine Biotechnology in the Twenty-First Century: Problems, Promise, and Products”, pg. 88, AEG)Despite a significant human dependence on and concerns for coral reef ecosystems, compelling ¶ scientific evidence indicates

that current human use and allocation of reef resources are threatening ¶ both the ecological and the social sustainability of these ecosystems. Increased harvest pressure¶ is being placed on reef resources to supply subsistence fisheries as well as a growing international ¶ demand for reef species for food, traditional medicines, and ornaments. Unfortunately, few countries ¶ have sufficient knowledge, financial resources, or technical expertise to develop management plans ¶ for the sustainable harvest of reef species, and organisms are often extracted unsustainably for short-¶ term economic gains. Although several coral reef species have yielded potential therapeutic agents, ¶ concern about adequate supply for preclinical and clinical studies is a critical issue in the development ¶ of new biomedical products. Many of the suitable reef species have a limited distribution or occur

at ¶ a low biomass. Also, individuals often contain only trace amounts of the desired compounds; the low ¶

yield requires the harvest of substantial biomass, which may lead to depletion of natural populations¶

(Creswell, 1995). Many species extinctions are predicted in the coming decades in response to ¶ increasing pressure from human activities and natural disturbances, and the pharmacological potential ¶ of coral reefs may be lost. The continued, largely unregulated, and unsustainable extraction of reef¶ species may have consequences that extend

far beyond the overexploitation of these organisms, as ¶ their removal may also affect associated species and

communities, ecological processes, and even ¶ entire ecosystems that are critical to the overall health of the oceans.

Dying of Coral Reefs leads to The Death of Many Organisms- They have a Symbiotic Relationship

EPA, N/A¶

(US Environmental Protection Agency, “Coral Reef Protection: What are Coral Reefs?”, http://water.epa.gov/¶ type/oceb/habitat/coral_index.cfm, 6/24/14, AEG)¶

Virtually all reef-dwelling corals have a symbiotic (mutually beneficial) relationship with algae called zooxanthellae. ¶ The plant-like algae live inside the coral polyps and perform photosynthesis, producing food which is shared with ¶ the coral. In exchange the coral provides the algae with protection and access to light, which is necessary for ¶ photosynthesis. The zooxanthellae also lend their color to their coral symbionts. Coral bleaching occurs when ¶ corals lose their zooxanthellae, exposing the white calcium

carbonate skeletons of the coral colony. There are ¶ a number of stresses or environmental changes that may cause bleaching including disease, excess shade, ¶ increased levels of ultraviolet radiation, sedimentation, pollution, salinity changes, and increased temperatures.¶ Because the zooxanthellae depend on light for photosynthesis, reef building corals are found in shallow, clear water where light can ¶ penetrate down to the coral polyps. Reef building coral communities also require tropical or sub-tropical temperatures, and exist ¶ globally in a band 30 degrees north to 30 degrees south of the equator. Reefs are generally classified in three types. Fringing reefs, ¶ the most common type, project seaward directly from the shores of islands or continents. Barrier reefs are platforms separated from ¶ the adjacent land by a bay or lagoon. The longest barrier reefs occur off the coasts of Australia and Belize. Atolls rest on the tops of ¶ submerged volcanoes. They are usually circular or oval with a central lagoon. Parts of the atoll may emerge as islands. Over 300 ¶ atolls are found in the south Pacific.¶ Coral reefs provide habitats for a large variety of organisms. These organisms rely on

corals as a source of food ¶ and shelter. Besides the corals themselves and their symbiotic algae, other creatures that call coral reefs home ¶ include various sponges; molluscs such as sea slugs, nudibranchs, oysters, and clams; crustaceans like crabs ¶ and shrimp; many kinds of sea worms; echinoderms like star fish and sea urchins; other cnidarians such as ¶ jellyfish and sea anemones; various types of fungi; sea turtles; and many species of fish.

Coral Reefs K2 Bio-D – Has Been A Shelter For A Variety Of Creatures For 400 Million YearsGlobal Ideas, 6/25(Global Ideas Team, 6/25/14, Deutshe Welle Academy, “Interactive Graphic: Exploring A Coral Reef”, http://www.dw.de/interactive-graphic-exploring-a-coral-reef/a-17677132, 6/25/15, AEG)

For over 400 million years, coral reefs have formed some of the world’s largest and most diverse

ecosystems. They provide a habitat for living creatures, protect shores from flood waves, stabilize coastal regions

and even provide people with food and incomes.

So, we have every reason to protect corals. But the opposite is happening. Global warming, overfishing, polluted water and

tourism are all taking a toll on coral reefs. Currently, reefs are shrinking faster than rain forests . According to statistics from 2008, almost a fifth of the world’s reefs are already dead. But the trend can still be reversed: most reefs can recover provided global CO2 emissions are hugely reduced. Scientists have also found that some corals can adapt to warmer water temperatures

Reefs Key To BioDHenkel, Department of Biology, Murray State University, 10 (Timothy, Nature Education, “Coral Reefs”, http://www.nature.com/scitable/knowledge/library/coral-reefs-15786954, 6/26/14, ML)Hermatypic corals are the foundation that supports at least a million species associated with coral reefs

(Figure 8). Almost every phylum of living creature can be found living on coral reefs, with over 800 species of corals alone (Vernon 1995). Corals provide the substrate for sessile organisms to attach, including algae, sponges, and non-reef building corals (e.g., fire corals, soft corals, gorgonians). In addition to corals, encrusting bryozoans, sponges, and

calcareous red algae act as biological-cement, keeping the reef framework intact (Figure 9). The diverse benthic flora and fauna along with the calcium carbonate understructure increases habitat heterogeneity, which provides a refuge from predation for invertebrates such as crabs, lobsters, sea urchins, brittlestars, and molluscs. The diversity of

pelagic species is equally vast. In the waters above coral reefs, one can find nearly 25% of all marine fishes. Coral reefs, therefore, are one of the most diverse ecosystems on the planet, rivaling their terrestrial counterpart,

tropical rain forests. Given such enormous diversity and finite resources of space and food, interspecific interactions are a primary component structuring coral reef communities. Corals provide refuge to herbivorous fishes. Herbivorous fishes in turn graze on algae that can overgrow and outcompete slow growing corals. Trophic interactions have led to an endless array of predatory and defensive adaptations. Scorpion fish and frog fish have adapted camouflage to blend in with the surrounding reef (Figure 10). Sessile organisms, such as

sponges, produce chemical compounds that deter predation (Pawlik et al. 1995). Facilitative interactions are also a hallmark of coral reef ecosystems. Juvenile wrasses, blennies, gobies, and shrimps live on large corals that are frequented by large fishes that are often covered with ectoparasites. The smaller "cleaner" organism consumes the parasite off the larger fish, both apparently benefiting from the association. Anemone fish in the Indo-Pacific are another example of mutualism on coral reefs. The anemone fish lives among the stinging tentacles of the sea anemone and gains a refuge from predation while the anemone gains nutrients from the fish's waste (Figure 12) While these interactions appear straightforward, scientists continue to work to understand the intricacies and nature of facilitative interactions in coral reef communities (e.g., Cheney & Cote 2005).

Coral Reefs K2 Bio DiversitySwart, Professor of Marine Geosciences, 13 (Peter, Nature Education, “Coral Reefs: Canaries of the Sea, Rainforests of the Oceans”, http://www.nature.com/scitable/knowledge/library/coral-reefs-canaries-of-the-sea-rainforests-97879685, 6/26/14, ML)

Corals reefs are communities of organisms in which corals (members of the phylum Cnidaria) provide the dominant structural elements.

They are known to need a range of specific conditions, such as clear agitated waters of normal salinity, free from sediment, and a temperature between about 18 and 30oC. Within the structure of the coral reefs, members of almost every phyla of plants and animals live and die, adding particles and organic material to the sediment, and contributing to the efficient functioning of the coral reef ecosystem. It is estimated that about 25% of all marine species are found in coral reefs. The

paradox of coral reefs is that, although they are highly diverse ecosystems, contain an abundance of organic material, and are highly productive, they exist in essentially oligotrophic environments. The analogy is often drawn to tropical

rainforests, which are also extremely diverse and exist in nutrient poor conditions. The key to the existence of coral reefs rests in the rapid recycling of nutrients between all the components of the community. If this balance is disturbed — for example by the addition of nutrients in excess from an outside source — the ecosystem frequently declines.

Artificial Reefs Solve For Bio-D- recreating ecosystems and Boosts the Economy through tourists

Mauritius Marine Conservation Society, N/A (MMCS, “Artificial Reefs”, http://www.mmcs-ngo.org/en/projects/artificial-reefs.aspx, 6/27/14,

AEG) Importance of artificial reefs The creation of artificial reefs in the sea favours biological productivity, therefore enhancing the population of fish and invertebrates. These reefs have the power to

attract marine life by offering a habitat. They not only constitute a shelter but are also a valuable reproduction reservoir, which

can recreate a whole ecosystem in biological depleted zones. In Mauritius, the activities aimed at creating artificial

reefs have been in development by the MMCS since 1980. The creation of such reefs mainly aims at: Increasing the marine population in the neighbouring reef areas An improvement in the fishermen's catch from these reef zones A study area for scientists A tourist attraction for divers A rehabilitation of the areas destroyed by natural forces or anthropogenic activities A creation of reproduction zones A beneficial use of solid wastes like old boats, tyres and automobile carcasses etc. What are artificial reefs? Artificial reefs are man-made habitats typically built to promote the growth of corals to develop reef systems and encourage marine life into the area. It mimics a natural reef. By immersing old deserted ships in carefully chosen sites, the MMCS and, since more recently, the MSDA and the National Coast Guard (NCG) have created 13 artificial reefs (see cartography). Other objects, like old worn tyres have also

been associated to these wreckages. How do artificial reefs develop? The colonisation of artificial reefs is done progressively. In the beginning, devoid of any form of life, they are rapidly colonized by weed and animal classes like sponges, hydroids, bryozoans, bivalve shells, barnacles, acids, anemones, halcyons, gorgons and finally, after a few years' time, by corals with calcareous skeletons like Acropora, Montipora, Pocillopora and Pavonia. This encrusting fauna and flora provide food for sedentary and mobile animals like sea cucumbers, starfishes, sea urchins, crabs and squids as well as small

fishes like Snappers (Madras), Butterflyfish (Papillon), Priacanthus (Fanal), Triggerfish (Bourse), Demoiselle, Sergent Major etc. In turn, these small fish attract pelagic and predator species such as hinds, morays, Laffers, kingfishes, mackerels, Capitaines, barracudas, etc.

Coral reefs key to fish biodiversity—studies proveJones et al, Professor of Marine Conservation Biology at James Cook University, McCormick, Professor of Marine Ecology at James Cook University, 04(Geoffrey P., 5/18/04, Mark I. McCormick, Maya Srinivasan, Janelle V. Eagle, US National Library of Medicine, “Coral decline threatens fish biodiversity in marine reserves,” http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC419589/?report=classic, 6/28/14, SM)The worldwide decline in coral cover has serious implications for the health of coral reefs. But what is the future of reef fish assemblages? Marine reserves can protect fish from exploitation, but do they protect fish biodiversity in degrading environments? The answer appears to be

no, as indicated by our 8-year study in Papua New Guinea. A devastating decline in coral cover caused a parallel decline in fish biodiversity, both in marine reserves and in areas open to fishing. Over 75% of reef fish species declined in abundance, and 50% declined to less than half of their original numbers. The greater the dependence species have on living coral as juvenile recruitment sites, the greater the observed decline in abundance. Several rare coral-

specialists became locally extinct. We suggest that fish biodiversity is threatened wherever permanent reef degradation occurs and warn that marine reserves will not always be sufficient to ensure their survival.¶ Many ecologists have expressed concern over

the worldwide decline in coral cover due to global warming and associated coral bleaching, overfishing, and coastal pollution (1–5). Coral reefs support a high diversity of fishes that may ultimately depend on corals for their survival; however, the impact of long-term reef degradation on fish populations is unknown. Most attention to the protection of marine fish populations has focused on the benefits of controlling exploitation by establishing “no-take” marine reserves (6–8). However, comprehensive strategies for protecting marine biodiversity also require an understanding of how species respond to degradation of their habitats.

Coral reefs key to biodiversity—generate new speciesGill, MSc in Science Communication from the University of the West of England, 10(Victoria, 1/7/10, BBC News, “Coral reefs are evolution hotspot,” http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/8446002.stm, 6/28/14, SM)Coral reefs give rise to many more new species than other tropical marine habitats, according to a new study.¶ Scientists used fossil records stretching back 540 million years to work out the evolution rate at reefs.¶ They report in the journal

Science that new species originate 50% faster in coral reefs than in other habitats.¶ The team says its findings show

that the loss of these evolution hotspots could mean "losing an opportunity to create new species" in the

future.¶ Coral reefs harbour a huge number of marine species - they are often likened to rainforests in

terms of their biodiversity.¶ ¶ If we lose reefs we lose an opportunity to create new species by evolutionary processes But they also provide a "pump of new marine species", according to Wolfgang Kiessling the scientist from Humboldt University in Berlin, Germany, who led this study.¶ He and his colleagues examined the fossil record to find the earliest evidence of benthic creatures - animals that live on the seafloor.¶ These creatures provide a good record of evolution. They remain on the seafloor once they die, and are often fossilised along with some of the remains of their original habitats.¶ This team of scientists looked for the earliest fossils from each benthic genus, or group of species, in the fossil record.¶ "We checked when and where each genus first occurred, explained Dr Kiessling. "So for example, if the earliest fossils were 300 million years, we asked: 'Did it occur in a reef or outside'."¶ He and his colleagues had access to a record stretching back to the Cambrian explosion - when the vast majority of complex organisms are believed to have emerged more than 540 million years ago.¶ This huge data set was compiled by an international project called the Paleobiology Database, which was started in 2000.¶ "We had the best documentation of the fossil record at our fingertips," Dr Kiessling told BBC News. "And there was also the geological context there, so we knew where each species occurred.¶ Giant clam fossil (Wolfgang Kiessling)¶ Giant clams are fossilised with the remains of their coral reef habitats¶

"Our study shows that reefs are even more important than currently assumed. They are not only ecologically important for the marine environment, but also in an evolutionary sense."¶ But Dr Brian Rosen, a zoologist at the Natural History Museum in London, UK, warned that the accuracy of fossil records alone was "notoriously difficult to gauge from the literature".¶ He added that it could be useful for independent experts to re-examine some of the fossilised creatures.¶ Data "generated by direct examination of the specimens themselves by the relevant taxonomic specialists" is more reliable when it comes to working out important evolutionary patterns, he said.¶ Carl-Gustaf Lundin, head of the marine programme at the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) said that this was a

"very welcome paper".¶ "Studies like this provide conclusive evidence that reefs are centres of marine biodiversity," he told BBC News. "And now we see their importance in the evolutionary history of the planet."¶ He added that currently the planet was losing 2% of its reefs each year, mainly because of increasing ocean temperature bleaching and stunting the coral's growth. And

ocean acidification making it more difficult for corals to build their skeletons.¶ Dr Kiessling said: "If we lose reefs we lose [an] opportunity to create new species by evolutionary processes."

Coral reefs key to biodiversity—diverse ecosystemDUJS 12(4/11/12, Dartmouth Undergraduate Journal of Science, “The Decline of Reefs: Effects of Increased Carbon Emissions on Coral Ecosystems,” http://dujs.dartmouth.edu/winter-2012/the-decline-of-reefs-effects-of-increased-carbon-emissions-on-coral-ecosystems#.U6-GVY2wKrY, 6/28/14, SM)Often coined the rainforests of the sea, coral reefs are one of the planet’s most diverse ecosystems .

Though they only cover between 260,000 and 600,000 square kilometers (less than 1% of the Earth’s surface), they house approximately one-third to one-fourth of all marine species. Previous studies estimate that up to 3.2 million species may inhabit these coral reef ecosystems (1).¶ In addition to the biodiversity they provide, coral reefs play an important role in their local economies. Tourism alone provides nearby countries with billions of dollars annually and is now the fastest growing

economic sector associated with these ecosystems. Furthermore, coral reef fisheries generate over 6 million metric tons of fish every year and provide about one-quarter of the fish caught in developing nations. Other associated benefits of coral reefs include their part in building materials, coastal protection, and pharmaceutical discoveries (2).

Impact Magnifier

Low Biodiversity requires attention now-We are on a fast track to a very costly and more possibly, an irreversible effect.Shah, Writer at Global Issues, 2014(Anup Shah, 1/19/14, Global Issues, “Loss of Biodiversity and Extinctions”, http://www.globalissues.org/article/171/loss-of-biodiversity-and-extinctions#globalissues-org, 6/25/14, SJ)

If ecosystems deteriorates to an unsustainable level, then the problems resulting can be very expensive, economically, to reverse. ¶ In Bangladesh and India, for example, logging of trees and forests means that the floods during the monsoon seasons can be very deadly. Similarly, many avalanches, and mud slides in many regions around the world that have claimed many lives, may have been made worse by the clearing of so many forests, which provide a natural barrier, that can take the brunt of

such forces. ¶ As the Centre for Science and Environment mentions, factors such as climate change and environmental degradation can impact regions more so, and make the impacts of severe weather systems even worse than they already are. As they further point out, for poor regions, such as Orissa in India, this is even more

of a problem.¶ Vanishing coral reefs, forests and other ecosystems can all take their toll and even make the effects of some natural events even worse.¶ The cost of the effects together with the related problems that can arise (like disease, and other illness, or rebuilding and so on) is much more costly than the maintenance and sustainable development practices that could be used instead.¶ As an example, and assuming

a somewhat alarmist scenario, if enough trees and forests and related ecosystems vanish or deteriorate sufficiently:¶ Then the oxygen-producing benefits from such ecosystems is threatened.¶ The atmosphere would suffer from more pollution. ¶ The cost to tackle this and the related illnesses, problems and other cascading effects would be enormous (as it can be assumed that industrial pollution could increase, with less natural ecosystems to “soak” it up) ¶ Furthermore, other species in that ecosystem that would depend on this would be further at risk as well, which would lead to a downward spiral for that ecosystem.¶ Compare those costs to taking precautionary measures such as protecting forests and promoting more sustainable forms of development. Of course, people will argue that these situations will not occur for whatever reasons. Only when it is too late can others say “told you so” — a perhaps very nasty Catch 22.¶ The Economics of Ecosystems and Biodiversity (TEEB) is an organization — backed by the UN and various European governments — attempting to compile, build and make a compelling economics case for the conservation of ecosystems and biodiversity.¶ It has also attempted to put a value on the ecological services provided to humanity. It found, for example, implementing REDD (Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation) could help¶ Halve deforestation by 2030, and¶ Cut emissions by 1.5 Gt of CO2 per year.¶ From a cost perspective (p.18), it is estimated that¶ It would cost from

US$ 17.2 – 33 billion per year¶ The estimated benefit in reduced climate change is US$ 3.2 trillion¶ In addition, they cited another study that estimated that 3,000 listed companies around the world were responsible for over $2 trillion in environmental “externalities” (i.e. costs that have to be borne by society from ignored factors, or “social costs”). This is equivalent to 7% of their combined revenues and up to a third of their combined profits.

Biodiversity outweighs nuclear war, energy depletion, economic collapse, tyrannyChen, Professor of Law at the U of Minnesota, 2000(James, mm/dd/00, Minnesota Journal of Global Trade Winter, “Globalization and Its Losers,” http://digitalcommons.law.msu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1476&context=facpubs, 6/26/14, SJ)

Chen 2000 [Jim, Professor of Law at the U of Minnesota, Minnesota Journal of Global Trade Winter 2000, pg. 211]

The value of endangered species and the biodiversity they embody is “literally . . . incalculable.” What, if anything, should the law do to preserve it? There are those that invoke the story of Noah’s Ark as a moral basis for biodiversity preservation. Others regard the Judeo-Christian tradition, especially the biblical stories of Creation and the Flood, as the root of the West’s deplorable environmental record. To avoid getting bogged down in an environmental exegesis of Judeo-Christian “myth and legend,” we should let Charles

Darwin and evolutionary biology determine the imperatives of our moment in natural “history.” The loss of biological diversity is

quite arguably the gravest problem facing humanity. If we cast the question as the contemporary phenomenon that “our

descendents [will] most regret,” the “loss of genetic and species diversity by the destruction of natural habitats” is worse than even “energy depletion, economic collapse, limited nuclear war, or conquest by a totalitarian government.” Natural evolution may in due course renew the earth will a diversity of species approximating that of a world unspoiled by Homo sapiens – in ten million years, perhaps a hundred million

Impact - Hunger

Biodiversity key to nutritionWHO, 2014(WHO, WHO, “Biodiversity”, http://www.who.int/globalchange/ecosystems/biodiversity/en/, 6/25/15, SJ)Biodiversity plays a crucial role in human nutrition through its influence on world food production, as it ensures the sustainable productivity of soils and provides the genetic resources for all crops, livestock, and marine species harvested for food. Access to a sufficiency of a nutritious variety of food is a fundamental determinant of health. Nutrition and biodiversity are linked at many levels: the ecosystem, with food production as an ecosystem service; the species in the ecosystem and the genetic diversity within species. Nutritional composition between foods and among varieties/cultivars/breeds of the same food can differ dramatically, affecting micronutrient availability in the

diet. Healthy local diets, with adequate average levels of nutrients intake, necessitates maintenance of high biodiversity levels. Intensified and enhanced food production through irrigation, use of fertilizer, plant protection (pesticides) or the introduction of crop varieties and cropping patterns affect biodiversity, and thus impact global nutritional status and human health. Habitat simplification, species loss and species succession often enhance communities vulnerabilities as a function of environmental receptivity to ill health.

Fish shortages causes mass hunger-time to act is now before dramatic shiftLeahy, Lead International Science and Environment Correspondent at IPS, 2009(Stephen Leahy, 10/9/09, IPS, "BIODIVERSITY: Dwindling Fish Catch Could Leave a Billion Hungry", http://www.ipsnews.net/2009/10/biodiversity-dwindling-fish-catch-could-leave-a-billion-hungry/, 6/26/14, SJ)

Fish catches are expected to decline dramatically in the world’s tropical regions because of climate change, but may increase in the north, said a new study published Thursday.¶ This mega-shift in ocean productivity from south to north over the next three to four decades will leave those most reliant on fish for both food and income high and dry.¶ “The shift is already happening, we’ve been

measuring it for the last 20 years,” said Daniel Pauly, a renowned fisheries expert at the University of British Columbia (UBC).¶ “Major shifts in fish populations will create a host of changes in ocean ecosystems likely resulting in species loss and problems for the people who now catch them,” Pauly told IPS.¶ In the first major study to examine the effects of

climate change on ocean fisheries, a team of researchers from UBC and Princeton University discovered that catch potential will fall 40 percent in the tropics and may increase 30 to 70 percent in high latitude regions, affecting ocean food supply throughout the world by 2055.¶ The study, published in the journal Global Change Biology, examined the impacts

of rising ocean temperatures, changes in salinity and currents resulting from a warming climate. Many tropical island residents rely heavily on the oceans for their daily meals. These new findings suggest there’s a good chance this important food source will be greatly diminished due to climate change,” said lead author William Cheung, a

researcher at the University of East Anglia in Britain who conducted the study while at UBC.¶ Countries facing the biggest loss in catch potential include Indonesia, the United States (excluding Alaska and Hawaii), Chile and China.¶ Pauly told IPS that the recently documented rises in ocean acidity and anoxia levels in many parts of the ocean were not part of this study but will be part of future reports. Nor were the observed changes in plankton production.¶ “This estimate is conservative,” he explained. “We will

likely project significant additional reductions in fish catch.”¶ Many oceanographers predict severe loss of coral reefs in coming decades due to rising acidity from emissions of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere. Corals support about 25 to 33 percent of the oceans’ living creatures. Some one billion people depend directly and indirectly on reefs for their livelihoods.¶ “If the poor people in this region cannot eat what they grow or catch or what their neighbour grows or catches, they don’t eat,” Pauly said.¶ Meanwhile, industrial fisheries operating in tropical regions are scooping up enormous amounts of fish anchovies, herring, mackerel and other small pelagic forage

fish to feed to farmed salmon or turn into animal feed or pet food, another study reported this week.¶ In 2006, aquaculture consumed 57 percent of fish meal and 87 percent of fish oil, the study published in the journal Ambio reported.¶ This has pushed the price of fish up and reduced the amount of protein available to hundreds of millions of people mainly in tropical

regions, according to authors Albert Tacon of the University of Las Palmas, Spain and Marc Metian of the University of Hawaii.¶ These small pelagic forage fish contribute more than 50 percent of the total food fish supply in more than 36

countries in Africa, Asia and elsewhere. Especially hard-hit is sub-Saharan Africa, where more than half of the population receives 25 percent or more of its protein from fish.¶ In the competition between food and feed, the poor are losing. In Mexico, a fish called the California pilchard traditionally was used for fishmeal and

processed for direct human consumption. Now, due to increased demand from tuna aquaculture operations, the price of California pilchard has shot up, making it too expensive for many Mexicans to eat.¶ Human nutritional demands

in impoverished communities needs to be a priority, Tacon and Metian write. “National government must also set limits on the use of fish as animal feed”.¶ Previous studies looking at impacts of climate change on the global food supply have only considered land-based food sources and these concluded that tropical areas will see a decline in land productivity. The most recent and comprehensive study, reported by IPS, projects significant declines in crop yields and major price increases.¶ The negative effects of climate change are especially pronounced in Sub-Saharan Africa and South Asia, the International Food Policy Research Institute study concluded.¶ Add

in the projected shift in fish catch from south to north and climate change will likely bring major reductions in the food supply in tropical regions.¶ Industrialised countries should not be surprised this is coming and should be prepared to assist developing countries and small island states adapt, the University of East Anglia’s Chueng told IPS in an interview from Norwich, England.¶ The study also projects that warmer waters will boost fish catches substantially in Norway, Greenland, Alaska and the east coast of Russia. While greater catch potential in colder regions might appear beneficial, the authors caution that more research is needed to account for the multitude of dynamic factors that affect every ecosystem.¶ “While warmer waters might attract new species to colder regions, the rise in temperature might make the environment inhospitable to current species in the region that cannot move to even higher latitudes,” said Pauly.¶

Even if the northern ocean increases in productivity in the future, it will barely be enough to maintain current levels of fish consumption.

“There will be no transfer of ‘surplus’ fish from the north to south,” he said.¶ And without major reductions in carbon emissions, “We are facing the end of civilisation as we know it,” he said. “The collapse of fisheries in much of the world would be a sideshow.”2

Biodiversity ensures food securityASH, Deputy Director of UNEP's Division of Environmental Policy Implementation, 2005(Neville, No date, Millennium Assessment, “Ecosystems and Human Well-being”, http://www.millenniumassessment.org/documents/document.354.aspx.pdf, 6/25/14, SJ)

Biological diversity is used by many rural communities directly as an insurance and coping mechanism to increase flexibility. Biological diversity is used by many rural communities directly as an insurance and coping mechanism to increase uncertainty, shocks, and surprises. The availability of this biological “safety net” has increased the security and resilience of some local communities to external economic and ecological perturbations, shocks, or surprises (C6.2.2, C8.2). In a world where fluctuating commodity prices are more the norm than the exception, economic entitlements of the

poor are increasingly becoming precarious. The availability of an ecosystem-based food security net during times when economic entitlements are insufficient to purchase adequate nourishment in the market provides an important insurance program (C8.1, C6.7). Coping mechanisms based on indigenous plants are particularly important for the most vulnerable people, who have little access to formal employment, land, or market opportunities (C6). For example, investigations of two dryland sites in Kenya and Tanzania report local communities using wild indigenous plants to provide alternative sources of food when harvests failed or when sudden expenses had to be met (such as a hospital bill). (See Table 2.1.) Another pathway through which biodiversity can improve food security is the adoption of farming practices that maintain and make use of agricultural biodiversity. Biodiversity is important to maintaining agricultural production. Wild relatives of domestic crops provide genetic variability that can be crucial for overcoming outbreaks of pests and pathogens and new environmental stresses. Many agricultural communities consider increased local diversity a critical factor for the long-term productivity ty and viability of their agricultural systems. For example, interweaving multiple varieties of rice in the same paddy has been shown to increase productivity by lowering the loss from pests and pathogens

Hunger bad- outweighs extinction Watson, Professor of Philosophy at Washington University, 1977 ¶ One may even have to sacrifice one’s life or one’s nation to be moral in situations where practical behavior would preserve it. For ¶ example, if a prisoner of war undergoing torture is to be a (perhaps dead) patriot even when reason tells him that collaboration will hurt ¶ no one, he

remains silent. Similarly, if one is to be moral, one distributes available food in equal shares even if everyone dies. That an ¶ action is necessary to save one’s life is no excuse for behaving unpatriotically or immorally if one wishes to be a patriot or moral. No ¶ principle of morality absolves one of behaving immorally simply to save one’s life or nation. There is a strict analogy here between ¶ adhering to moral principles for the sake of being moral, and adhering to Christian principles for the sake of being Christian. The moral ¶ world contains pits and lions, but one looks always to the highest light. The ultimate test always harks

back to the highest principle – ¶ recant or die. The ultimate test always harks back to the highest principle – recant or die – and it is pathetic to profess morality if one ¶ quits when the going gets rough.

Famine Leads to Global DeathsHelfand, Physician for IPPNW, 12 (Ira, Intern national Physicians for the Prevention ofNuclear War, “Nuclear Famine: Two Billion People At Risk”, http://slmk.org/icanw/wp-content/uploads/2013/12/nuclear-famine-summary-2013.pdf, 6/26/14, ML)

The decline in available food would be exacerbated by increases in food prices which would make food inaccessible to hundreds of millions of the world’s poorest. Even if agricultural markets continued to function normally, 215 million people would be added to the rolls of the malnourished over the course of a decade. However, markets would not function normally. Significant, sustained agricultural shortfalls over an extended period would almost certainly lead to panic and hoarding on an international scale as food exporting nations suspended exports in order to assure adequate food supplies for their own populations. This turmoil in the agricultural markets would further reduce accessible food.

Impact - Wealth

Biodiversity promotes wealth-it aids areas which require much resource. Shah, Writer at Global Issues, 2014(Anup Shah, 1/19/14, Global Issues, “Why is Biodiversity important? Who cares?”, http://www.globalissues.org/article/170/why-is-biodiversity-important-who-cares#Moreimportantthanhumanuseorbiologicalinterest, 6/25/14, SJ)

It was noted earlier that ecosystems provide many services to us, for free.¶ Although some dislike the thought of trying to put an economic value on biodiversity (some things are just priceless), there have been attempts to do so in order for people to understand the magnitude of the issue: how important the environment is to humanity and what costs and benefits there can be in doing (or not doing) something.¶ The Economics of Ecosystems and Biodiversity (TEEB) is an organization — backed by the UN and various European governments — attempting to compile, build and make a compelling economics case for the conservation of ecosystems and biodiversity.¶ In a recent report, The Economics of Ecosystems and Biodiversity for National and International Policy Makers 2009, TEEB provided the following example of sectors dependent on genetic resources:¶ Table: Example of market sectors dependent on genetic resources¶ Sector Size of Market Comment¶ The Economics of Ecosystems and Biodiversity for National and International Policy Makers 2009 PDF formatted document, p.17¶ Pharmaceutical US$ 640 bn. (2006) 25-50% derived from genetic resources¶ Biotechnology US$ 70 bn. (2006) from public companies alone Many products derived from genetic resources (enzymes, microorganisms)¶ Agricultural seeds US$ 30 bn. (2006) All derived from genetic resources¶ Personal care, Botanical and food & Beverage industries US$ 22 bn. (2006) for herbal supplements¶ US$ 12 bn. (2006) for personal care¶ US$ 31 bn. (2006) for food products¶ Some products derived from genetic resources. represents ‘natural’ component of the market.¶ In addition, it is estimated that implementing REDD (Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation) could help¶ Halve deforestation by 2030, and¶ Cut

emissions by 1.5 Gt of CO2 per year.¶ From a cost perspective (p.18), it is estimated that ¶ It would cost from US$ 17.2 – 33 billion per year ¶ The estimated benefit in reduced climate change is US$ 3.2 trillion ¶ The above

would be a good return on the initial investment. By contrast, waiting 10 more years could reduce the net benefit of

halving deforestation by US$ 500 billion.¶ In addition, they cited another study that estimated that 3,000 listed companies around the world were responsible for over $2 trillion in environmental “externalities” (i.e. costs that have to be borne by society from ignored factors, or

“social costs”). This is equivalent to 7% of their combined revenues and up to a third of their combined profits.¶ The BBC notes that biodiversity is fundamental to economics. For example, ¶ The G8 nations, together with 5 major emerging economies — China, India, South Africa, Brazil, Mexico — use almost three-quarters of the Earth’s biocapacity ¶ An estimated 40% of world trade is based on biological products or processes. ¶ Despite these free benefits, it has long been recognized that we tend to ignore or underestimate the value of those services. So much so that economic measures such as GDP often ignores environmental costs. ¶ The economic benefits of protecting the environment are well-understood, even if seemingly rarely practiced: ¶ Numerous studies also show that investments in protected areas generate a cost-benefit ratio of one to 25 and even

one to 100 in some cases, [Pavan Sukhdev, from TEEB] said. Planting and protecting nearly 12,000 hectares of mangroves in Vietnam costs just over a million dollars but saved annual expenditures on dyke maintenance of well over seven million dollars. ¶ — Stephen Leahy, Environment: Save At Least Half the Planet, or Lose It All, Inter Press Service, November 17, 2009¶ It has perhaps taken about a decade or so — and a severe enough global financial crisis that has hit the heart of this way of thinking — to change this mentality (in which time, more greenhouse gases have been emitted — inefficiently).¶ Economists talk of the price signal that is fundamental to capitalism; the ability for prices to indicate when a resource is becoming scarcer. At

such a time, markets mobilize automatically to address this by looking for ways to bring down costs. As a result, resources are supposedly

infinite. For example, if energy costs go up, businesses will look for a way to minimize such costs for themselves, and it is in such a time that alternatives come about and/or existing resources last longer because they are used more efficiently. “Running out of resources” should therefore be averted.¶ However, it has long been argued that prices don’t truly reflect the full cost of things, so either the signal is incorrect, or comes too late. The price signal also implies the poorest often pay the heaviest costs. For example, commercially over-fishing a region may mean fish from that area becomes harder to catch and more expensive, possibly allowing that ecosystem time to recover (though that is not guaranteed, either). However, while commercial entities can exploit resources elsewhere, local fishermen will go out of business and the poorer will likely go hungry (as also detailed on this site’s section on biodiversity). This then has an impact on various local social, political and economic issues.¶ In addition to that, other related measurements, such as GNP are therefore flawed, and even reward unproductive or inefficient behavior (e.g. “Efficiently” producing unhealthy food — and the unhealthy consumer culture to go with it — may profit the food industry and a private health sector that has to deal with it, all of which require more use of resources. More examples are discussed on this site’s section on consumption and consumerism).¶ Our continued inefficient pumping of greenhouse gases into the environment without factoring the enormous cost as the climate already begins to change is perhaps an example where price signals may come too late, or at a time when there is already significant impact to many people. Resources that could be available more indefinitely, become finite because of our inability or unwillingness to change.¶ Markets fail to capture most ecosystem service values. Existing price signals only reflect - at best - the share of total value that relates to provisioning services like food, fuel or water and their prices may be distorted. Even these services often bypass markets where carried out as part of community management of shared resources. The values of other ecosystem services are generally

not reflected in markets apart from a few exceptions (such as tourism).¶ This is mainly explained by the fact that many ecosystem services are ‘public goods’ or ‘common goods’: they are often open access in character and non-rival in their consumption. In addition, their benefits are felt differently by people in different places and over different timescales. Private and public decisions affecting biodiversity rarely consider benefits beyond the immediate geographical area…. They can also overlook local public benefits … in favor of private benefits …, even when local livelihoods are at stake, or focus on short-term gains to the detriment of the sustained supply of benefits over time….¶ Benefits that are felt with a long-term horizon (e.g. from climate regulation) are frequently ignored. This systematic under-valuation of ecosystem services and failure to capture the values is one of the main causes underlying today’s biodiversity crisis. Values that are not overtly part of a financial equation are too often ignored.¶ — The Economics of Ecosystems and Biodiversity for National and International Policy Makers 2009 PDF formatted document, p.10 (Emphasis original)¶ In effect, as TEEB, and many others before have argued, a key challenge will be adapting our economic systems to integrate sustainability and human well-being as well as other environmental factors to give us truer costs (after all, market systems are supposed to work when there is full availability of information).¶ Think of some of the effects this could have:¶ Some industrial meat production, which is very harmful for the environment, may become more expensive¶ For example, as mentioned in the previous link, if water used by the meat industry in the United States were not subsidized by taxpayers, common hamburger meat would cost $35 a pound.¶ Instead of regulation to change people’s habits, markets would automatically reflect these true costs; consumers can then make better informed choices about what to consume, e.g. by reducing their meat consumption or demand more ecologically sustainable alternatives at reasonable cost.¶ A reduction in meat production could protect forests or help reduce clearance of forests for cattle ranches, which would have a knock-on benefit for climate change concerns.¶ Appropriate investment in renewable energy could threaten the fossil fuel industry though they are trying to adapt to that (perhaps slowly, and after initial resistance). But at the same time, governments that are able to use renewable sources are less likely to find themselves spending so many resources in geopolitical areas (e.g. politics, military, terrorist response to Western presence in Middle East, etc) to protect or secure access to fossil fuels.¶ “Cradle to cradle” type of design — where products are designed to be produced and recycled or disposed of more sustainably — could considerably reduce costs for producers and consumers alike, and possibly reduce stress on associated ecosystems.¶ Land that is used to produce unhealthy or marginally nutritious items (e.g. tobacco, sugar, possibly tea and coffee) could be used for more useful or healthier alternatives, possibly even helping address obesity and other issues. (For example, while factoring in environmental costs could make healthy produce more expensive too, expanding production of healthier foods could help contain costs rises to some extent.)¶ etc.¶ How much would such accounting save? It is hard to know, but there is a lot of waste in the existing system. In the mid-1990s, the Institute for Economic Democracy calculated that as much as half the American economy constituted of wasted labor, wealth and resources (book: World’s Wasted Wealth, II — see sample chapter).¶ Naturally, those who benefit from the current system may be hostile to such changes, especially if it may mean they might lose out.¶ This is a clear case of inter-related issues: the health of the environment is strongly tried to our economic choices (i.e. how we use resources), but addressing core short-comings in our economic systems is a crucial political challenge.¶

.

Impact - Suffering

Loss of biodiversity means increase in human suffering ASH, Deputy Director of UNEP's Division of Environmental Policy Implementation, 2005(Neville, No date, Millennium Assessment, “Ecosystems and Human Well-being”, http://www.millenniumassessment.org/documents/document.354.aspx.pdf, 6/25/14, SJ)

The world is experiencing an increase in human suffering and economic losses from natural disasters over the past several decades. Mangrove forests and coral reefs—a rich source of biodiversity—are excellent natural buffers against floods and storms. Their loss or reduction in coverage has increased the severity of flooding on coastal communities. Floods affect more people (140 million per year on average) than all other natural or technological disasters put together. Over the past four decades, the number of “great” disasters has increased by a factor of four, while economic losses have increased by a factor of ten. During the 1990s, countries low on the Human Development Index experienced about 20% of the hazard events and reported over 50% of the deaths and just 5% of economic losses. Those with high rankings on the index accounted for

over 50% of the total economic losses and less than 2% of the deaths (C6, R11, C16). A common finding from the various subglobal assessments was that many people living in rural areas cherish and promote ecosystem variability and diversity as a risk management strategy against shocks and surprises (SG11). They maintain a diversity of ecosystem services and are skeptical about solutions that reduce their options. The sub-global

assessments found that diversity of species, food, and landscapes serve as “savings banks” that rural communities use to cope with change and ensure sustainable livelihoods (see Peruvian, Portuguese, Costa Rican, and India sub-global assessments).

Biodiversity is health-Loss of biodiversity means an increase in potential for health issues.ASH, Deputy Director of UNEP's Division of Environmental Policy Implementation, 2005(Neville, No date, Millennium Assessment, “Ecosystems and Human Well-being”, http://www.millenniumassessment.org/documents/document.354.aspx.pdf, 6/25/14, SJ)

An important component of health is a balanced diet. About 7,000 species of plants and several hundred species of animals have been used for human food consumption at one time or another. Some indigenous and traditional communities currently consume 200 or more species. Wild sources of food remain particularly important for the poor and landless to provide a

somewhat balanced diet (C6, C8.2.2). Overexploitation of marine fisheries worldwide, and of bushmeat in many areas of the tropics, has lead to a reduction in the availability of wild-caught animal protein, with serious consequences in many countries for human health (C.4.3.4). Human health, particularly risk of exposure to many infectious diseases may depend on the maintenance of biodiversity in natural ecosystems. On the one hand, a greater diversity of

wildlife species might be expected to sustain a greater diversity of pathogens that can infect humans. However, evidence is accumulating that greater wildlife diversity may

decrease the spread of many wildlife pathogens to humans. The spread of Lyme disease, the best-studied case, seems to be decreased by the maintenance of the biotic integrity of natural ecosystems (C11, C14).

Freedom of Choice – Biodiversity ensures ability to have different choices for better life.

ASH, Deputy Director of UNEP's Division of Environmental Policy Implementation, 2005(Neville, No date, Millennium Assessment, “Ecosystems and Human Well-being”, http://www.millenniumassessment.org/documents/document.354.aspx.pdf, 6/25/14, SJ)

Freedom of choice and action within the MA context refers to individuals having control over what happens and being able to achieve what they value (CF3). Loss of biodiversity often means a loss of choices. Local fishers depend on mangroves as breeding grounds for local fish populations. Loss of mangroves translates to a loss in control over the local fish stock and a livelihood they have been pursuing for many generations and that they value. Another example is high-diversity agricultural systems.

These systems normally produce less cash than monoculture cash crops, but farmers have some control over their entitlements because of spreading risk

through diversity. High diversity of genotypes, populations, species, functional types, and spatial patches decreases the negative effects of pests and pathogens on crops and keeps open possibilities for agrarian communities to develop crops suited to future environmental challenges and to increase their resilience to climate variability and market fluctuations (C11). Another dimension of choices relates to the future. The loss of biodiversity in some instances is irreversible, and the value individuals place on keeping biodiversity for future generations— the option

value—can be significant (CF6, C2). The notion of having choices available irrespective of whether any of them will be actually picked is an essential constituent of the freedom aspect of well-being. However, putting a monetary figure on option values is notoriously difficult. We can only postulate on the needs and desires of future generations, some of which can be very different from today’s aspirations.

Impact - Disease

Organisms in Coral Reefs Key to the curing and treating diseases NOAA, 11(National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, 5/13/11, NOAA, http://coralreef.noaa.gov/aboutcorals/values/medicine/, 6/24/14, THThe genetic diversity found in coral ecosystems is unparalleled and this diversity has proven beneficial for humans through the identification of potentially beneficial chemical compounds and through the development of medicines, both derived from organisms found in coral ecosystems. Many species found in coral ecosystems produce chemical compounds for defense or attack, particularly the slow-moving or stationary species like nudibranchs and sponges. Searching for potential new pharmaceuticals, termed bioprospecting, has been common in terrestrial environments for decades. [a] In

fact, nearly half of the medicines in use today have their origins in natural products, mostly derived from terrestrial plants, animals, and microorganisms. [b] However, bioprospecting is relatively new in the marine

environment and is nowhere close to realizing its full potential. [a] Creatures found in coral ecosystems are important sources of new medicines being developed to induce and ease labor; treat cancer, arthritis, asthma, ulcers, human bacterial infections, heart disease, viruses, and other diseases; as well as sources of nutritional supplements, enzymes, and cosmetics. [b] The medicines and other potentially useful compounds identified to date have led to coral ecosystems being referred to as the medicine cabinets of the 21st century by some, and the list of approved and potential new drugs is ever growing. However, this focus on coral ecosystems for medical properties is not unique to the 21st century. The unique medical properties of organisms found in coral reefs was recognized by Eastern cultures as early as the 14th century; tonics and medicines derived from seahorse extracts continue to be in high demand for traditional medicines. [b] The gall bladder of several fish species were used in Palauan traditional medicine to treat venomous stings of other marine organisms, such as stonefish. [c] While knowledge and use of some traditional medicines has been lost, there is renewed interest within modern medicine in researching some of these treatments. Toxins provided by reef creatures are of particular interest in present day pharmaceutical research. Stonefish, sea snakes, box jellyfish, cone shells, and pufferfish contain some of the most toxic compounds presently known to man. These chemical compounds are being studied by researchers, and some have already been used to develop medicines or cosmetics. For example, cone snail neurotoxin is

showing promise as a powerful painkiller. [a] Other types of chemical compounds are also proving fruitful. The xxxantiviral drugs Ara-A and AZT and the anticancer agent Ara-C, developed from extracts of sponges found on a Caribbean reefxxx, were among the earliest modern medicines obtained from coral ecosystems. [b] The anti-cancer properties of a number of

additional compounds derived from organisms found in coral ecosystems are also being studied.xxx Chemicals derived from Caribbean sea-whip corals have shown skincare, painkiller, and anti-inflammatory properties and a compound derived from a Pacific sponge has lead to testing of over 300 chemical analogs for anti-inflammatory properties. [a], [d] Kainic acid, which is used as a diagnostic chemical to investigate Huntington's chorea, a rare but fatal disease of the nervous system, was isolated from organisms on a Japanese reefxxx. [e] Australian researchers have developed a sun cream from a coral chemical that contains a natural "factor 50" sun block. [e] To watch a short video clip about these NOAA discoveries, click here. NOAA is even playing a role in the discovery of new medical

compounds. A research team, including NOAA scientists at the Hollings Marine Laboratory, has discovered new compounds derived from a sea sponge and corals. One compound eats away at the shield bacteria use to protect themselves from antibiotics. The second discovery was compounds that fight some of the worst infectious bacterial strains. [e] Besides being the source of potentially useful chemical compounds, the porous limestone skeleton of corals has been tested as bone grafts in humans. Pieces of coral set into a fracture act as a

scaffold around which the healing can take place. The implant eventually disappears, absorbed by the new growth of bone. Rates of rejection are much lower than with artificial grafting materials. [e] It should be noted that, aside from the compounds mentioned here, there are likely many other compounds under development which have not yet been disclosed to the wider public. It is safe to say that the published research is only the tip of the iceberg when it comes to the pharmaceutical possibilities presented by compounds derived from creatures found in coral ecosystems, including the corals themselves. Thus, it is nearly impossible to predict what the future economic benefits of bioprospecting will be, as more potentially

valuable medical compounds are isolated from organisms found in coral ecosystems.This aspect of reef value was not incorporated into the estimated $5.5 billion total global value of coral reef biodiversity, but is

certainly both a consideration for the economic value of coral reefs and the costs to society if reefs are lost. [f] *Unless otherwise noted, all monetary values presented are in US Dollars.

Crisis is coming – Biodiversity solves.WWF Global, (WWF Global, “How does Biodiversity loss affect me and everyone else?”, http://wwf.panda.org/about_our_earth/biodiversity/biodiversity_and_you/, 6/26/14, SJ)Biological diversity is the resource upon which families, communities, nations and future generations depend. It is the link between all organisms on earth, binding each into an interdependant ecosystem, in which all species have their role. It is the web of life. ¶ The Earth’s natural assets are made up of plants, animals, land, water, the atmosphere AND

humans! Together we all form part of the planet’s ecosystems, which means if there is a biodiversity crisis, our health and livelihoods are at risk too.¶ But we are currently using 25% more natural resources than the planet can sustain As a result species, habitats and local communities are under pressure or direct threats (for example from loss of access to fresh water).¶ Biodiversity underpins the health of the planet and has a direct impact on all our lives.¶ Put

simply, reduced biodiversity means millions of people face a future where food supplies are more vulnerable to pests and disease, and where fresh water is in irregular or short supply.

Disease chance higher with biodiversity decrease – solve soonPongsiri, U.S. EPA, 2009 (Montira, 12/--/09, USEPA, http://www.epa.gov/ncer/biodiversity/pubs/bio_2009_59_11.pdf, 6/26/14, SJ)

¶ Biodiversity loss can also have a direct effect on zoonotic disease transmission. Plant or structural diversity and habitat complexity can influence the composition, abundance, and distribution of animals that play important roles in the transmission cycles of some human diseases. For example, deforestation and habitat fragmentation or modification, and the accompanying loss of structural diversity, can lead to changes in human contact rates with a variety of

pathogens and disease vectors (Vittor et al. 2006). Changes in the diversity or composition of animal hosts may be closely associated with the incidence of zoonotic diseases such as Lyme disease orWest Nile virus (WNV) in humans (LoGiudice et al. 2003, Ezenwa et al. 2006). At the same time, it is important to note that parasites can be important drivers of biodiversity and components of ecosystem health (Hudson et al. 2006). Some disease dynamics may operate independently of biodiversity if they rely on nongeneralist vectors or a certain abundance of reservoir hosts (Kilpatrick et al. 2006). Finally, although, additional hosts can reduce the transmission rates of particular diseases, they can also harbor other pathogens.¶ ¶ The links between biodiversity and human health occur¶ ¶ from the microbial level to that of the habitat. Mechanistic¶ ¶ pathways that lead from changes in biodiversity to human¶ ¶ health can occur at the genetic, microbial, organismal¶ ¶ (host or vector species), community, and habitat levels. The¶ ¶ range of pathways is summarized in table 1. In this review, we¶ ¶ discuss case studies in which these links have been investigated¶ ¶ in some detail.We then summarize general lessons from this¶ ¶ research and identify several key questions that remain to be¶ ¶ answered.We conclude by describing how decisionmakers can¶ ¶ use such information to design conservation initiatives that¶ ¶ protect both biodiversity and human health.¶ ¶

Biodiversity key for medicinal research – must maintain a low rate of lossUNEP, 2007(UNEP, No Date, "Biodiversity", http://www.unep.org/geo/geo4/report/05_Biodiversity.pdf, SJ)

Biodiversity is also the source for many cures. ¶ In 2002–2003, 80 per cent of new chemicals ¶ introduced globally as drugs could be traced to or ¶ were inspired by natural products . Profits from such ¶ developments can be enormous. For example, a ¶ compound derived from a sea sponge to treat herpes ¶ was estimated to be worth US$50–100 million ¶ annually, and estimates of the value of anti-cancer ¶ agents from marine organisms are up to US$1 billion ¶ a year (UNEP 2006a).¶ Traditional medicines, mainly derived from plants, are ¶ a mainstay of primary health care for a significant ¶ proportion of the population in developing

countries. ¶ It is speculated that some 80 per cent of people in ¶ developing countries rely on traditional medicines, ¶ mostly derived from plants, and more than half of ¶ the most frequently prescribed drugs in developed ¶ countries derive from natural sources .¶ Loss of biodiversity may decrease our options for

¶ new treatments in the future . WHO has identified ¶ 20 000 species of medicinal plants for screening, ¶ and there are many more species whose medicinal ¶ values are only just being discovered, or may prove ¶ important in the future. The value of the global ¶ herbal medicine market was estimated at roughly ¶ US$43 billion in 2001 (WHO 2001). ¶ The capacity of ecosystems to remove wastes from ¶ the environment is being degraded, due to both ¶ increased loading of wastes and degradation of ¶ ecosystems, leading to local and sometimes global ¶ waste accumulation (MA 2005). Examples include ¶ the accumulation of particles and gases in the air, ¶ and of microbial contaminants, inorganic chemicals, ¶ heavy metals, radioisotopes and persistent organic ¶ pollutants in water, soil and food. Such wastes have ¶ a wide range of negative health impacts.¶

Impact – Extinction

Coral reefs are key to biodiversity—cradles for new animalsBiello, Associate Editor of Environment and Energy at Scientific American, 10 (David, 1/7/10, Biello has been reporting on the environment and energy since 1999, and reports for Yale Environment 360.Scientific American, "Another Reason to Save Coral? Reefs Are Responsible for Ocean Biodiversity," http://www.scientificamerican.com/article/coral-reefs-responsible-for-ocean-biodiversity/, 6/24/14, SM)The Great Barrier Reef is the largest living structure on Earth. It might also represent the most prolific cradle for new types of animals on the planet, according to new research published in the January 8 edition of Science. "In the oceans, new species and genera tend to originate in the tropics and in the shallows near shore," says paleobiologist Carl Simpson of Humboldt University in Berlin, one of the researchers on the new paper. By using a massive collection of data on fossils from mollusks to South American mammals,

which records where a fossil was found, how often it is found and what accompanied it, Simpson and his colleagues find "that a majority of genera first evolve in reefs and then later expand to other habitats." In fact, of the 6,615 seabed invertebrates surveyed in the so-called Paleobiology Database, 1,426 evolved in a reef ecosystem. And the result is not just an artifact of reef and shallow-water fossils being relatively more studied. "Reefs are actually rare compared to other habitats," Simpson notes. "If anything, there is a bias against finding that reefs are cradles." The phemonenon of reefs acting as cradles of biodiversity seems to have peaked in the Paleozoic—from 542 million to 251 million years ago—for reasons that are unclear. One possibility is that by seeding other environments with new species, reefs undercut their own preeminence as cradles. "The consequence would be that reefs become one of many important cradles, rather than the most common cradle," Simpson says. And reefs do not seem to have helped the oceans rebound from mass extinction events, like the one at the end of the Paleozoic era that wiped out as much as 90 percent of marine life. That's likely because "reef-building as a process had to recover from mass extinction events, because the ecosystem engineers that built reefs were severely affected," says marine scientist Richard Aronson of the Florida Institute of Technology, who was not involved with the study. "Reefs in general were not

available to enhance biodiversity rebound because they first had to be reconstituted as viable ecosystems." But coral reefs do offer a variety of ecological niches and "bumpiness," as Aronson puts it, or a "great variety of physical spaces, [water] flow regimes and other ecological opportunities." That has made them cradles not just for sponges and the like but also snails, shrimps, urchins, fishes and even extinct animals like trilobites. Plus, vicious competition for space and food on a reef leads to a lot of "turnover," Simpson notes, or extinctions that allow for new species to develop as new habitats form or ecological niches open. "If turnover is high, then the brief window of opportunity for new species is a common occurrence." According to some mathematical estimates, 99.9 percent of all species that have ever existed are now extinct. As it stands, estimates of the number of species on Earth at present range from five million to as many as 100 million, with science having identified only two million members of the biodiversity extant today. That means literally billions of species have come and gone in the 4.5 billion years Earth has existed. New research

will be needed to determine exactly why reefs are such efficient cradles for new life-forms. But the threats faced by coral today—

from rising ocean acidity to agricultural runoff and rampant disease—do not bode well for marine biodiversity in the near future. After all, it is possible that during mass extinction events the destruction of reefs might have played a role in the decline of diversity in other marine environments, as well. As Aronson asks: "If modern reefs continue to degrade, will that have cascading evolutionary consequences for other ecosystems by cutting off the supply of new genera?"¶

Extinctions Could Have Domino Effect, Study SaysOwen 4(James, Journalist for NatGeo, 9/9/2004, National Geographic“Extinctions Could Have Domino Effect, Study Says”, http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2004/09/0909_040909_extinctions.html, 6/25/2014, AC)

In a study released today, researchers warn that the loss of plants and animals currently listed as threatened or endangered could have a domino effect on other species that depend on them. The scientists estimate if the nearly 12,200 animals and plants worldwide currently listed as threatened or endangered were to disappear, another 6,300 "affiliate" species could also be lost. "Many plants and animals have a diverse selection of insects, fungi, and other organisms associated with them that are uniquely adapted to their host," the researchers wrote in a study published in tomorrow's issue of Science. Such specialization makes affiliate species especially vulnerable to extinction should the host species die out, the scientists say. The researchers believe these dependent species should now be included in current extinction estimates. They add that coextinction (the loss of one species

resulting from the loss of another) is a largely unexamined and potentially substantial contributor to the current global extinction crisis. The team used a model based on known coevolved relationships between organisms such as fig trees and the fig wasps that pollinate them, and parasitic butterflies and their host ants. The analysis identified a further 6,300 endangered species. The study also highlights at least 200 plants and animals that have already been lost through coextinction. Co-author Navjot Sodhi says an examination of the skins of extinct animals would likely reveal many more examples of coextinct creatures. "A parasite on the dodo could have gone coextinct if the dodo was its only host bird," said Sodhi, a biologist at the National University of Singapore. While the plight of parasitic lice and mites are unlikely to attract outpourings of public sympathy, more charismatic insects are also at risk.

The extinction of other animals will threaten survival.Diaz 6(Sandra, 8/15/2006, PLOS biology, “Biodiversity Loss Threatens Human Well-being”, http://www.plosbiology.org/article/info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pbio.0040277#pbio-0040277-g003, 6/25/2014, AC)

Human societies have been built on biodiversity. Many activities indispensable for human subsistence lead to biodiversity loss, and this trend is likely to continue in the future. We clearly benefit from the diversity of organisms that we have learned to use for medicines, food, fibers, and other renewable resources. In addition, biodiversity has always been an integral part of the human experience, and there are many moral reasons to preserve it for its own sake. What has been less

recognized is that biodiversity also influences human well-being, including the access to water and basic materials for a satisfactory life, and security in the face of environmental change, through its effects on the ecosystem processes that lie at the core of the Earth's most vital life support systems. Three recent publications from the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment [2–4], an initiative involving more than 1,500 scientists from all over the world [5], provide an updated picture of the fundamental messages and key challenges regarding biodiversity at the global scale. Chief among them are: (a) human-induced changes in land cover at the global scale lead to clear losers and winners among species in biotic communities; (b) these changes have large impacts on ecosystem processes and, thus, human well-being; and (c) such consequences will be felt disproportionately by the poor, who are most vulnerable to the loss of ecosystem services.

Loss in Coral reefs means extinction Philipine Daily Inquirer, 2002(Philippine Daily Inquirer, 12/10/02, “Reefs Under Stress”, http://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=2479&dat=20021210&id=Alk1AAAAIBAJ&sjid=iyUMAAAAIBAJ&pg=750,32878021, 6/27/14, SJ)

Coral reefs are the marine equivalent of rainforests that are also being destroyed at an alarming rate not only

in the Philippines but all over the world .The World Conservation Union says reefs are one of the “essential life support systems” necessary for human survival, homes to huge numbers of animals and plants. Dr. Helen T. Yap of the Marine Science

Institute of the University of the Philippines said that the country’s coral reefs, together with those of Indonesia and Papua New Guinea,

contain the biggest number of species of plants and animals. “they lie at the center of biodiversity in our planet,” she said.

Extinction is inevitable – Biodiversity preservation solvesDiner, Ph.D., Planetary Science and Geology, 1993 (David, 04/--/93, DTIC, "THE ARMY AND THE ENDANGERED SPECIES ACT: WHO'S ENDANGERING WHOM?", http://www.dtic.mil/dtic/tr/fulltext/u2/a456541.pdf, 6/26/14, SJ)

4. BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY The main premise of species preservation is that diversity is better than simplicity.77 As the current mass extinction progresses, there has been a general decrease in the world's biological diversity. This trend occurs within ecosystems by reducing the number of species, and within species by reducing the number of individuals. Both trends carry serious future implications. 78 Biologically diverse ecosystems are characterized by a large number of specialist species, filling narrow ecological niches. * 13 These ecosystems are inherently more stable than less diverse systems: "'The more complex the ecosystem, the more successfully it can resist a stress...[l]ike a net, in which each knot is connected to others by several strands, such a fabric can resist collapse better than a

simple, unbranched circle of threads which if cut anywhere breaks down as a whole.",79 By causing widespread extinctions humans have artificially simplified many ecosystems. As biologic simplicity rises, so does the risk of ecosystem failure. The spreading Sahara desert in Africa, and the dustbowl conditions of the 1930s in the U.S. are relatively mild examples of what might be expected

if this trend continues. Theoretically, each new animal or plant . extinction, with all its dimly perceived and intertwined affects, could cause total ecosystem collapse, and human extinction. Certainly, each new extinction increases the risk of disaster. Like a mechanic removing, one by one, the rivets from an aircraft's wings, 80 mankind may be edging closer to the abyss.

Biodiversity loss leads to extinctionHamid, PhD from Michigan State University, 13(Zakri A., 12/5/13, Master of Science from Michigan State University, Bachelor of Science from Louisiana State University, Agriculture & Food Security, “The dangerous, careless folly of biodiversity loss,” http://www.agricultureandfoodsecurity.com/content/2/1/16, 6/28/14, SM)The accelerating disappearance of the Earth’s wild plants and animals constitutes a fundamental threat to the wellbeing and even the survival

of humankind. Biodiversity from terrestrial, marine, coastal and inland water ecosystems provides the basis for ecosystems and the services they provide that underpin human wellbeing. However, biodiversity and ecosystem services are declining at an unprecedented rate, and in order to address this challenge, adequate local, national and international policies need to be adopted and implemented. To achieve this, decision-makers need scientifically credible and independent information that takes into account the complex relationships between biodiversity, ecosystem services and people. They also need effective methods to interpret this scientific information in order to make informed decisions. The scientific community must understand the needs of decision-makers better in order to provide them with the relevant information. In essence, the dialogue between the scientific community, governments and other stakeholders on biodiversity and ecosystem services needs to be strengthened. To this end, a new platform has been established by the international community - the ‘Intergovernmental Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services’ (IPBES). IPBES was established in April 2012, as an independent intergovernmental body open to all member countries of the United Nations. The members are committed to building IPBES as the leading intergovernmental body for assessing the state of the planet’s biodiversity, I am honoured to be the Founding Chair of the organisation. In the article that follows I have outlined my perception of the background to the problem and of the way forward ecosystems and the essential services they provide to society.¶ Background¶ Scientists are warning us in ever louder terms that the

loss of plant and animal species on Earth - both wild and domesticated - constitutes a fundamental threat to the wellbeing and even the survival of humankind [1]. Most indicators of the state of biodiversity (covering

species’ population trends, extinction risk, habitat extent and condition, and community composition) showed declines, with no significant recent reductions in rate, whereas indicators of pressures on biodiversity (including resource

consumption, invasive alien species, nitrogen pollution, overexploitation and climate change impacts) showed increases [2].

Impact - Reefs

Loss of biodiversity prevents coral reefs from regrowingDUJS 12(4/11/12, Dartmouth Undergraduate Journal of Science, “The Decline of Reefs: Effects of Increased Carbon Emissions on Coral Ecosystems,” http://dujs.dartmouth.edu/winter-2012/the-decline-of-reefs-effects-of-increased-carbon-emissions-on-coral-ecosystems#.U6-GVY2wKrY, 6/28/14, SM)Previous findings highlight the incredible toll that coral loss from ocean acidification and global warming take on marine species. For example,

Jones et al. recently conducted an eight-year study in Papua New Guinea. Their discoveries reinforced the idea that declines in coral cover and fish biodiversity are positively associated. They observed that approximately 75% of the reef fish species fell in population, and that 50% of the species exhibited counts that were less than half of their originals. In particular, they found that species for which juveniles have a more significant coral reef dependence declined on a greater scale. Furthermore, they predicted that species with more limited geographic ranges, like some coral-dwelling gobies, may become

extinct (12).¶ The loss of fish biodiversity, among other marine species, plays a consequent role in the coral-algal phase shift in coral reefs. When corals die and deplete from ocean acidification and global warming, algae and

other benthos – organisms that dwell at the bottom of the ocean – typically occupy the resulting space.

Under normal conditions, their spread is limited and controlled by herbivore grazing. However, in the absence of sufficient herbivores, algal communities may establish permanent forms and prevent coral reefs from recovering to their previous forms (13).

Shoreline Advantage

Reefs K2 Shorelines

Reefs Protect Shoreline-Reduce Wave ImpactsBurke Et Al, M.S. in Environment and Resource Policy, 11(Lauretta, Kathleen, Mark, Allison, 2/11, World Resources Institute, "Reefs at Risk Revisited," http://www.wri.org/sites/default/files/pdf/reefs_at_risk_revisited.pdf , 6/25/14, AF).

There are an estimated 2,679 coral reef protected areas worldwide, encompassing approximately 27 percent of the word's coral reefs. there is considerable geographic variation in this coverage: while more than three-quarters of Australia's coral reefs are within MPAs, outside of Australia the area of protected reefs drops to only 17 percent. While these overall protection figures are high--few other marine or terrestrial

habitats have more than one-quarter of their extent within protected areas--there is still cause for concern. First, most of the remaining 73 percent of coral reefs lie outside any formal management framework. Second, it is widely agreed that not all MPAs are effective in reducing human threats or impacts. Some sites, often described as "paper parks," are in effective simply because the management framework is ignore or not enforced. In others, the regulations, even if fully and effectively implemented, are insufficient to address the threats within its borders. For example, a site that forbids the use of lobster traps, but permits catching lobsters by hand may be just as thoroughly depleted of lobsters and suffer as much physical damage from divers as if the trap restrictions were not in place. Third, MPAs are rarely placed in areas where threats to reefs are greatest. this is highlighted by the recent creation of a number of very large MPAs in remote areas, where there are few or no local people and where threats are very low. Such MPAs, are clearly important as potential regional strongholds, refuges, and seeding grounds for recovery, but do very little to

mitigate current, urgent, local threats. A further problem is that many reefs are affected by threats that originate far away, particularly pollutants and sediments from poor land-use practices or coastal development in areas outside the MPA boundaries. While healthy reefs may be more resilient to such stresses, this alone is unlikely to be sufficient, and other management approaches may be required to deal with these issues. In a few cases, considerable progress has been made through the engagement of adjacent communities to improve land management and reduce pollution and sediment runoff in areas adjacent to

MPAs. Our analysis revealed that nearly half (47 percent) of the 1,147 coral reef MPAs for which we have ratings are considered ineffective in reducing overfishing. Furthermore, the proportion of ineffective sites is highest in the most threatened regions of world: 61 percent of MPAs in the Atlantic and 69 percent of MPAs in Southeast Asia are rated as ineffective. Even these statistics are probably conservative, as it is likely that our sampling favors better-known sites, many of which would have stronger management regimes than less well-known sites.

Reefs Protect Shoreline-Reduce Wave ImpactsBurke Et Al, M.S. in Environment and Resource Policy, 11(Lauretta, Kathleen, Mark, Allison, 2/11, World Resources Institute, "Reefs at Risk Revisited," http://www.wri.org/sites/default/files/pdf/reefs_at_risk_revisited.pdf , 6/25/14, AF).

Coral reefs play a valuable role in buffering coastal communities and infrastructure from the physical impacts of wave action and storms, thereby reducing coastal erosion and lessening wave-induced flooding. Coral reefs typically mitigate 75 to 95 percent of wave energy, but are less effective for large waves or storm surges during storm events. The degree of shoreline protection provided by reefs varies with the coastal context. Important factors include the nature of the land protected (e.g., geology, vulnerability to erosion, and slope), the nature of the coral reef (depth, continuity, and distance from shore), and local storm and wave regimes. To estimate the coastal protection that reefs provide, we derive an index of coastal protection based on the amount of coastline within proximity of reefs, with reefs closer inshore offering more protection than offshore reefs.

Globally, we estimate that more than 150,000 km of shoreline in 106 countries and territories receive some protection from reefs, with an average of 42 percent protection at the national level. In 17 small

islands (for example, Curaçao), more than 80 percent of the coastline is estimated to be protected by reefs. Reefs protected less than 10 percent of coastline in 21 countries and territories, which predominantly are large nations with relatively restricted areas of reef such as South Africa.

Leadership Advantage

Leadership k2 Heg

US environmental leadership solves climate change—spurs multilateral climate action. Burwell, JD @ University of Virginia 10 (David, 4/15/10, Carnegie Endowment For International Peace, “Transportation—The Leading Cause of Global Warming”, http://carnegieendowment.org/2010/04/15/transportation-leading-cause-of-global-warming/2fr2, 7/1/14, KM)

By addressing the way we travel, by helping ourselves, by giving ourselves more transportation choices, by connecting transportation to land use development, we are not only helping ourselves, but we are providing a model for the rest of the world of how they can develop

in a way that is sustainable, low carbon, and provides more choices for everybody. ¶ If the United States passed a climate bill that priced transportation carbon and linked it to a transportation bill that would reinvest the revenues into a green transportation system, the United States would be on track to meet its stated obligation of a 17 to 20 percent absolute decrease in greenhouse gas emissions by 2020. ¶ That would give comfort to other countries—particularly China, India, and other emerging economies—that the United States is

serious about reducing its transportation carbon and it would contribute to the likelihood of a global climate agreement.

US environmental leadership k2 solve laundry list of impacts. Ivanova, Ph.D. @ Yale University and Esty, J.D. @ Yale Law School 8 (Maria and Daniel, 2008, The John Hopkins University Press, “Reclaiming U.S. Leadership in Global Environmental Governance”, https://muse.jhu.edu/journals/sais_review/v028/28.2.ivanova.pdf, p. 59-60, 7/1/14, KM)

These dynamics beg two questions: Can progress on any of the difficult global environmental issues be achieved without the participation and leadership of the United States? Conversely, can the United States shoulder the burden of addressing suchconcerns without the cooperation of the rest of the globalcommunity? ¶ Success in protecting the planet from climate change cannot be achieved by the United States acting on its own. ¶ In this article, we addressthese core questions. We arguethat the next President of theUnited

States must re-engagewith other nations. Success in protecting the planet from climate change cannot be achieved by the United States

acting on its own. International cooperation is essential. Similar collaborative efforts at the global scale will be required to protect the planet’s biological diversity, restore the vibrancy of the world’s fisheries, prevent the spread of persistent organic

pollutants, conserve forests, and other issues that are inescapably trans-boundary in nature. ¶ We contend, moreover, that not only is U.S. participation critical, but U.S. leadership is crucial and necessary to achieve successful environmental outcomes. The U.S. environmental footprint is larger than any other country’s. The United States consumes a disproportionate share of the world’s energy and natural resources. With less than 5 percent of the world population, the United States uses 25 percent of the world’s fossil fuel resources—accounting for nearly 25 percent of the world’s annual coal burning, 26 percent of the world’s oil, and 27 percent of the world’s natural gas. It also accounts for 18.5 percent of the consumption of global forestry products and 13.7 percent of the world’s water usage. ¶ The United States is in a unique position. Given its economic and strategic power as well as its financial and technological prowess, U.S. leadership could influence international environmental policy and promote effective environmental governance. Conversely, the record of the past fifteen years has demonstrated that “when the United States declines to exercise leadership, the impact is significant.” Little progress is made without the United States. Reasserting global environmental leadership, however, will not be easy for the next U.S. president. There are considerable domestic challenges as the U.S. public remains deeply ambivalent about international entanglements and international organizations—even those related to protecting the planet.

Environmental Leadership Key to Heg- All Environmental Activity Spills Over to every part of decisions and actions

Barry, Associate Dean of the College of Natural Resources at Colorado State University , ‘06 (Joyce, “Environmental Leadership Equals Essential Leadeership: Redefining Who Leads and How”, page 6, your AEG.) Another relevant observation makes all leadership directly relate to environmental leadership. As communication and science make the global commons better known to all, it is increasingly clear that all humans share the same environment (in addition, as Lily Tomlin has said, “timesharing the same atoms”) and are at the same time an increasingly influential

component of what we call “nature” (McKibben 1990). No place or component of the biosphere is completely uninfluenced by human activity. In most places, most of the time, human activity dominates. All human activity can be seen as environmentally based and important to the future of the environmental dimension and all leadership decisions and actions become in some significant measure “environmental”.

Environmental Leadership Leads to Ecocentric Values, Ethnical Considerations, and Heg while Maintaining Ecological Sustainability

Boiral, Professor Holder Canada Research Chair on standards of sustainability management, ’09 (Olivier, 2009, Journal Of Business Ethics, “The Action Logics of Environmental Leadership: A Developmental Perspective”, http://www.jstor.org/stable/info/40294809, 7/1/14, AEG) These studies of environmental leadership have been focused mainly on the role of management and the motives underlying their commitment, including those related to ethical considerations. Generally speaking, effective environmental leaders are described as more aware of ecocentric values, more attentive to stakeholders' expectations, and personally committed to organizational change through various approaches, such as pollution pre- vention, implementation of management systems like ISO 14001, and heightened employee awareness (Bansal and Roth, 2000; Delmas, 2001; Henriques and Sadorsky, 1999; Sharma, 2000).

The importance of mobilizing individuals and developing a pro- environmental vision are often emphasized as well. Thus, environmental leadership, as defined by Egri and Herman (2000, p. 2), is "the ability to influence individuals and mobilize organizations to realize a vision of long-term ecological sustainability." Although the ecocentric characteristics of this vision and the paradigm shifts involved have often been highlighted, the personal capacities that are required to alter the ways of thinking and acting within organizations have remained largely unexplored. These capacities depend not only on the acceptance of ecocentric values and an ecological vision, but also on the way managers themselves see, think, and act.

National Policies on the Environment Lead To International Environmental Initiatives which will create global solvencySteinberg, Associate Professor of Political Science and Environmental Policy, N/A (Paul, The MIT Press, “Environmental Leadership in Developing Countries: Transnational Relations and Biodiversity Policy in Costa Rica and Bolivia”, http://mitpress.mit.edu/books/environmental-leadership-developing-countries, 7/1/14, AEG) In the absence of world government, effective national policy is essential to the success of international environmental initiatives. Yet research on global environmental cooperation has proceeded without models of policy change in developing countries, where most of the world's people, land, and species are found. In this book Paul Steinberg provides a theoretical

framework to explain the domestic responses of developing countries to global environmental concerns. Drawing on extensive field research, he traces the evolution of public policies to protect biological diversity in Costa Rica and Bolivia over the

past four decades, to understand how these countries emerged as leaders in tropical conservation and how international institutions might support similar outcomes in other countries.

Solvency

Artificial

Solvency-Steel CagesVince, Journalist Specializing in Environment, 09(Gaia, 8/16/09, The Guardian, "Sunken Steel Cages Could Save Coral Reefs," www.theguardian.com/environment/2009/aug/16/coral-reefs-regeneration-maldives-conservation, 6/25/14, AF).

Scientists are reporting encouragingly rapid coral growth on giant underwater steel cages – structures that they hope will help to regenerate battered reefs and improve protection of some vulnerable coastlines from rising sea levels. Coral reefs support a quarter of life on Earth and last month David Attenborough warned that carbon dioxide is already above the levels

that will condemn corals to extinction. And while the metal cages, fed with electric current, are not a solution to the global

problem of dramatically contracting reefs, they do appear to be providing promising results in small, local projects, and – in

some cases – rescuing resorts where coral was vanishing fast. A team of researchers on Vabbinfaru island in the Maldives submerged a huge steel cage called the Lotus on the sea floor. The 12-metre structure, which

weighs 2 tonnes is connected to long cable which supplies a low-level electric current. The electricity triggers a chemical reaction, which leads to calcium carbonate coming out of solution in the water and being deposited on the structure. Corals seem to find that irresistible, perhaps because they use the same material

to grow their protective skeletons, and the Lotus has been so thoroughly colonised by coral that it is difficult now to make out the steel shape beneath all the elaborate shapes and colour. The idea was initially developed by an American architect, Wolf Hilbertz, who sold the concept to various resorts around the world. The Lotus is the largest and most successful of those, and has helped researchers to test

the technique. The El Nino Pacific-warming phenomenon of 1998 killed 98% of the reef around Vabbinfaru, so the researchers there have been able to compare the growth rates for corals grafted on to concrete structures on "desert" patches of seafloor, and those stuck on to the Lotus. Abdul Azeez, who is leading the Vabbinfaru project, said coral growth on the structure is up to five times as fast as that elsewhere. The electric reef may also make the corals fitter and better able to withstand warming events, perhaps because the creatures waste less energy on making their skeletons. A smaller prototype device was in place during the 1998 warming event and more than 80% of its corals survived, compared to just 2% elsewhere on the reef.

Solvency-Land ConservationScience Daily, Site for Research News, 13(Science Daily, 12/17/13, Science Daily, "Saving Fiji's coral reefs linked to forest conservation upstream," www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2013/12/131217155329.htm, 6/25/14, AF).

The health of coral reefs offshore depend on the protection of forests near the sea, according to a new study by the Wildlife Conservation Society that outlines the importance of terrestrial protected areas to coastal biodiversity. In a study conducted by WCS and the University of Queensland evaluating the effects of terrestrial protected area designs on Fiji's coral reefs, it turns out that what's best for land ecosystems is also best for coastal corals. The study appears in the online edition of Marine Policy. The authors are: Carissa Klein of the University of Queensland; Stacy Jupiter of the Wildlife Conservation Society; and Matthew Watts and Hugh Possingham of the

University of Queensland. "When designing terrestrial protected areas, the key is to consider not only how much they benefit terrestrial biodiversity but also how much they benefit coral reef ecosystems," said lead author Dr. Carissa Klein. "Thinking about the connections between the land and sea is rarely done when designing protected areas -- Fiji is leading the way globally." Most managers realize how downstream ecosystems such as coral reefs can be negatively affected by land-based activities that cause increases in runoff and associated sediments, nutrients, and chemicals. Yet, there have been very few on-the-ground cases where protected area networks have been designed using truly integrated planning to minimize such external threats. This matters in small island developing states like Fiji, where selection of the locations of

terrestrial protected areas have been mostly ad hoc, and based more on the cultural or timber value of forests than on any desire to protect biodiversity. Fiji's current terrestrial protected areas, which cover less than 3 percent of land area in the country, neither adequately protect Fiji's sensitive island habitats and species nor contribute much to minimize runoff to adjacent coral reefs. In 2008, a national Protected Area Committee was created by the Fiji government, in part to achieve the goals of protecting 20 percent of the country's land and 30 percent of its

coastal waters by the year 2020. Looking to support the committee's efforts to land-sea planning initiative, the study authors systematically analyzed six scenarios for expanding Fiji's network of terrestrial protected area networks, with the aim to uncover how well each approach did to protect different forest types and minimize land-based runoff to downstream coral reefs. One scenario evaluated included all of the priority forests for conservation identified by the committee based on field data and rules of thumb.

"We're pleased that the results of our study confirm that the forests that the committee was considering for protection can offer significant downstream benefits to coral reefs," said Dr. Stacy Jupiter, Fiji Country Program Director and co-author on the study. "However, we were surprised to find that these priority places for management actually did not include a lot of the key threatened forest vegetation types. We therefore recommended to the committee to add some additional forests to their national register of priority places for protection." This advice was taken by the committee, and additional forest areas were added to the final register of priority places for management endorsed by the Fiji government National Environment Council in October 2013. "Fiji is to be commended for their constructive response to the findings of this important scientific research," said Dr. Caleb McClennen, Director of the WCS Marine Program. "Their decision to take action and link land to sea conservation helps to ensure the long term security of their globally important coral reef ecosystems while supporting the livelihoods and resilience of coastal communities."

Artificial reefs reduce coral pressures and increase marine habitats.Lane, Writer @ Discover5Oceans 10 (TS, 1/15/10, Discover5Oceans, “Artificial Reefs: The Good, The Bad, The Controversial”, http://www.discover5oceans.com/2010/01/artificial-reefs-the-good-the-bad-the-controversial/, 6/25/10, KM)

Artificial reefs have long been a part of coastal marine life. Whether to protect strategic areas from hostile weather, guard

against attacking enemy forces or to improve fish stocks, man has thrown all kinds of objects imaginable – and some things that are

unimaginable – into the water. ¶ Recently we’ve taken to sinking decommissioned ships at strategic locations with the hope of

attracting fish, coral, and scuba divers. The promise is that over time, the submerged structures will decrease demand on over-used and over-stressed natural coral reefs. Florida lays claim to the world’s two largest artificial reefs with the intentional sinking of the USS Oriskany in 2006 off the coast of Pensicola and the sinking of the USNS Vandenburg near Key West in 2009. ¶ Man-made reefs aren’t only created for divers. For more than a decade, surfers have been catching waves breaking over artificial reefs at Cable Station Beach in Western Australia and Narrowneck on the Gold Coast of Queensland, Australia. The surfing ramps website provides insight into

the goals and benefits of various projects in Australia, which include reduction of coastal erosion and increased marine habitat, as well as providing alternative destinations for surfers.

Artificial Reefs Provide an Easy Way to Create More Coral Reefs, Bringing the Creatures Back Into The AreaUS EPA, N/A(United States Environmental Protection Agency, “What Are Artificial Reefs and Where Are They Located in the Mid-Atlantic?”, http://www.epa.gov/reg3esd1/coast/reefs.htm, 6/25/14, AEG)Reefs provide a home for fish and other ocean wildlife. Once an artificial reef is placed on the ocean floor, various encrusting organisms such as corals and sponges start covering the material. Then small animals take up residence, and as the small animals become abundant, larger animals are attracted. After a time it is hard to tell an artificial reef from a natural reef. Many different types of materials can serve as artificial reefs. The bodies of cars, trucks, subway cars, and military tanks have been used, as well as bridge rubble, barges, boats, submarines, planes, and large cable. In August 2001, New York City subway cars were slid off a barge into the Atlantic Ocean ten miles east of Rehoboth Beach, Delaware. The cars, positioned in approximately 80 feet of water, became an artificial reef. Dives by the EPA Mid-Atlantic Region Scientific Dive Unit have confirmed that the cars are still intact, well covered by growth, and surrounded by fish such as flounder, tog, and shark. Because of the success of the 2001 program, additional New York City subway cars have been placed off the coast. For example, in November 2008, more than 40 subway cars were placed in the Atlantic Ocean approximately 10

miles southeast of Ocean City, Maryland. The cars will serve as artificial reefs, which are critical in supporting a diversity of species along the Maryland coast. This is the second time in the past six months where partners of the Maryland Artificial Reef Initiative(including NYC transit) placed subway cars in the Atlantic Ocean to create deep water artificial reefs. There are plans to create up to a 600 car matrix off of Ocean City’s coast. Members of EPA's Coastal Science Team were consulted regarding the proper cleaning and removal of parts in the subway cars

prior to placement. The national story was recently the focus of a NBC Nightly News Special report (video).Artificial reefs are especially important in the marine waters of the mid-Atlantic. Years ago the natural bottom near shore had crevices in which fish could breed and hide. Today, however, widespread development has increased runoff from the land. This has resulted in large quantities of silt and sand being deposited into the water, making the near-shore bottom flat. Artificial reefs provide a way to bring fish and other ocean creatures back into an area.

Artificial Reefs Restore Ecosystems- They Provide More Habitats For Organisms and Take Tourism Pressures off of normal reefs which in turn increases the EconomyNational Marine Sanctuaries, N/A (NOAA, “While artificial reefs generally enhance local economies, they can have both positive and negative effects on ecosystems”, http://floridakeys.noaa.gov/artificialreefs/effects.html, 6/26/14, AEG)When a structure is intentionally placed on the seafloor as an artificial reef, it can create habitat for a variety of marine life. For this reason, artificial reefs are often popular destinations for divers, snorkelers, and fishermen. In areas such as the Florida Keys, heavy visitation, particularly by novice or uninformed divers and snorkelers, can take a toll on coral reefs. Research suggests that in some instances, artificial reefs may divert some pressure away from natural reefs while still allowing visitors to enjoy diverse marine life. Because many of these divers, snorkelers, and anglers charter through local businesses, artificial reefs can have a positive impact on local economies. In such an instance, the artificial reef would be considered a ‘win-win’ for the economy and the environment.

Planned Artificial Reefs Provide The Most Efficient Way To Provide The Necessary Space For Restoring Ecosystems

Romano & Provenzani, under the GUE, N/A (Global Underwater Explorers, GUE collaborates with a wide range of

governmental and non-governmental organizations to explore and protect the aquatic realm, “Artificial Reefs”, https://www.globalunderwaterexplorers.org/artificial-reefs, 6/26/14, AEG)In contrast, when an artificial reef is not accidental, but planned, materials suitable for extended submersion in a marine environment are normally used. Such materials are stable and environmentally sound, like, for example, cement or steel. Once the material is introduced into the marine environment, it acts as a natural rocky bottom, providing potential living space for a new reef community. Furnishing this “suitable space” is the only human intervention needed; once in place, nature quickly takes over and, soon thereafter, the structure begins to lose its artificial character. With each passing day, as numerous new living organisms begin to colonize the structure, what was once “artificial” now becomes a progressively intensifying reef ecosystem. In time, the steel and cement will disappear beneath a colorful blanket of undersea life.

Artificial Reefs Dramatically Reduce Harms To Coral Reef Ecosystems

Schut, under The University Of Edinburgh, 13 (Kaj, Nov. 2013, ERA, “A Comparative Analysis of Designed Artificial Reefs As Ecosystem Service Providers: Building Social-Ecological Resilience on Atoll Islands”, https://www.era.lib.ed.ac.uk/handle/1842/8362, 6/26/14, AEG)Coral reef ecosystems are under increasing threat from climatic and anthropogenic pressures. Research has revealed that approximately twenty per cent of the world’s coral reefs have already been degraded and it has been predicted that an additional twenty per cent will be lost if no action is taken. This is particularly problematic for the inhabitants of atoll islands who depend greatly on the goods and services provided by coral reefs. This study suggests that the resilience of social and ecological systems can be strengthened by securing the provision of coral reef ecosystem services at all times and reducing the pressure of external disturbances on natural coral reef systems. Consequently, this study synthesises concepts that are associated with social-ecological resilience and presents a new framework for the evaluation of the coral reef restoration technique commonly known as ‘designed artificial reef’. The results suggest that the designed artificial reefs discussed in this study can contribute to the social-ecological resilience of atoll islands by providing additional provisioning, regulating and cultural services and should therefore be considered in future discussions on adaptation to climate change.

Genetically Engineered Coral

Stress resistance in coral reef ecosystems is passed on genetically.Mascarelli, Fellow @ National Science Foundation 14 (Amanda, 4/23/14, Nature, “Climate-change adaption: Designer reefs”, http://www.nature.com/news/climate-change-adaptation-designer-reefs-1.15073#/b2, 6/25/14, KM)

Legacy of survival ¶ Others have found encouraging evidence that stress resistance gained through acclimatization can be passed on to offspring. Unpublished work by Gates, led by the University of Hawaii's Hollie Putnam, shows that adult cauliflower corals (Pocillopora damicornis) exposed to stress during brooding produce larvae with increased resilience to heat and ocean acidification. The team hypothesizes that this transgenerational protection is caused by epigenetic changes: the modification of molecular tags on the genome that affect gene expression. ¶ Gates and van Oppen are aiming to look specifically at areas that have already survived massive bleaching events, such as Moorea in French Polynesia, the central Great Barrier Reef in Australia, and the Seychelles, where 97% of corals in the inner islands died following the 1997–98 El Niño oceanic warming event. (A nursery has already been created from the Seychelles corals that survived, and fragments grown from them have been planted onto reefs to aid their recovery.) Gates and van Oppen aim to cross-breed corals that have survived such stressful bleaching, and to track the resilience of the offspring. ¶ Their ideas won Gates and van Oppen the 2013 Paul G. Allen Ocean Challenge prize of US$10,000, along with an invitation to apply for multimillion-dollar funding. Depending on how much of that funding comes through, they also aim to use heat and acidity to stress corals before they breed, to see if and how tolerance gets passed down the generations. Beginning in May, van Oppen and her team will start collecting adults of the branching coral Pocillopora acuta from the Great Barrier Reef, and will grow them in the Australian Institute of Marine Science's massive National Sea Simulator, an aquarium facility that provides controlled tanks to replicate open-ocean conditions. ¶ Ultimately, Gates and van Oppen hope to create a 'seed bank' of gametes and fertilized embryos from extreme settings in which corals persist despite the odds — including the shallow reefs skirting Coconut Island, Hawaii, where both temperature and pH fluctuate drastically, reaching upper limits similar to those expected in the open ocean by 2050. The seed bank would add to efforts spearheaded by the US Smithsonian Institution, in collaboration with Hawaiian and Australian bodies, which are already banking coral sperm and embryonic cells. ¶ A final, important piece of the puzzle is the corals' symbiotic algae: these are shorter-lived and faster-evolving than their hosts, and research has shown that they can pass along thermal tolerance. One study, for example, found that juvenile corals inoculated with strains of algae collected from a warm reef known for heat resistance grew well when exposed to temperatures up to 32 °C, whereas samples of the same coral inoculated with algae from a cooler reef suffered bleaching and tissue death. ¶ Andrew Baker, a marine biologist at the University of Miami in Florida, and his colleagues discovered that symbionts from a lineage called clade D tend to become more prevalent in some corals when they are heat stressed, suggesting that the algae are better able than other strains to survive

such conditions, and that they help their hosts to survive too. Since then, studies have shown that clade D symbionts, in particular types D1 and D1a, are prevalent in a wide variety of corals that have survived extreme bleaching events. Putnam, Gates and their colleagues have found that a different strain, C15, seems to be dominant in heat-resistant corals near Moorea.

Genetically modified coral can withstand worsened ocean conditions—now is key.Cave, Editor @ The Offsetter 14 (James, 5/13/14, The Huffington Post, “Could ‘Designer Reefs’ Save The Oceans?”, http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2014/05/13/hawaii-designer-coral-reef_n_5292247.html, 6/25/14, KM)

So how can we protect coral reefs before it's too late? A team of pioneering researchers in Hawaii has an audacious plan: cross-breed superpowered reefs to preempt these dangers . The idea is to build reefs already pre-evolved to future conditions so that they might successfully reproduce in a more hostile ocean. ¶ “If one were to design an intervention, this is the time to do it, while you still have biological material to work with,” Dr. Ruth Gates, a researcher with the University of Hawaii's Institute of Marine Biology (HIMB), told KITV in Honolulu. ¶ Gates and her team at the HIMB lab on Coconut Island collect hundreds of coral specimens from around Kaneohe Bay and test them in tanks by increasing the water temperature and playing with pH levels. ¶ "We can play with ocean chemistry to acidify the water and elevate the temperature to simulate climate change stress" to see how that exposure affects coral response, Gates told the Huffington Post. "We're using state of the art technology, DNA sequencing, and live imaging of corals, looking at corals in ways that they’re rarely looked at. We can get on the reef 365 days a year, 24 hours a day. It’s a really unique setting." ¶ These "designer reefs" have several applications. In the most extreme case, like in the event of a landslide or human development taking out a whole reef colony, the super coral can be planted in its place as a stronger, new colony. ¶ Or, in a struggling reef, Gates envisions planting the bred coral between already existing coral on the reef, in an attempt to introduce super

specimens that would then breed with native population and increase the ability of the whole reef system to withstand climate change. ¶ Gates also wants to utilize concrete structures that have been installed into oceans. "People are starting to fortify," she

said, "and concrete is not a sustainable structure." She would install the super coral onto cement, "essentially putting a green veneer of these bred corals on top of the concrete structure that would create a natural habitat for organisms around it."

Quickliness

Artificial reefs develop in a short amount of time.Jackson, Agent for Agriculture and Technology @ UF 12 (Scott, 12/14/12, Walton Outdoors, “Understanding the benefits of artificial reefs”, http://www.waltonoutdoors.com/understanding-the-benefits-of-artificial-reefs/, 6/25/14, KM)

Additionally, new engineered concrete artificial reef modules that support specific species and various life stages of fish have been developed. Current fisheries research seeks to refine materials, design, and placement of artificial reefs to maximize conservation through planned monitoring activities. ¶ Within hours of sinking a vessel or concrete reef, baitfish move into their new home . This initiates a parade of marine life over several months. The hard structure of an artificial reef is slowly colonized by soft corals, sponges, plants, and barnacles. Baitfish will soon have new neighbors, as snapper and grouper take residence. Nearby sand sediments come to life with sea stars, sand dollars, and other invertebrate species.

DIN

Federal Funding of DIN (a water temperature regulator) Preserves Coral ReefsDone, Member of the Ecological Society Of America, 9(Terence, Scott Woolridge, September, 2009, ESA, “Improved Water Quality Can Ameliorate Effects of Climate Change on Corals”, http://www.jstor.org/stable/pdfplus/40346263.pdf?&acceptTC=true&jpdConfirm=true, 6/25/14, AEG)¶ The thermal history of a site is often considered to be ¶ a fundamental determinant of a coral's bleaching ¶ resistance to heat stress, with cooler-water acclimated ¶ corals often being more sensitive than warm-water ¶ acclimated corals (see, e.g., Coles and Brown 2003). ¶ For the present study, we observed the opposing ¶ outcome, with (1) the most bleaching-resistant corals ¶ being those that were acclimatized to cool, low-nutrient ¶ (oceanic) conditions and (2) the least bleaching-resistant ¶ corals being those that were acclimatized to warm, high- ¶ nutrient (coastal) conditions. Cooler conditions lead to ¶ lower zooxanthellae turnover and MI, which according ¶ to Wooldridge (2009a) better facilitates the accumula- ¶ tion of tissue stores that can be drawn upon to provide ¶ sustained offset to the autotrophic disruption that ¶ underpins the warm-water bleaching response (see Fig. ¶ 2). This is consistent with the higher bleaching resistance ¶ of corals that maintain thick tissue reserves (Loya et al. ¶ 2001). For reef sites that have upwelling as the dominant ¶ physical feature responsible for their cool summer ¶ thermal regime, we suggest that our generalized resis- ¶ tance response may be limiting. ¶ The new conceptual picture that emerges from this ¶ paper is of the fundamental importance of nutrient ¶ loading, in particular DIN, in defining the bleaching ¶ resistance of corals to heat stress (Fig. 4). A federally ¶ funded program to reduce ambient DIN loads to reef ¶ waters is being implemented with a view to lessening the fertilization of benthic algae and their propensity to ¶ overwhelm coral reefs (Anonymous 2007). With this ¶ analysis, we have shown that these actions also represent ¶ a rational strategy for ameliorating climate change ¶ effects on coral reefs, raising the temperature thresholds ¶ that cause corals to bleach, and reducing bleaching ¶ probability across the whole range of temperatures ¶ predicted for the inshore GBR by 2100. ¶

USFG key

USFG Key- Has Immediate Access to the 3rd Largest Coral Reef Ecosystem In The World

CoRIS, under the NOAA, N/A

(Coral Reef Information System, “Florida”, http://www.coris.noaa.gov/portals/florida.html#6, 6/25/14, AEG)Florida is the only state in the continental United States to have extensive shallow coral reef formations near its coasts. These reefs extend from near Stuart in Martin County on the Atlantic coast, to the Dry Tortugas in the Gulf of Mexico. The most prolific reef development occurs seaward of the Florida Keys. The most extensive living coral reef in the United States is adjacent to the island chain of the Florida Keys. The Florida Reef Tract which extends from Soldier Key, located in Biscayne Bay, to the Tortugas Banks possesses coral formations very similar to those found in the Bahamas and Caribbean Sea. The Florida Reef Tract is nearly 150 miles long and about 4 miles wide extending to the edge of the Florida Straits. It is the third largest barrier reef ecosystem in the world. All but the northern-most extent of the reef tract lies within the boundaries of the Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary. The 2,800 square nautical mile Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary (FKNMS), designated in 1992, surrounds the entire archipelago of the Florida Keys and includes the productive waters of Florida Bay, the Gulf of Mexico and the Atlantic Ocean. Discontinuous and less biologically diverse coral reef communities continue northward along western Florida shores to the Florida Middle Grounds, a series of submerged pinnacles rising to within 60-80 ft of the surface, about 100 miles northwest of St. Petersburg.

USFG Key- Has The Newest Technology

Wenner, PhD from Marine Resources Research Institute, N/A

(Elizabeth, South Carolina Department of Natural Resources, “Marine Artificial Reefs”, http://www.dnr.sc.gov/marine/pub/seascience/artreef.html, 6/25/14, AEG)Given the unpredictable availability of suitable scrap materials from year to year, artificial reef managers have begun to rely more heavily on designed reef habitat structures to carry out reef construction projects. The South Carolina Marine Artificial Reef Program is a leader in the design, testing and utilization of these artificial reef structures in the United States with over a dozen different designs of habitat units having been deployed and tested on its reefs since 1983. Designed reef habitat units of various shapes and sizes are currently being tested at many nearshore and offshore locations. These designs incorporate standard construction materials such as steel, concrete and some heavy-duty plastics into easily deployable, cost-effective and biologically efficient forms of habitat substrate which often produce a better quality longer-lived reef than could be obtained through the use of some available forms of scrap. Future reef construction activities may rely much more heavily on these types of structures.

The USFG Should Do The Plan- Has Food, Economy, and Bio-D Advantages

Global Ideas, 6/25

(Global Ideas Team, 6/25/14, Deutshe Welle Academy, “Interactive Graphic: Exploring A Coral Reef”, http://www.dw.de/interactive-graphic-exploring-a-coral-reef/a-17677132, 6/25/15, AEG)

For over 400 million years, coral reefs have formed some of the world’s largest and most

diverse ecosystems. They provide a habitat for living creatures , protect shores from flood waves,

stabilize coastal regions and even provide people with food and incomes.

So, we have every reason to protect corals . But the opposite is happening . Global warming, overfishing,

polluted water and tourism are all taking a toll on coral reefs. Currently, reefs are shrinking faster than rain forests .

According to statistics from 2008, almost a fifth of the world’s reefs are already dead. But the

trend can still be reversed: most reefs can recover provided global CO2 emissions are hugely

reduced. Scientists have also found that some corals can adapt to warmer water temperatures.

USFG Action Key To Regain Global Leadership

Knox, Professor of International Law, ’12 (John H. Knox, 1/20/12, Center For Progressive Reform, “Reclaiming Global Environmental Leadership”, http://www.progressivereform.org/CPRBlog.cfm?idBlog=FB9153F2-ABFE-3CF2-8053EAF1ED929DB8, 6/27/14, AEG) For more than a century, the United States took the lead in organizing responses to international environmental problems. The long list of environmental agreements spearheaded by the United States extends from early treaties with Canada and Mexico on boundary waters and migratory birds to global agreements restricting trade in endangered species and protecting against ozone depletion. In the last two decades, however, U.S. environmental leadership has faltered. The best-known example is the lack of an effective response to climate change, underscored by the U.S. decision not to join the Kyoto Protocol. But the attention climate change receives should not obscure the fact that the United States has also failed to join a large and growing number of treaties directed at other environmental threats, including marine pollution, the loss of biological diversity, persistent organic pollutants, and trade in toxic substances.

US Must Do The Plan As the World’s Environmental Leader To Remain So

Hayward, Ph. D., American studies, ’08 (Steven, February 2008, American Enterprise Institute, “The United States and the Environment: Laggard or Leader?”, http://www.aei.org/article/energy-and-the-environment/the-united-states-and-the-environment-laggard-or-leader/, 6/27/14, AEG) If there is one country that bears the most responsibility for the lack of progress on international environmental issues, it is the United States. --Gus Speth, Red Sky at Dawn[1] Sadly, our nation is also at present the biggest engine of ecological destruction on Earth, the chief (but by no means only) force keeping humanity on collision course with the natural world. --Paul and Anne Ehrlich, One with Nineveh[2] U.S. Given Poor Marks on the Environment --New York Times headline, January 23, 2008 To borrow the blunt language of Generation X and the "Millennials," does the United States suck when it comes to the environment? Contrary to the perception expressed in the epigraphs above, the answer turns out to be a resounding No; the United States remains the world's environmental leader and is likely to continue as such. But to paraphrase the old slogan of the propagandist, if a misperception is repeated long enough, it will become an unshakeable belief. Environmental improvement in the United States has been substantial and dramatic almost across the board, as my annual Index of Leading Environmental Indicators and other books and reports like it have shown for more than a decade.[3] The chief drivers of this improvement are economic growth, constantly increasing resource efficiency, innovation in pollution control technology, and the deepening of environmental values among the

American public that have translated into changed behavior and consumer preferences. Government regulation has played a vital role to be sure, but in the grand scheme of things, regulation can be understood as a lagging indicator that often achieves results at needlessly high cost. Were it not for rising affluence and technological innovation, regulation would have much

the same effect as King Canute commanding the tides. But in a variation of the old complaint "what have you done for me lately?" there is widespread perception that the United States lags behind Europe and other leading nations on environmental performance. This perception is more strongly held abroad than here in the United States. Yale University's Daniel Esty, the chief author of the World Economic Forum's very useful Environmental Performance Index (EPI)--a new iteration of which appeared in January of this year[4]--notes an interesting irony on this point. In the EPI's 2006 ranking of 133 nations, the United States ranked twenty-eighth, based on the study's comparison of sixteen key indicators. When he presents these findings in the United States, Esty reports, some audiences often ask how it is that the United States scores so poorly on the rankings, Americans being used to appearing near the very top of all international rankings of good things. In Europe, Esty says, audiences wonder how it is possible that the United States scores so high in the rankings--surely there must be some dreadful mistake in the methodology that gives the United States the unjustified high rank of twenty-eighth place![5]While the economy has grown more than twenty-fold in real terms since 1910, fossil fuel energy consumption only grew six-fold, and per-capita CO2 emissions only doubled--from 10.9 tons to 19.4 tons. This is not the profile of a nation that is profligate with energy.

In the 2008 edition of the EPI, the United States slipped in the rankings, falling to thirty-ninth place. Notably, the United States ranks last among the G8 nations and third to last among all advanced wealthy nations, beating only Australia and the Netherlands in the EPI rankings. It was this recent release that produced the New York Times headline: "U.S. Given Poor Marks on the Environment”.

US Should Do The Plan- It Benefits our Declining Bio-D

NOAA, N/A (National Oceanic and Atmospheric Association, “What Are Artificial Reefs and Where Are They Located in the Mid-Atlantic?”, http://www.epa.gov/reg3esd1/coast/reefs.htm, 6/27/14, AEG) Artificial reefs are especially important in the marine waters of the mid-Atlantic. Years ago the natural bottom near shore had crevices in which fish could breed and hide. Today, however, widespread development has increased runoff from the land. This has resulted in large quantities of silt and sand being deposited into the water, making the near-shore bottom flat. Artificial reefs provide a way to bring fish and other ocean creatures back into an area.

The USFG Is Key To Get Benefits Directly- Such Bio-D, Habitat, and Increased Economic ActivityAdams, professor, Food and Resource Economics Department, 11 (Chuck, Bill Lindberg, associate professor, Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences Department; John Stevely, Florida Sea Grant marine extension agent, 2011, University Of Florida, “The Economic Benefits Associated with

Florida's Artificial Reefs”, http://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/fe649#FOOTNOTE_2, 6/27/14, AEG) Artificial reefs may be constructed for a variety of purposes, each with a set of potential benefits associated with that intended purpose or goal. One purpose of artificial

reefs might be to provide a source of biological replenishment to local populations of marine vertebrates and invertebrates. In that case, the benefit would be that a net biomass increase would result from deploying the reef. Artificial reefs may also be used as a means of mitigating local habitat loss. Another purpose might be to simply provide a location where anglers and divers can utilize aggregated populations of marine species, either in a take

(fishing) or no-take (viewing) fashion. The benefits in that case would be the increased economic activity (i.e., expenditures, incomes, jobs) associated with these activities. Each of these purposes may also generate non-market benefits (such as existence values), particularly to non-users of reefs. Such benefits reflect how individuals who may not directly utilize artificial reefs nonetheless

value reef existence as being beneficial to the biological habitat of the region. Aside from the purely biological benefits that might accrue from artificial reefs, many would argue that reefs are deployed to provide benefits to human users, whether commercial fishermen, recreational anglers, sport divers, or others. Milon, Holland, and Whitmarsh (2000) suggest that “a reef that is not useful to people is not a successful reef.” If this is an acceptable tenet, assessments of the economic benefits accruing from artificial reefs to surrounding communities are necessary. Such information provides insight into the degree to which the public benefit is being served by reef deployment and the

economic consequences associated with reef use. The actual or potential economic impact of reef development to the county or state can be measured, as well as determine to what extent artificial reef deployment is an efficient public investment. In turn, this information may help justify future public expenditures on

artificial reefs and assist in developing adaptive strategies associated with reef deployment as a resource management tool. Of course, there are costs associated with artificial reef program implementation. These costs must be measured as well.

Offcase Answers

AT: Spending

Artificial Reefs Are A Cheap Form Of Replicating Coral Reefs While Creating Aesthetics

NOAA, N/A

(National Oceanic And Atmospheric Administration, “What Is An Artificial Reef?”, http://oceanservice.noaa.gov/facts/artificial-reef.html, 6/25/14, AEG)An artificial reef is a manmade structure that may mimic some of the characteristics of a natural reef.In June 2002, the retired USS Spiegel Grove was sunk in waters off Key Largo. At 510 feet (155.45 meters) long, the ship was, at the time, the largest vessel ever intentionally scuttled for the purpose of creating an artificial reef.Submerged shipwrecks are the most common form of artificial reef. Oil and gas platforms, bridges, lighthouses, and other offshore structures often function as artificial reefs. Marine resource managers also create artificial reefs in underwater areas that require a structure to enhance the habitat for reef organisms, including soft and stony corals and the fishes and invertebrates that live among them.Materials used to construct artificial reefs have included rocks, cinder blocks, and even wood and old tires. Nowadays, several companies specialize in the design, manufacture, and deployment of long-lasting artificial reefs that are typically constructed of limestone, steel, and concrete.In 1986, the Thunderbolt was intentionally sunk in 120 feet (36.6 meters) of water four miles south of Marathon and Key Colony Beach in Florida. The ship’s superstructure is now home to colorful sponges, corals, and hydroids, providing food and habitat for a variety of sea creatures.The Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary contains several decommissioned vessels that were sunk in specific areas for diving or fishing opportunities prior to the area’s designation as a national marine sanctuary. One of the most famous is the U.S. Coast Guard Cutter Duane, which served on the seas for half a century before its final assignment as an underwater haven for sea life.Planned manmade reefs may provide local economic benefits because they attract fish to a known location and are therefore popular attractions for commercial and recreational fishermen, divers, and snorkelers. However, the increase in illegal dumping for the purpose of creating habitat has led to significant poaching in the Florida Keys and subsequent high-profile arrests by NOAA’s Office of Law Enforcement. Marine debris continues to be an ongoing problem in these sensitive environmental areas, and NOAA’s Marine Debris Program has helped provide funding to remove debris in the Florida Keys.

AT: MPA CP

Marine protected areas fail—no proper regulationValentine, BA in Journalism and minor in ecology from University of Georgia, 14(Katie, 2/7/14, Climate Progress, “Most Marine Protected Areas Don’t Successfully Protect Marine Life, Study Says,” http://thinkprogress.org/climate/2014/02/07/3260781/marine-protected-areas-working/, 6/29/14, SM)Most marine protected areas aren’t doing their jobs to project fish and other aquatic life, according to new

research from the University of Tasmania.¶ The study, published this week in Nature, found that 59 percent of the marine protected areas (MPAs) looked at by researchers were “not ecologically distinguishable from fished sites.” MPAs are set up to protect marine life and habitat but operate under vastly different rules and regulations from region to region — some even allow seabed mining , and most allow some level of fishing. The study looked at five markers that determine the success of an MPA: how much fishing is allowed in the MPA, how well enforced that fishing rule is, the age and size of the MPA, and whether the MPA is an isolated environment or surrounded by habitat that was desirable to aquatic life but isn’t in the protected zone.¶ The researchers found that a successful MPA had at least four out of five of these markers — it prohibited fishing, was well enforced, had been protected for longer than 10 years, was larger than 100 square km (about 38.6 square miles) and was isolated by deep water or sand, so that fish wouldn’t pass easily between protected and unprotected areas. The MPAs that had four out of five of the parameters had twice as many large fish species and 14 times more shark biomass per transect as regular fished areas. This increase in species richness and abundance has been documented in regions that have closed parts of their waters to fishing — when a town on Mexico’s Gulf of California banned fishing, it saw its marine biomass increase by 463 percent from 1995 to 2009.

Politics Link Turns

Congress has introduced two bills to strengthen NOAA’s control on coral reef preservation.NOAA ’14(National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, 6/29/14, US Department of Commerce, Coral Reauthorization Bills Recently Introduced by Senate and House, http://coralreef.noaa.gov/aboutcrcp/strategy/reauthorization/archive/, 6/29/14, JY) The 112th Congress has introduced two bills, which are the most recent progress in the effort to reauthorize the Coral Reef Conservation Act of 2000 (pdf, 36kb). Senator Inouye (D-HI) introduced S.46, the Coral Reef Conservation Amendments Act of 2011 on January 25, 2011. H.R.738, the House's reauthorization bill, was introduced by Congresswoman Bordallo (D-Guam) on February 16, 2011. Sen. Kerry (D-MA), Sen. Rockefeller (D-WV), Sen. Bill Nelson (D-FL), and Sen. Snowe (R-ME) providing bipartisan support cosponsor S.46. Fourteen democrats cosponsor H.R.738. Both bills would strengthen NOAA's ability to comprehensively address threats to coral reefs and empower the agency with tools to ensure that damage to our coral reef ecosystems is prevented or effectively mitigated. The bills also establish consistent practices for maintaining data, products, and information, and promote the widespread availability and dissemination of that environmental information. Both allow the Secretary of Commerce to further develop partnerships with foreign governments and international organizations as well as with Federal agencies, State and local governments, tribal organizations, educational institutions, nonprofit organizations, commercial organizations, and other public and private entities. These partnerships are critical not only to the understanding of our coral reef ecosystems, but also to their protection and restoration. Finally, both bills allow for any amount received by the United States as a result of illegal activity resulting in the destruction, take, loss, or injury of coral reefs to be used toward restoration efforts.

The Obama Administration and new Congress have indicated coral reef conservation will be established.ICRAN et al ‘ 09(Project Aware, The Coral Reef Alliance, Reef Check, Conservation International, Malama Kai Foundation, WWF, Center for Biology Diversity, The Ocean Foundation, Project Sea L.I.N.K, Mariana Trench Monument, and Beautify LNMO, 7/2/09, Recommendations for Coral Reef Conservation to the Obama Administration and the 111th Congress, http://www.icran.org/pdf/Coral%20Recommendations.pdf , 6/29/14, JY We are encouraged by indications that the Obama Administration and the new Congress will establish a serious commitment to coral reef conservation through the appointment of Dr. Jane Lubchenco–a distinguished ocean scientist with a strong track record in ocean conservation–to lead the National Oceanographic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). We also see a tremendous opportunity for the United States to continue its leadership role in helping to reverse the downward spiral of coral reef destruction and ensure the health and survival of these invaluable resources for future generations.

No amount of money or jobs should be worth the risk of increasing the decline of one of our most precious resource; Congress agrees. Latzman, Radio Anchor/Reporter - WLRN Program Host - Florida Correspondent, NPR at The Miami Herald/WLRN Radio ’14 (Phil Latzman, 6/26/14, SunSentinel, “Phil Latzman: Protecting coral reefs more important than extra $$$”, http://articles.sun-sentinel.com/2014-06-26/news/fl-plcol-oped0626-20140626_1_reefs-port-everglades-panama-canal, 6/29/14, JY) To dredge, or not to dredge. That is the question facing port cities in the US and beyond trying to stay on the manifest for the next big shipment. But in Florida there's some extra delicate cargo under the sea that we must protect. Our irreplaceable coral reefs.¶ As if they weren't already endangered, the state's sickly reefs are about to get stomped in a vicious assault that is only just beginning. Like environmental serial killers with no conscience, dredging projects threaten to pour poison into existing festering wounds on the ocean floor. Florida has 15 deep water seaports frantically trying to reconfigure to accommodate the trade commerce of the future, several of them in negotiations for expansion, or already in progress to do so. Many of our leaders support such efforts.¶ Gov. Rick Scott has toured the state's ports advocating for more federal help to complete the projects. His wish was granted last week as Congress passed a law doing just that. U.S. Rep Ted Deutch, D-Boca Raton, lauded the bill's passage as necessary so that "South Florida economy does not miss the boat — pun intended — on the Panama Canal expansion."¶ So, it's a bipartisan lot of Republicans and Democrats alike that say the dredge projects are needed to keep Florida economically competitive in the game of international commerce. They claim they'll will lead to thousands of additional jobs and billions of dollars in additional income and tariffs to the region.¶ However, when the consequences are weighed, no amount of money or jobs should be worth the risk of accelerating the decline of our most precious natural resource.

The Global Environment Facility gave $7.2 million to contribute on coral reef preservation and other significant biodiversity. SFC News ‘14(South Florida Caribbean News, 6/27/14, South Florida Caribbean News, “World Bank Contributes $7.2 Million to Support Marine Conservation in the Caribbean”, http://sflcn.com/world-bank-contributes-7-2-million-to-support-marine-conservation-in-the-caribbean/, 6/29/14, JY) The Global Environment Facility (GEF) through the World Bank has contributed US$7.2 million to the Caribbean Biodiversity Fund (CBF) to promote the conservation, protection, management and expansion of national protected area systems and other areas of biodiversity significance across the Eastern Caribbean region.¶ The marine and coastal resources of the Caribbean—its coral reefs, beaches, fisheries and mangroves—serve as an essential economic engine. However, unsustainable coastal development, climate change and overfishing, as well as land-based sources of sediment and pollution are negatively impacting the region’s marine and coastal ecosystems.¶ The CBF will distribute the proceeds generated by the investment to conservation trust funds that are in the process of being established in Antigua and Barbuda, Grenada, Saint Kitts and Nevis, Saint Lucia, and Saint Vincent and the Grenadines. These locally-managed funds will make grants to government agencies and non-governmental organizations to execute conservation projects with a strong emphasis on marine habitats.

Florida CP

Florida Economy Suffers In The First QuarterBeyer, AP, 14(Sue, 6/29/14, Florida Today, Online Newspaper, http://archive.floridatoday.com/usatoday/article/11474997, 6/29/14, TH)

An economy that was expected to finally take off this year instead may disappoint again. Recent reports showing feeble consumer spending in May and an unexpectedly sharp economic contraction in the first quarter have prompted some analysts to cast doubt on a much-anticipated acceleration in growth. "It does call into question - is this the year that's going to be the good year after all?" economist Paul Edelstein of IHS Global Insight said of the consumer spending data. After accounting for inflation,

consumer spending dipped 0.1% in May after falling 0.2% in April, the Commerce Department said. Reduced spending on health care and utilities made up much of the decline. But excluding auto purchases, household consumption of goods was weak as well. That defied the Hollywood script written by many economists. After consumer spending rose just 1% in a first quarter battered by harsh winter weather, shoppers were expected to hit the malls with a vengeance in the current quarter, snapping up everything from summer outfits to flat-screen TVs. But while personal income rose solidly, rising food and energy prices prompted many Americans to rein in discretionary purchases, Edelstein said. "The juxtaposition of pathetic economic growth and accelerating inflation doesn't speak wonders about the economy's growth potential," Michael Feroli of JPMorgan Chase said in a research note. IHS has lowered its second-quarter estimate for economic growth from 3.7% at an annual rate to about 3.4%. Allowing for the economy's first-quarter contraction of 2.9%, IHS predicts growth

for the year will be 1.6%, down from its previous 2.2% forecast. The economy grew 2.6% last year. Most economists have shrugged off the 2.9% decline in first-quarter output - the economy's worst showing since the recession ended five years ago - chalking it up to bad weather, among other temporary factors. But Cliff Waldman, senior economist of MAPI,

the manufacturing industry's research arm, says it also reflects fundamental weakness in an economy that has grown modestly throughout the recovery. "When it gets to a 3% contraction, there's something wrong beyond snow," he said. Edelstein cites a lingering hesitancy by banks to provide mortgages that has slowed the housing recovery. Other economists remain bullish. Jim O'Sullivan, chief U.S. economist at High Frequency Economics, says strengthening job growth and an encouraging pickup in measures of manufacturing and service sector activity have led him to maintain his forecast of 4% growth in the second quarter. The forces that led many economists to expect stronger consumer spending this year remain in place, including lower household debt, higher household wealth and consumer credit growth, said Scott Anderson, chief economist at Bank of the West. He expects inflation to moderate and wage gains to accelerate in coming months.

Florida Economy Not Bouncing BackDeslatte, Tallahassee Bureau Chief, 14(Aaron, 2/25/14, Orlando Sentinel, Online Newspaper, http://www.orlandosentinel.com/news/blogs/political-pulse/os-pew-report-florida-economic-recovery-isnt-so-rosy-20140225,0,7290473.post, 6/29/14, TH)

TALLAHASSEE -- With Florida’s gubernatorial candidates jostling over the state of the economy, a new report suggests the Great Recession rebound isn’t so stunning or complete. The non-partisan Pew Charitable Trusts’ new analysis ranks the 50 states on where they fall on tax, spending, debt and economic issues. The no-spin picture: Florida’s recovery is just ho-hum. The state’s revenue-collection rebound remains far below the national average for states, it’s more reliant on federal funds, and its employment picture lags most states. On a positive note: when it comes to savings, Florida is in the top-third – capable of funding state government for

nearly 47 days off its $3.2 billion in reserves. The report is just the latest to temper the rosy picture of economic recovery Republican Gov. Rick Scott is touting heading into his re-election campaign next fall. Scott campaigned on creating jobs, and has constantly touted Florida’s improved economic performance under his first three years to that of his predecessor – and Democratic challenger

– Charlie Crist, who retorts he had to govern during a “global economic meltdown.” Last week, the non-partisan LeRoy Collins Institute released a 120-page report called “Tougher Choices” by two University of Florida economists

which concluded Florida’s ability to create high-wage jobs was eroding. Among the findings, funding for teachers and higher education was among the worst in the country, its “hollowing out” of middle-class jobs was worse than the nation’s, Medicaid would continue to grow as more retirees move here, and roadways were among the nation’s most congested. Pew’s "Fiscal 50" report compares mid-2013 fiscal data to pre-recessionary periods and determines states' “fiscal health” on tax

revenues, spending, the workforce, long-term obligations, and fiscal policy. While average state tax collections have bounced back to pre-recession levels, Florida was one of 11 states where tax collections remain more than 10 percent below the peak in 2006. In fact, the report indicates once inflation and seasonal fluctuations are account for, Florida is roughly 21 percent below its boom days in the mid-2000s. Only

Wyoming and Alaska were worse off. "When it comes to buying power, Florida is still double digits behind where it was before the recession," said Barb Rosewicz, a research director in Pew’s state fiscal health project. Employment rates for “prime-age” workers -- 25- to 54-year-olds -- remained lower in 35 states

last year than in 2007, and Florida ranked third-worst in the country, better than only New Mexico and Nevada. The report concluded roughly 75 percent of Florida’s “prime-age” workers were holding down jobs last year, compared to 81.1 percent in 2007 – a 6.2 percent decline. That means for every 100 people in that group, there are 6.2 fewer working now. "It shows us there is something else going on in Florida's labor situation, that

maybe happening underneath what is happening with the unemployment rate," Rosewicz said. That "drop-out" finding echoes Florida economists, who earlier this month released a forecast pegging the number of jobs lost in the state since the recession at 419,700 – and noted that because of population growth, it would take the creation of 850,000 jobs to regain its employment peak. Their report concludes that 53 percent of the decline in Florida's unemployment rate is due to people dropping

out of the labor pool. The Pew report offers a slightly dated picture of public debt, lumping Florida in with six other states – including New York, Massachusetts, Oregon and Washington -- where debts for things like building roads, university buildings and buying conservation lands was larger than total unfunded retirement costs for public employees. Scott has bragged about retiring more than $3 billion in state debt since taking office, and lawmakers are once again considering pension reforms this year which could lower future unfunded liabilities for public workers. Lastly, Florida was above the national median for budget-reserves –with enough cash to power government for roughly one-and-a-half months. By comparison, California could pay its bills for only 3.3 days off its reserves and Illinois couldn’t even make it two days.

Permutation solves—a mixture of federal and state programs is key—counterplan alone fails World Fish Center 8 (An international, nonprofit research organization. CGIAR is a global partnership that unites organizations engaged in research for a food secure future, “Lessons learned and good practices in the management of coral reef Marine Protected Areas, 2008, http://www.reefbase.org/gefll/pdf/mpa%20case%20studies.pdf)

The major element of South Florida Ecosystem Restoration Initiative (SFERI) goal is to restore a more natural water flow to the ecosystem while guaranteeing sufficient regional water supplies and flood control. To monitor environmental changes in the Florida Keys, the sanctuary has implemented a comprehensive program which is complemented by a research program directed at ascertaining the cause and effect linkages. This will ensure the effectiveness of the implementation and evaluation of the management

strategies using the best available scientific information. Restoration efforts have adopted an adaptive management approach that stresses rectifying issues where possible and also continual collecting data, learning and planning. All these actions are integrated towards a system-wide management,

integrated governance, broad- based partnerships, public outreach and communication and science based decision-making.

System-wide management means taking a holistic and systematic approach to address issues regionally, not just locally, and placing emphasis on obtaining results rather than on developing processes that may never be carried out. To achieve this, different levels of government must work together to

develop regulations that are based on common sense and sound science, share funding and cut costs, integrate budgets, develop cooperative programs to enable quicker actions and streamline red tape

and other institutional barriers. In addition to that, broad-based partnerships are another key element in the restoration effort. The region’s high degree of cultural diversity demands for effective communication to connect people in meaningful ways with the effort, foster a clear exchange of views, ideas and information and instill a broad sense of stewardship, ownership and responsibility for the fate of the Florida Keys.

No Money for Coral Reefs Van Sickler, Herald Tallahassee Bureau, 13 (Michael, 2/19/13, Tampa Bay Times, Winner of 10 Pulitzer Prizes, http://www.tampabay.com/news/growth/to-boost-economy-scott-wants-to-spend-more-money-on-roads-ports/1275828, 7/01/14, TH). TALLAHASSEE — If you think there's too much road construction now, just wait. The state plans to increase transportation spending by 11 percent in an effort to boost jobs, build more roads and get the state's ports ready for the expansion of the Panama Canal. For motorists, that means navigating through more orange cones and thicker clouds of construction dust throughout the state. Florida's proposed $9.1 billion transportation budget was released Tuesday. On tap in Tampa Bay: $420 million of additional lanes on Interstate 75 in Pasco, Hernando and Sumter counties; $27 million for the expansion of Bruce B. Downs Boulevard; and $69 million to add lanes on the Veterans Expressway in Hillsborough County. In South Florida, new construction would include $112 million for new lanes on I-75 in Broward County. An unprecedented flood of money is getting steered to ports in an attempt to get them primed for the Panama Canal expansion, which should be completed in the next two years. The proposed budget includes $30.6 million for the Port of Miami, $26.7 million for the Port of Tampa, $19.5 million for the Port of Manatee and close to $100 million across the rest of the state. "We're leveraging what's going to happen with post-Panama Canal expansion," DOT Secretary Ananth Prasad recently told a House transportation committee. "Florida's truly going to be the gateway to the Americas." Gov. Rick Scott was in Jacksonville on Tuesday to tout the proposed budget as an economic tool. He estimates the $917 million increase in spending from this year will help create 500,000 jobs, one-third related to highway construction — employment opportunities that would be on line as he gets ready for re-election in 2014.

Port Miami Leads to Significant Economic Revenue Port Miami, 12(Port Miami, 12, http://www.miamidade.gov/portmiami/deep-dredge.asp, 7/01/14, TH)

PortMiami's Deep Dredge project will deepen the Port’s existing channel from its current 42-foot depth to minus

50-52’ in preparation for the Panama Canal Expansion, scheduled for completion in 2015. The Deep Dredge will make PortMiami the only U.S. port south of Norfolk, Virginia, that can accommodate the new, mega cargo vessels that will pass through the

expanded Panama Canal. The deepening of Miami’s channel will create 33,000 new jobs, double cargo throughput, and increase PortMiami’s annual economic impact to more than $34 billion. Located in the

heart of downtown Miami, PortMiami is the second largest revenue producing department in Miami-Dade County. PortMiami contributes nearly $27 billion annually to the local and state economies and supports 207,000 jobs,

both directly and indirectly, in the State of Florida. PortMiami is recognized and known for being the Cargo Gateway of the Americas. Due to PortMiami’s ideal geographic location, the world’s largest shipping lines offer regular service from PortMiami to more than 100 countries in more than 250 ports around the world. Over $2 billion in capital improvement projects, including the restoration of on-port rail and the Port Tunnel, are transforming Miami and the State of Florida into a global logistics hub. PortMiami will be one of only three U.S. Atlantic ports to be at -50 feet when the expanded Panama Canal opens in 2015. The deeper depth will allow PortMiami to accommodate new, larger Post-Panamax vessels that will be traversing the Canal. As the closest U.S. port to Panama, PortMiami expects to benefit from increased Asian trade. The dredging project is managed by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers and is expected to take approximately 18 months

to complete. Great Lakes Dredge and Dock Company, LLC, the contractor selected for the project, began dredging operations at the end of November 2013.

Economic Increase Guaranteed By Port of Miami Gerrity, Commercial News, 11(Michael, 3/19/11, World Property Channel, http://www.worldpropertychannel.com/us-markets/commercial-real-estate-1/port-of-miami-expansion-panama-canal-expansion-panama-canal-opening-miami-tunnel-project-miami-export-report-florida-governor-rick-scott-miami-import-data-bill-johnson-3974.php, 7/01/14, TH)

(MIAMI, FL) -- At a recent business conference held in Miami a few weeks ago, several hundred industry experts gathered to hear what may be coming to the Port of Miami beginning in 2014 - a multi-billion dollar game-changing event called the Panama Canal expansion. But Miami's port had two serious problems. First -- Miami's port simply isn't deep enough to accommodate the newer and larger container ships passing through the Panama Canal once that expansion is completed in the summer of 2014 (these larger ships need 50 foot port depths). Second -- the lack of funding to dredge Miami's port to those depths. In the prior weeks leading up to the Miami business conference, President Obama had just cut out of his budget the $75 million the federal government had already agreed to put up in matching funds to Dade County's and City of Miami's $75 million commitment. The total cost of Miami's 2-mile dredging to a depth of 50 feet is $150 million. What a Difference a Few Weeks Make Florida Gov. Rick Scott Today, just two weeks after the Miami Port conference, Florida Governor Rick Scott announced in a press

conference held at 10AM at the Port of Miami that the State of Florida will now step in and commit $77 million short-fall of funding to start dredging the Miami port to a depth of 50 feet. This will now give the Port of Miami a one to two year head-start over several other east coast U.S. ports scrambling to be recipients of the increased import and export business coming from the Panama Canal expansion. Panama Canal History The first attempt to build a trans-Panama shipping route was the construction of the Transisthmian Railroad across Panama by the French Government in 1880, which after much work, abandoned the project in 1893. In 1903 the U.S. Army Corp of Engineers took over the project and proceeded to dredge and build a series of locks across Panama in order to get U.S. naval war ships between oceans in a more rapid pace. Upon completion the canal was opened in January 1914, and since then through December 2010, the Panama Canal has had over 1,000,972 ship transits through the canal delivering over 8,587,711,605 tons of goods worldwide. Panama Canal 2014 Expansion Aerial In the mid 1990s the canal started to experience an interesting new trend. The number of ships passing through was rising at a slower rate than the amount of tons being shipped on each ship. The cause - larger container ships. In the shipping world, the standard unit of measurement in a container ship's load capacity is a term of 'Twenty foot equivalent units' or TEUs (the length of smaller shipping containers). Today the Panama Canal's maximum ship size is 4,400 TEUs (Max of 1,000 ft. lengths by 100 ft. widths) which are called 'Panamax' ships. Upon completion of the new third lock system, much larger 12,600 TEU ships can pass (1,400 ft. lengths by 160 ft. widths) which are known as 'Post-Panamax' ships. These larger ships allow for the delivery of containers at reduced prices because of the sheer scale of delivery capacity that these new shipping vessels have to divide their transportation cost over. And these ships are getting even bigger. It was also just reported this past month that the largest shipping line in the world (Danish based Maersk) has just placed an order to a Korean ship builder for ten new 18,000+ TEU ships for $1.9 billion dollars. These ships are fifty percent larger than the post-Panamax ships (these will be called 'ultra-post' Panamax ships). National and Local Significance There is nationwide significance in supporting international trade and commerce growth because of the Panama Canal expansion. John Carver, Jones Lang LaSalle According to John Carver, director of Jones Lang LaSalle's Port, Airport and Global Infrastructure practice in Los Angeles, the 'New' Panama Canal will have the following impact on U.S. commercial real estate: Lower cost mode, with "mega" ship economies of scale, driving new network optimization models Quicker delivery time for all water routes to the U.S. East Coast, increasing viability of numerous mid-Atlantic ports Competitive opportunities for a variety of container and non-container port uses, yielding new job generation. Allowance for diversification strategy among supply chain interests Higher traffic volumes through the canal means greater

pressure on port "through-put" The Port of Miami is one of only three ports on the Eastern Seaboard that has received Congressional Authorization in November 2007 (WRDA) for deepening its harbor (New York & New Jersey is under construction & Norfolk, VA is already at 50ft depths). But there is new competition for Panama's new larger ship traffic coming from Savannah, GA and Charleston, SC -places that are also looking for ways to finance the dredging of their ports to accommodate these larger post-Panamax ships. Their dredging costs are projected to be in the mid to upper hundreds of millions of dollars, compared with Miami's dredging cost of $150 million, of which the State of Florida has just committed $77 million this past week. Miami's Port Gantry Cranes In addition, Miami already has funding in place and recently started a billion dollar tunnel boring project that will connect Miami's port truck traffic directly to Interstate - 95 via a 4-lane under water highway running under Miami's cruise ships. This is to stop the estimated 17,000 trucks a year driving through Miami's downtown from the port to access I-95. The tunnel boring project is expected to be completed in 2014

and will create an additional 33,000 new jobs for Miami-Dade County. The Port of Miami accounted for 47% of the value

of all Florida ports international container trade. The Port of Miami international container trade by value is 33 times that of the Port of Tampa, 4 times that of the Port of Jacksonville and 1.5 times that of the Port Everglades. Port Volumes Drive Commercial Real Estate Markets In a hyper competitive shipping world with rising energy costs, it comes down to a single sentence - optimizing your supply chain management cost structure. In other words: 'time is money'. Miami - Dade Submarket Map (JLL) - Click here to enlarge map When looking at how ports impact a local commercial real estate economy, you must look at the entire value chain of vendors and services related to shipping a product from one Country to another. According to a report by Jones Lang LaSalle, the real estate component of this entire shipping process is relatively small, only 5%. At an average daily operating cost of over $250,000 for these ships, it is the efficiency with which container ships can enter a port, rapidly dock, off load containers; reload with outboard containers, then turnaround back to other ports or home ports that generates the most cost savings for shippers of goods and materials worldwide. Part of that 'just in time' delivery equation rests with big-box warehouse space that is easily accessible by both rail and truck to store various products before being re-packed and trucked (or railed) off to

other U.S. distribution cities or final end destinations. John Carver further commented, "The expansion of the Panama Canal can be expected to stimulate a coast inward recovery for the commercial real estate industry as new supply chain models are created to take advantage of the improved all-water route to the US east coast. Miami in particular, is further positioned to capture market share not only as a first port of call for increased east-west traffic, but also from its recognition as the leading gateway to the Americas." Miami's Play Steve Medwin, Jones

Lang LaSalle (Miami) The numbers are staggering, and if they hold true over the next ten years, Miami will be in a position of becoming the top east coast port. According to Steve Medwin, managing Director of Jones Lang LaSalle's Miami office, "The expansion of the Panama Canal could be a game-changer for South Florida industrial real estate if the port dredging is completed, since Miami is the closest East Coast port to Panama and would be able to accommodate the Post-Panamax ships which hold roughly 3 times the number of TEU's as the largest ships that currently fit through the canal and dock in Miami now." Medwin further commented, "We expect to see an increase in demand for industrial space to accommodate the increased volume of container traffic flowing through the Port of Miami. The increased trade will also lead to expansion of ancillary businesses not directly tied to the Port such as customs brokers, freight forwarders and logistics firms, all who will need additional warehouse and office space in Miami." The current inventory of warehouse space in Miami-Dade County is about 200 million square feet with a 9.5% vacancy rate. The national average is about a 10.5% vacancy rate. The stock of modern, institutional-quality buildings in Miami is only about 50 million square feet of the 200 million SF total available. Lincoln Logistics Park, Miami According to Medwin, these buildings are the most likely to benefit from the increased port traffic since they can handle the newest trucks and containers. "We expect these quality buildings will be absorbed before 2014 in anticipation of the increased port traffic and will lead to new development of 2 to 5 million square feet in the next 5 years. Add to the equation Brazil hosting the 2014 World Cup and 2016 Summer Olympics and the natural demand for goods in that country alone will continue to stimulate growth in the import/export industries. This will only add to the demand for warehouse space in South Florida. Since we already have a limited supply of industrially zoned land, selling prices of land and warehouses will increase in the coming years - and lease rates will increase as well" stated Medwin. Gary Goldfarb, EVP of WTDC, a Miami-based supply chain management firm stated, "The expansion of the Panama Canal can create enough business to fill additional Industrial Parks in Industrial West Dade. If we can obtain FTZ status for those parks, then we can also compete with Colon Free Zone in Panama. We cannot miss this opportunity presented to us." Bill Jones, Port of Miami Director The passionate Bill Jones, Director of Miami's Port said, "I like to think of us as building a stool with legs that include our port's infrastructure improvements and expansion plans that will dramatically drive Miami's (and all of Florida's) economy forward for decades to come with an additional $30 billion economic impact over the next decade. We will also be creating over 30,000 new local Miami/Dade County jobs with an average annual salary of over $55,000 a year...now that's the type

of impact that Washington can't ignore!" With the Port of Miami now having all four legs of their stool solidly in place and funded (underwater trucking tunnel, new intermodal railway spur, deep water dredging funding and soon completion of

Panama canal expansion), Miami is truly poised to truly become the Shanghai of the U.S. east coast, bridging massive trade between eastern and western hemispheres.

Port of Miami Largest Benefactor of the Panama Canal ExpansionOsorio, WorldCrunch, 13(Sonia, 04/13, WorldCrunch, http://www.worldcrunch.com/eyes-on-the-u.s./the-big-winners-and-losers-of-the-panama-canal-expansion/shipping-port-of-miami-florida-california/c5s11407/#.U7NJRyigRUQ, 7/01/14, TH)MIAMI - Throughout the history of the United States, the main divisions have traditionally been between the North and the South, an economic and political rivalry that we know also produced a civil war. But there is also an important rivalry between the West Coast and the East Coast, a battle for cultural, academic and scientific supremacy, an ongoing contest to attract the best musicians, artists and chefs. This rivalry now has a new feature, as the East Coast prepares to compete with the West Coast for the lucrative shipping lines coming from Asia. The reason for this? The expected expansion of the Panama Canal, a project that could end up tipping the balance of

power toward one coast over the other. The expansion, at a cost of more than $5 billion, has the directors of ports on the Gulf of Mexico and the East Coast opening bottles of champagne. They have reason to expect huge profits if they manage to get large cargo ships – which previously had to port on the Pacific Coast because of the Canal’s limitations – to finally sail into their ports. The Port of Miami, which has already managed to exploit its geographic position and call itself the bridge to the Americas, is preparing to take advantage of this new opportunity and has invested more than $2 billion in infrastructure upgrades. “My friends, we will be ready to take advantage of the opportunities brought by increased traffic from Asia, as the first stop-over port for containers, both incoming and outgoing,” said the Port of Miami’s director, Bill Johnson, in the port’s annual report. In a little more than two years, a wider and deeper Panama Canal will give shipping companies less expensive options for shipping to ports on the East Coast. “Full speed ahead, to the Port of Miami,” says Johnson. For the port, preparations for the canal’s widening have been the most ambitious investment project in its history. Once they are completed, they will allow the port to receive large ships like the so-called “Post Panamax” size ships, which could not fit into the canal and had to stop in California. Tens of thousands of new jobs “When the Panama Canal permits better access to the routes from Asia to the East Coast of the U.S., we will all benefit. We are hoping to increase our capacity,” explained the port’s sub-director, Juan Kuryla. But the positive consequences of the Panama Canal expansion are not limited to Miami. The whole state of Florida is expected to benefit, and estimates from different sources say the state will add more than 30,000 new jobs. According to the Port of Miami, the expansion in the Panama Canal will allow it to double its capacity in the next seven or eight years. However, all of this will require certain reforms. As part of the preparations to increase its capacity, the Port of Miami has already started a number of projects that include the construction of a tunnel that will connect the port with the highway, without stopping at a single stoplight. According to Kurlya, this direct access should be ready at the beginning of 2014, a year before the expansion of the canal is finished. Another project is the deepening of the port itself, to a depth of 15.2 meters. This will allow it to be the only port south of Virginia to have that kind of depth. In addition, the Port is acquiring four “Super Post Panamax” cranes, which will make the transport of major maritime cargo possible. And they are building a special railroad to facilitate moving cargo by rail. It seems like the West Coast has reason to worry. “If I were running a port on the West Coast, I would be on the alert, because the expansion of the canal is going to benefit the Port of Miami and other ports on this coast,” said Kuryla. California is prepared to do battle to prevent the loss of large cargo carriers to the Gulf Coast and the East Coast. That’s why it has launched an aggressive campaign titled “Beat the Canal,” so that the whole industry will improve its competitiveness. It is preparing to take on the challenge presented by an enlarged canal and East Coast ports looking to steal business.

Florida Everglades DA

No need for preservation in Florida’s reefsGibson, BA in Journalism from Columbia University, 13(William E., 11/6/13, Huffington Post, “New Study Says South Florida Coral Reefs Appear To Be Rebounding,” http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2013/11/06/south-florida-coral-reefs_n_4229032.html, 7/1/14, SM)South Florida's coral reefs, a natural wonder worth more than $6 billion to the local economy, appear to be rebounding after decades of damage, disease and deterioration.¶ The iconic reefs, which attract divers, boaters, marine scientists and fishermen from around the

world, have been spared in recent years from major storms and ship groundings, allowing them to survive and even grow offshore.¶ A federal study released this month brought more good news: Coral reefs may be able to adapt to warmer sea temperatures. That's a sign they can withstand a limited degree of gradual global warming -- but only if carbon emissions are restrained to prevent unhealthy extremes.¶ The findings raise hope for the survival of the recreational and economic resource, just as scientists and officials gather in Fort Lauderdale on Thursday and Friday for the fifth annual Southeast Florida Regional Climate Leadership Summit. They will assess the costs and challenges of sea-level rise and global warming.¶ Florida, a low-lying state just above sea level and home to 84 percent

of the nation's reef ecosystems, is a perfect setting to examine the progress and problems of conservation.¶ "We haven't had a large crash in the population of corals. And we have seen some good signs that the endangered species -- staghorn coral -- continues to be abundant and may even be increasing in abundance in some places," said Richard Dodge, executive director of the National Coral Reef Institute at Nova Southeastern University. "So that's the good news.¶ "The bad news is: There are still some coral diseases out there. We still worry about bleaching, which appears to be caused by warmer water temperatures. But we are lucky in South Florida to avoid a lot of hurricanes and tropical storms lately. Those storms can wreak havoc on the

reef."¶ The reef rebound also has been helped by improved sewage systems, which prevent polluted water from seeping into the ocean. Greater public awareness prompted boaters to avoid dropping anchors on the fragile reef. And a decision to move ship anchorages farther offshore from Port Everglades prevented damaging groundings.

Florida’s budget is balanced CBS Miami 4/28(2014, “Florida Legislators Agree On State Spending” CBS Miami, http://miami.cbslocal.com/2014/04/28/florida-legislators-agree-on-state-spending/ 7/1) TALLAHASSEE (CBSMiami/AP) — Florida legislators reached a deal Monday on a state budget which will boost spending

on schools, child welfare and the cleanup of damaged water bodies across the state. The deal is roughly $75 billion. The budget deal, which came after several days of haggling and behind-the-scenes negotiations, clears the way for the Florida Legislature to end its session on time this Friday. The election year budget comes with no tuition hikes for students, but it does rely on a small

increase in property taxes in order to boost public school spending by roughly 2.6 percent. Legislators have also set aside enough money to cut taxes by $500 million, most of which will come in the form of a rollback in annual auto registration fees

charged to motorists. “I think it’s a balanced budget that addresses a lot of the needs in Florida,” said Sen. Joe Negron, R-Stuart, who is Senate budget chief. After years when legislators were forced to slice programs — and even raise taxes —

Florida’sslowly recovering economy has given state legislators a $1.2 billion surplus to use. That gave the Legislature enough money to increase the number of child protective investigators as well as money to help the state’s beleaguered springs and roughly $170 million to start work cleaning up and restoring Indian River Lagoon and the Caloosahatchee River.

New spending causes clashes between Republicans and Democrats and trades off with Everglades protectionGibson, writer for The Washington Bureau 2011(William, 2/27, Sun Sentinel, “Budget cuts could kill environmental programs,” http://articles.sun-sentinel.com/2011-02-27/news/fl-senate-environment-spending-cutbac20110227_1_environmental-spending-everglades-spending-everglades-restoration 7/1)

WASHINGTON — Eager to slash taxes and restrain government spending, Gov. Rick Scott and Republican budget-cutters in Congress are seeking to chop big chunks of state and federal funding for programs designed to preserve the natural environment. Government regulations to clean the air and water and prevent global warming are under

attack. Even Everglades restoration, long a sacred cow for environmentalists and leaders of both political parties, may fall victim to the budget ax. A Republican spending bill passed by the U.S. House this month sets up a confrontation over environmental spending when the U.S. Senate takes up the legislation this week. And in Tallahassee, Scott's austere budget, which would cut Everglades spending by nearly two-thirds, will be tested when the Legislature meets next month. Republicans in each capital called for sacrifice to prevent a yawning

state budget gap and to ease the national debt. "We believe in Everglades restoration. But we are facing a serious financial emergency in this country," Sen. Marco Rubio, R-Fla., said in an interview last week. "There are a lot of worthy projects that are not

going to get funded at the level they should be funded. And there are a lot of worthy projects that are not going to get funded at all." But the clash over environmental spending goes beyond money matters and reflects an underlying dispute between Democrats, who stress pollution control, and Republicans, who warn against government rules that stifle the economy.

The Everglades are key to biodiversity – contains over 60 endangered speciesAlles 2012(David, Professor of Bio at Western Washington University, Western Washington University, “Biodiversity Hot Spots: The Florida Everglades,” http://fire.biol.wwu.edu/trent/alles/Everglades.pdf, 7/1) "Biodiversity hot spots are areas where endemic species with small ranges are concentrated. Not all are in the tropics, but most are. Hot spots can be extraordinarily concentrated; thousands of species may be found within a relatively small area.

Species with small ranges are particularly vulnerable to impacts. Nature has put her eggs in a small number of baskets, and we are in danger of dropping them. On land, worldwide 25 areas are recognized as hotspots which contain concentrations of endemic species that are disproportionately vulnerable to extinction from regional habitat destruction. These

areas retain less than 10% of their original habitat and have unusually high human population densities." (Pimm, 2001) The Florida Everglades contains one of the highest concentrations of species vulnerable to extinction in the United States. The 5,000-square-kilometre wetland in southern Florida is home to at least 60 endangered species, including the American crocodile (Mason, 2003). And the area retains less than 10% of its original habitat as the human population density of southern Florida threatens to over-run one of the most unique habitats in North America.

Neg

Inherency

SQUO solves

Coral reefs will be protectedBlakely 2014(Rhys, The Times, 6/19/24, “Obama bars oilmen to preserve Pacific underwater idyll”, http://www.lexisnexis.com/hottopics/lnacademic/, 6/25/14, AG)A vast swathe of the Pacific is to be preserved as a pristine wildlife sanctuary under US plans to create the world's largest conservation area in the middle of the ocean.¶ The Pacific Remote Islands National Marine Monument, a place of crystal turquoise sea, white sand and minimal human presence, was originally established in 2009 by President George W. Bush. It currently covers 77,020 square miles of water and is split into seven pockets --each surrounding a remote island, reef or atoll in the south-central Pacific, between Hawaii and American Samoa.¶ President Obama now wants to expand the total protected zone to more than 780,000 square miles. That would make it the largest protected area on the planet - on land or sea - about two times the size of the present record holder, a

site in Greenland.¶ The aim is to provide a safer habitat to all manner of marine life, from whales and seabirds to rare sea turtles. The region includes pristine coral reefs where shark populations outweigh their prey - a phenomenon known as the "inverted biomass pyramid ". ¶ These tropical coral reefs and the associated marine ecosystems are among the most vulnerable areas to

the impacts of climate change and ocean acidification. The biggest impact of the new protection is likely to be felt by commercial tuna fishers, who will be barred from the area.¶ Companies will be forbidden from exploring for oil or gas in a region that is already largely devoid of human activity. "These are fairly long distances from any ports, and they're very expensive to get to," said Lance Morgan of the Marine Conservation Institute. "Still, we don't know what all the future uses are going to be."¶ At present, less than 2 per cent of the world's oceans are protected.¶ In a speech that echoed of the uplifting tone of his very earliest days in office, Mr. Obama said: "Let's make sure that years from now we can look our children in the eye and tell them that, yes, we did our part, we took action, and we led the way toward a safer, more stable world."¶ He added: "Growing up in Hawaii, I learned early to appreciate the beauty and power of the ocean. And like Presidents Clinton and Bush before me, I'm going to use my authority as president to protect some of our most precious marine landscapes, just like we do for mountains and rivers and forests. " ¶ The President has made a habit of using his authority to impose environmental protections during his second term. He appears to be wary of ceding control to Congress, which has shown little interest in new laws to combat challenges such as climate change.¶ This month, he unveiled pollution limits on power plants, enraging Republicans and some Democrats.¶ This week, he also launched a task force to combat black-market fishing and seafood fraud - a practice where seafood products are mislabeled to hide their origin. About 20 per cent of wild marine fish caught each year are considered to be part of the black market, the White House said.¶

The Biggest Coral Reef Is Already Protected In the SQ

NOAA, N/A (NOAA, “The Great Barrier Reef Is The Largest Living Structure on Earth”, http://oceanservice.noaa.gov/facts/gbrlargeststructure.html, 6/27/14, AEG)Stretching for 1,429 miles (2,300 kilometers) over an area of approximately 133,000 square miles (344,400 square kilometers), the Great Barrier Reef is the largest coral reef system in the world. The reef is located off the coast of Queensland, Australia, in the Coral Sea.¶ The reef, which is large enough to be visible from space, is made up of nearly 3,000 individual reefs. Much of the Great Barrier Reef is a marine protected area , managed by the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority of Australia.

The US’s Biggest Reef Is Being Protected and Monitored in the SQThe Florida Institute of Oceanography's (FIO) SEAKEYS (Sustained Ecological Research Related to Management of the Florida

Keys Seascape) program began in 1989 and has continued until the present. This program, now being supported through NOAA's South Florida Ecosystem Restoration, Prediction and Modeling Program (SFERPM), implements a framework for long-term monitoring and research along the 220 mile Florida coral reef tract and in Florida Bay at a geographical scale encompassing the Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary (FKNMS). The impetus for such a framework was the perceived marked regional decline in coral reefs and the

critical need to provide data and options for resource management. The network consists of six instrument-enhanced Coastal-Marine Automated Network (C-MAN) stations, cooperatively managed with NOAA's National

Data Buoy Center, plus a proposed new one in northwest Florida Bay. These stations measure the usual C-

MAN meteorological parameters, such as wind speed, gusts and barometric pressure, but are enhanced with oceanographic instruments measuring salinity, sea temperature, fluorometry and turbidity.

In the SQ Coral Reefs Are Protected and MPAs are being Improved and Monitored In the US

NOAA, CRC, State, Territorial, and Commonwealth Agencies, ’07 (National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Coral Reef Conservation Program in cooperation with partners from State, Territorial, and Commonwealth Agencies, February 2007, NOAA, “Report On The Status Of Marine Protected Areas in Coral Reef Ecosystems of the United States”, http://docs.lib.noaa.gov/noaa_documents/NOS/CRCP/TM_CRCP/TM_CRCP_2.pdf, 6/27/14, AEG)This report, the Report on the Status of Marine Protected Areas in Coral Reef Ecosystems of the United States Volume 1: Marine ¶ Protected Areas Managed by U.S. States, Territories, and Commonwealths, was developed by the National Oceanic and ¶ Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) in conjunction with federal, state, territory, and commonwealth partners on the ¶ U.S. Coral Reef Task Force (CRTF). It was produced to

help fulfill the goals and objectives of the U.S. National ¶ Action Plan to Conserve Coral Reefs (2000) and the National Coral Reef Action Strategy (2002), and also helps to ¶ advance the goals of Executive Order 13158 on MPAs. Goal number five in the National Coral Reef Action Strategy ¶ calls for “improving the use of marine protected areas in coral reef ecosystems.” Objective number one under this goal ¶ area is to “conduct and support nation-wide, state and territory assessments of the effectiveness and gaps in the existing ¶ system of U.S. Coral Reef MPAs.” This report

directly addresses that objective by providing an inventory and ¶ assessment of existing MPAs that have been established and are managed by the governments of the seven coral reef ¶ states and territories. It illustrates the goals and objectives of these areas; describes current efforts to manage them; ¶ recognizes common challenges to successful management; and, identifies actions that can increase the effectiveness of ¶ MPA initiatives. ¶ ¶ Efforts to manage a total of 207 MPAs across the seven coral reef jurisdictions are summarized in this report. The ¶ large majority of these MPAs (76 percent) are multiple-use areas that allow some level of extractive activity throughout ¶ the entire site. The remaining 49 MPAs include no-take areas in which the harvesting of marine resources is

prohibited. ¶ One hundred and forty-seven (71 percent) of the MPAs were established to sustain, conserve, restore, and understand ¶ the coral reef ecosystems or ecosystem components they contain, while almost one quarter of them were established to ¶ support the continued extraction of renewable living resources. Of the 207 sites, 86 percent are permanent sites as ¶ opposed to conditional sites whose potential to persist must be

considered after a set period of time. Nearly all of the ¶ sites (97 percent) provide constant protection throughout the year; only three percent are seasonal sites in which ¶ resources are protected during fixed periods of time. Most of the MPAs (78 percent) were established to provide an ¶ ecosystem scale of protection through which management measures are intended to protect all of the components and ¶ processes of the coral reef ecosystem within MPA boundaries. The

remaining 22 percent target a particular habitat, ¶ species complex, or single resource. ¶ ¶ Many of the MPAs in this assessment contain priority natural resources for coral reef conservation such as fish ¶ spawning areas found in 81 sites and the threatened or endangered species observed within 164 sites. Only 20 percent ¶ of the MPAs (42 sites) have approved management plans (nine additional plans are in development) suggesting that the ¶ development of plans to guide long-term MPA management is a challenge for these sites. However, this finding does ¶ not mean that management action is not happening on-the-

ground. Of the 194 sites that reported on management ¶ actions being implemented, approximately 42 percent have targeted research and outreach and education programs or ¶ activities, 45 percent have on-going monitoring activities, and over 74 percent reported the existence of enforcement ¶ activities or programs.

France Is Already Doing The Plan

Seaman, Fisheries & Aquatic Sciences, University of Florida, ‘14 (William, 2014, American Fisheries Society, “Artificial Reefs in France: Advances in Applications and Evaluation of Preformance”, https://afs.confex.com/afs/2014/webprogram/Paper14316.html, 6/27/14, AEG)

Artificial reefs in the coastal waters of France (33 sites) have been deployed for 46 years. Their principal aim is to enhance artisanal fishing. Newer purposes include creation of habitat to maintain or restore biodiversity

and support scuba diving and recreational fishing. Their use to protect benthic communities from trawling is diminished. Significantly increased reef construction and research after 2000 includes 13 new reefs, expansion of six older sites, and 34 publications. Ecological research has emphasized fishes, especially species diversity and abundance. A growing database quantifies production of fish biomass that is correlated with physical structural complexity, comparable to levels at natural areas. Sessile plant and invertebrate communities are little

studied. Perception of stakeholders toward artificial reefs is a notable area of new research. Recent reef development practices include a shift to intentional design of structure, increasingly based upon life histories of designated species and assemblages. Fabrication of reef modules uses concrete almost exclusively, with waste materials discontinued. Greater construction funding from the European Union has been accompanied by increased levels of monitoring. Our recommendations include development of economic research, and longer-term and more statistically rigorous ecological studies that address fishery production, trophic dynamics, recruitment and ecological connectivity of habitats.

Mexico Already Did the Plan

Romano & Provenzani, under the GUE, N/A (Global Underwater Explorers, GUE collaborates with a wide range of

governmental and non-governmental organizations to explore and protect the aquatic realm, “Artificial Reefs”, https://www.globalunderwaterexplorers.org/artificial-reefs, 6/27/14, AEG)A good example of a well-designed, well-planned, and well-executed artificial reef can be found in the National Marine Park of Isla Mujeres in Mexico. This national park was established in 1996 in the Caribbean marine area delimited by Cancun, Isla Mujeres and Puerto Morelos in the southern state of Quintana Roo. The reef (so far) consists of two decommissioned minesweepers, gifted to the park by the Secreteria de Marina Armada de Mexico (SM-AM). These are the C-58 Anaya and C-55 Juan de la

Barrera. The vessels, each 60 feet long and of 1,000-ton displacement, were sunk at a depth of 83 feet/25 meters on May 28 and October 25, 2000, respectively. The park management decided to use the “artificial reef strategy” to try and protect its coralline barrier because of the important ecological and tourist value it offers. Future plans by the park’s monitoring project include the sinking of several additional structures to provide further building blocks for new marine ecosystems. These will be strategically placed around the marine park area to create alternative diving sites for the burgeoning scuba industry and to reduce the environmental impact caused by scuba diving activities on natural marine ecosystems.

SQ Solves- Huge Artificial Reef and Coral Preservation Programs Have Been In Place For Years In Alabama, Florida, Texas, Louisiana, and Mississippi

Fikes, Staff Scientist at the National Wildlife Federation, ‘13 (Ryan, November 2013, NFW, “Artificial Reefs of the Gulf of Mexico: A Review of Gulf State Programs & Key Considerations”, http://www.nwf.org/~/media/PDFs/Water/Review-of-GoM-Artificial-Reefs-Report.pdf,

6/27/14, AEG) Alabama has one of the largest artificial reef programs in the United States. Alabama's Artificial Reef Program is the product of a cooperative agreement between the U. S. Army Corps of Engineers and the Marine Resources Division of the Alabama Department of Conservation and Natural Resources. The program is the culmination of many meetings, letters, reports and workshops between various user groups within the coastal area. It is intended to be dynamic with changes occurring as technology develops on

artificial reef construction Offshore Reefs: Alabama's artificial reef building program started in 1953 when the Orange Beach Charter Boat

Association asked for the authority to place 250 car bodies off Baldwin County, Alabama. This proved to be very successful in attracting reef fish, and in the years since many different types of materials have been placed offshore of Alabama. These have included, but are not limited to, additional car bodies, culvert fragments, bridge rubble, barges, boats and planes. In 1974 – 75, in an excellent example of State/Federal cooperation, several "ghost fleeted" liberty ships were sunk in five locations off Mobile and Baldwin Counties in 80 93 feet of ‐ ‐

water. In 1987, a general permit was issued by the U. S. Army Corps of Engineers creating specific areas offshore of Alabama for the creation of artificial reefs. These were designated areas for these structures in order to coordinate with other

users of the offshore area (spatial planning). By 1987 the areas encompassed almost 800 square miles. Inshore Reefs: Beginning in

1996 the Marine Resources Division determined there was a need for artificial reefs within Alabama's inshore waters to provide fishing opportunities for fishermen who preferred to fish these areas. Therefore, when bridge rubble from the replacement of several coastal river bridges became available as reef material, Division personnel began to examine possible sites. Plans were to complete these reef complexes by placing cultch material inside the rings to promote the creation of natural oyster reef communities. In 1998, a similar reef was constructed on the western side of Mobile Bay on the remnants of Whitehouse oyster reef. Oyster cultch material was placed within the interior of this reef in August of 1998, completing the largest inshore artificial reef to date in Alabama's inshore waters with an area of approximately 75 acres and a mile in circumference. Plans are to continue to expand this program of inshore artificial fishing reefs. The Division was recently offered concrete culvert fragments as artificial reef material. Working with local conservation groups, commercial shrimp

fishermen, and Mobile County, the division plans to create ten additional inshore reefs over in the near future. The Florida Artificial Reef Program was legislatively created in 1982 and as of 1999 has been administered by the Florida Fish

and Wildlife Conservation Commission (FWC), Division of Marine Fisheries Management. The program was developed to obtain a

mechanistic and predictive understanding of how artificial reefs function ecologically and physically across spatial and temporal scales in order to use artificial reefs as a component of fisheries management. The

primary objectives of the program are to provide financial and technical assistance to coastal local governments, nonprofit corporations and state universities to develop, monitor, and evaluate new artificial reefs. Under the program, near shore and offshore reefs (in Florida most offshore reefs are classified as having depths of more than six meters) have been constructed with one or more of the following intended objectives: 1. Enhance private recreational and charter fishing and diving opportunities; 2. Provide a socio economic benefit to local ‐coastal communities; 3. Increase reef fish habitat; 4. Reduce user conflicts; 5. Facilitate reef related research; and, 6. While accomplishing

objectives 1 5, do no harm to fishery resources, Essential Fish Habitat (EFH) or human health. Today, approximately ‐ 70 100 public ‐artificial reefs are constructed annually off of Florida using a combination of federal, state and local government and private funds. Approximately 40 75% of the money used annually from all sources for artificial reef development in Florida is administered through the FWC ‐Artificial Reef Program. Funds administered by FWC are grants in aid pass through funding derived from U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service federal ‐ ‐aid in Sport Fish Restoration Program and state salt water fishing license revenues. The money is used to reimburse local government and nonprofit participants for funding transportation and deployment of reef material, construction of modular reef units, reef monitoring, pre ‐

deployment site assessments and special projects, such as planning (socio economic studies) and research. Although it varies year to year‐ ‐ ‐ , approximately 70 80% of grant project funding goes to artificial reef construction with the remainder ‐used for monitoring, research or other reef planning projects. Other reef building activities undertaken in Florida, beyond the scope of the FWC artificial reef program, include mitigation for or restoration of natural hard bottom reef habitat lost through such activities as beach re nourishment, repair of reef system damage caused by vessel groundings, providing substrate for the regeneration of ‐oyster reefs, and protection of re planted vegetated shorelines vulnerable to erosion from wave activity. Florida has one of the most active ‐artificial reef programs among the 14 Gulf and Atlantic coastal states involved in artificial reef development. The Florida Artificial Reef Program is the only state program that is not exclusively run at a state agency level where the state holds all the reef area permits. Instead, because of the extent of coastline and statewide involvement in reef activities, the FWC program continues a cooperative partnership with local coastal county governments. Coastal cities, universities and qualified nonprofit corporations also work directly with the FWC in artificial reef development and monitoring activities. Thirty four of Florida’s 35 coastal counties spread along 8,426 miles of tidal coastline (1,200 miles ‐fronting the Gulf of Mexico and Atlantic Ocean) are, or have been, involved in artificial reef development. Starting in the 1940’s through August

2012, more than 2,700 planned public artificial reefs have been placed in state and federal waters. Most artificial reef development has taken place since the inception of the Florida Artificial Reef Program in 1982. Local coastal governments hold all of the more than 300 active artificial reef permits off both Florida coasts. About half of these sites are in federal waters. Fishing clubs, nonprofit corporations and interested private individuals work through their local governments as the approved permit holders to provide input into public reef building activities. The Louisiana Artificial Reef Program was established in 1986 to take advantage of obsolete oil and gas platforms which were recognized as providing habitat important to many of Louisiana's coastal fishes. Federal law and international treaty require these platforms to be removed one year after production ceases. The removal of these platforms was seen as a loss of reef habitat. Since the

program's inception in 1986, more than 70 oil and gas related companies have participated in the program and donated primarily the jackets of oil and gas structures. In addition to material, companies also donate one half their realized savings over a traditional onshore removal into Louisiana's Artificial Reef Trust Fund. In 1999, the Louisiana Program created the world's largest artificial reef from the Freeport sulfur mine off Grand Isle Louisiana. The sulfur mine, with over 1.5 miles of bridgework, is composed of more than 29 structures. The reef is in 42 50 feet of water and has 27 feet of 10 | Page clearance. For safety of navigation it is ‐marked by 5 lighted buoys. Forty (40) Armored Personnel Carriers (APC's) and one offshore tug are also deployed within two offshore artificial reefs. The reef pro gram has also developed 30 inshore reefs in Louisiana's state waters, primarily low profile reefs composed of shell or limestone. Eight inshore artificial reefs have been constructed using reef balls. Recycled concrete from the decommissioning of the old I 10 ‐Twin Span bridges and other concrete sources have been used to develop new inshore reefs. Seven inshore reefs were constructed by Louisiana Department of Wildlife and Fisheries (LDWF) and twenty three others were constructed in partnership with public conservation, private‐ groups and other governmental entities. Mississippi The Mississippi Department of Marine Resources (MDMR) is responsible for managing marine

waters of Mississippi. In 1999 the Mississippi Artificial Reef Plan was put into place to guide artificial reef development in Mississippi's marine waters and adjacent federal waters. First known efforts at artificial reef construction off the Mississippi coast took place in the 1960’s with the deployment of automobile bodies in offshore waters near the barrier islands. In 1972, a unified effort between state and federal agencies began to construct artificial reefs in Mississippi. World War II Liberty Ships

were made available from the National Defense Reserve Fleet for the creation of artificial reefs in coastal environments. The state of Mississippi received five of these derelict vessels. Through a coordinated effort between the Mississippi Marine Conservation Commission and the Mississippi Gulf Fishing Banks, Inc. (MGFB), a local non profit fishermen's organization, these vessels were cleaned, stripped, and the hulls sunk ‐on two permitted sites south of Horn Island. After the hulls were sunk, the permits were transferred to MGFB. Additionally, funds acquired from scrapping these hulls were transferred to MGFB for future reef development. The MDMR Artificial Reef Program is continuing to work closely

with MGFB to promote conserve and develop reef habitat for Mississippi fishermen. These reefs are located offshore and range in size from 8 acres to 10,000 acres. Along with the Offshore Reefs the MDMR has numerous Inshore Reef sites accessible by small boats, piers, and wade fishermen. MDMR, Mineral Management Service (MMS), and petroleum companies are also working together to

use decommissioned oil and gas platforms for offshore artificial reef development. This program is commonly known as "Rigs to Reef." Building on Title II of the National Fishing Enhancement Act of 1984, the National Marine Fisheries Service published a National Artificial Reef Plan which opened the door for Federal support for offshore artificial reef projects. Artificial reefs in Mississippi and adjacent marine waters are located and built to support and enhance recreational fishing. Properly located, constructed and managed reef sites can meet a variety of uses. All of these uses share the common purpose of enhancing marine habitat for associated important sport fishes and other organisms. Nearshore Reefs: Mississippi's nearshore artificial reefs are comprised of several different types of material including crushed concrete, limestone, and oyster shell. Development of these reefs has diversified habitat and increased high quality fishing sites which has proven to support a great ecosystem for Mississippi's nearshore waters. These artificial reefs provide the preponderance of both vertical relief

and hard substrate for a variety of fish and invertebrate species. In the spring of 2007, the MDMR received funds from the Emergency Disaster Recovery Program (EDRP) which was intended to help speed up recovery from the damage Hurricane Katrina caused to marine resources. It is anticipated that this 5 year program will continue to ‐enhance and replenish what was lost to the storm. This project began with deployments around accessible fishing piers for Mississippi's shore fishermen, who were left with very few fishing options. In addition to artificial reefs around piers, the 2007 deployments also included low profile fishing reefs accessible to both wade fishermen and small boat owners. In 2007, all three coastal counties were included with preference for reefs which sustained the most damage. As Mississippi's public piers and shore access points are rebuilt and reopened, MDMR's artificial reef program, in conjunction with Mississippi Gulf Fishing Banks will continue to enhance and replenish its inshore reefs. Offshore Reefs: MDMR, in conjunction with MGFB, has 15 permitted offshore reef sites. These sites combined cover approximately 16,000 acres, with sites ranging from 3 to 10,000 acres. The sites located north of the barrier islands consist of concrete rubble while the sites located south of the barrier islands consist of concrete culverts, steel hull vessels, and artificial limestone reef pyramids. Limestone, primarily used for road construction, is thought to attract animals that wouldn't necessarily be attracted to the typical concrete reef structure. Small animals such as worms are attracted to the limestone which in return attracts larger species such as fish. In 2007, MDMR used funds from the Emergency Disaster Recovery Program to implement a 5 year restoration project for both inshore & offshore artificial reef sites intended to speed up the

recovery process from damage caused be Hurricane Katrina to Mississippi's artificial reef habitat. Texas has been involved in artificial reef development for nearly 50 years. Tires, automobiles and construction rubble have all been used in reef building, but these materials had little long ‐ term success because they were easily broken up and moved by storms. The first highly successful artificial reef development occurred during the mid 1970s when 12 obsolete World War II Liberty Ships were sunk at five different sites in the ‐Gulf. These sites are still productive and are being enhanced with additional durable and stable materials. Oil rig workers and saltwater anglers have long noticed that petroleum platforms on the continental shelf act as unintentional artificial reefs, creating thousands of square miles of marine habitat Gulf wide, as various species attach themselves to rigs below the waterline. The Texas Artificial Reef Program takes‐ advantage

of this insight partnering with conservation organizations, corporations, communities, and sportsmen to create and maintain more than 4,000 acres of artificial reef structures within Texas Gulf waters. The slow down in ‐ oil and gas activity in the Gulf in the 1980’s resulted in an increase in the number of rigs being scrapped. Recognition that valuable habitat provided by these de facto reefs should be preserved led to creation of comprehensive planning guides for artificial reef development. The Artificial Reef Act of 1989 directed the Texas Parks and Wildlife Department (TPWD) to promote and enhance the artificial reef potential in Texas. To fulfill this purpose, TPWD developed the Texas Artificial Reef Plan which was adopted in 1990. The Artificial Reef Program is guided by that Plan as well as recommendations from a citizen based Artificial Reef Advisory Committee. The Program is constantly acquiring new reef material in various ‐forms such as tugboats, barges, concrete reef balls, and petroleum rigs. In recent years, numerous rigs have been donated by cooperating oil

and gas companies. These companies have also donated to the Texas Artificial Reef Fund half of their realized savings from not having to remove the rigs to shore. These dedicated funds are used to finance research, administration, maintenance, liability coverage and construction of new artificial reefs. The Texas Artificial Reef Program is self sufficient, with ‐no funds from public sources or agency revenue. The Artificial Reef Program focuses its efforts on three types of materials: 1. Decommissioned drilling rigs in the Rigs to Reefs Program. 2. Highway bridge materials and other sources of concrete and heavy gauge steel in the Nearshore ‐ ‐ ‐Reefing Program. 3. Large marine vessels in the Ships to Reefs Program. ‐ ‐

Mexico Is Already Doing The Plan

Fikes, Staff Scientist at the National Wildlife Federation, ‘13 (Ryan, November 2013, NFW, “Artificial Reefs of the Gulf of Mexico: A Review of Gulf State Programs & Key Considerations”, http://www.nwf.org/~/media/PDFs/Water/Review-of-GoM-Artificial-Reefs-Report.pdf,

6/27/14, AEG) There are many different types of natural occurring reefs within the Gulf of Mexico, ‐but the natural bottom of the Northern Gulf of Mexico is predominately flat sand. Outside of a few,

ecologically important coral reefs off the Florida coast and the Texas/Louisiana border, ‐ the Gulf’s natural nearshore reefs are primarily shallow carbonate banks of scattered boulders rather than discrete reef complexes. The Gulf’s estuaries are also home to reef complexes, primarily oyster reefs which provide nursery habitat for fish and other wildlife, protection from predators, water filtration, and reduced erosion. In addition, oyster reefs have significant economic impacts, including commercial fishing and indirect contributions to Gulf Coast tourism. The Gulf of Mexico accounts for approximately 67% of the nation’s total oyster harvest. Unfortunately, the estuaries of the Northern Gulf of Mexico are believed to have lost well over half of their historic oyster reefs, primarily a result of overharvesting by means of destructive dredging practices and habitat degradation, including reductions in water quality and quantity. Additional types of natural reefs found in Gulf estuaries are serpulid (calcareous) reefs in Texas and fragmented coral reefs in bays of Florida leading to the Florida Keys coral archipelago. Serpulid reefs were formed from the calcareous tubes of serpulid worms in hypersaline

bays such as Baffin Bay in Texas. Formation of the reefs began about 3,000 years ago and ended about 300 years ago, so degradation of these reefs contributes to the loss of hard substrate in the system. Florida

reefs face threats from coral bleaching events and outbreaks of various coral diseases. 4 | Page All five Gulf States have implemented artificial reef programs that aim to supplement the Gulf’s natural reef habitats. According to William Seaman, Jr. (2000) an artificial reef is defined as "one or more objects of natural or human origin deployed purposefully on the sea floor

to influence physical, biological, or socioeconomic processes related to living marine resources." Nearshore artificial reefs can be created that will develop communities of encrusting organisms and bait fish over time. As various encrusting organisms such as corals and sponges cover the artificial reef material, small animals take up residence. As these small animals become abundant larger animals are attracted and feed upon these,

and so on until a reef food web is created. Energy is able to then provide biological growth potential that provides additional protective habitat, as well as sustenance for fish species. Some experts believe that artificial reefs can function comparably to natural reef communities. Others argue that artificial reefs merely attract existing fish from the adjacent open water habitat, forming more dense fish aggregations.

Florida is already is doing the plan and it has already impacted the economy to it’s ability- meaning they have no inherency

Adams, professor, Food and Resource Economics Department, 11 (Chuck, Bill Lindberg, associate professor, Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences Department; John Stevely, Florida Sea Grant marine extension agent, 2011, University Of Florida, “The Economic Benefits Associated with Florida's Artificial Reefs”, http://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/fe649#FOOTNOTE_2, 6/28/14, AEG) Florida reportedly has the largest complement of permitted artificial reefs in the nation. These reefs have been shown to be beneficial to the local economies. The studies reviewed above show that artificial reefs do increase economic activity in surrounding communities. Because artificial reefs are valued by users and non-users alike and provide benefits that exceed costs, they may be an effective tool for redirecting use away from natural reefs if such an management objective is required. Overall, artificial reefs are a source of economic value that may justify additional deployments, even after taking into account the opportunity costs associated with scarce public funds.

No need for preservation—coral reefs adapt to acidification—aff’s plan is unnecessary because coral reefs are fine nowNOAA 13(10/29/13, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, “New study suggests coral reefs may be able to adapt to moderate climate change,” http://www.noaanews.noaa.gov/stories2013/20131029_coral.html, 6/27/14, SM)Coral reefs may be able to adapt to moderate climate warming, improving their chance of surviving through the end of this century, if there are large reductions in carbon dioxide emissions, according to a study funded by NOAA and conducted by the agency’s scientists and its academic

partners. Results further suggest corals have already adapted to part of the warming that has occurred.¶ “Earlier modeling work suggested that coral reefs would be gone by the middle of this century. Our study shows that if corals can adapt to warming that has occurred over the past 40 to 60 years, some coral reefs may persist through the end of this century,” said study lead author Cheryl Logan, Ph.D., an assistant professor in California State University Monterey Bay’s Division of Science and Environmental Policy. The scientists from the university, and from the University of British Columbia, were NOAA’s partners in the study.¶ Warm water can contribute to a potentially fatal process known as coral “bleaching,” in which reef-building corals eject algae living inside their tissues. Corals bleach when oceans warm only 1-2°C (2-4°F) above normal summertime

temperatures. Because those algae supply the coral with most of its food, prolonged bleaching and associated disease often kills corals.¶ The study, published online in the journal Global Change Biology, explores a range of possible coral adaptive responses to thermal stress previously identified by the scientific community. It suggests that coral reefs may be more resilient than previously thought due to past studies that did not consider effects of possible adaptation.¶ The study projected that, through genetic adaptation, the reefs could reduce the currently projected rate of temperature-induced bleaching by 20 to 80 percent of levels expected by the year 2100, if there are large reductions in carbon dioxide emissions.

Fishing

UQ

US Fishing Industry on the Rise Marine Stewardship Council no date(Marine Stewardship Council, no date, “The Seafood Economy”, http://www.msc.org/healthy-oceans/the-oceans-today/the-seafood-economy, 6/29/14, AG)Millions of people work in the seafood industry, contributing to local, regional and global trade on a massive scale and maintaining livelihoods, earnings and employment. It's not just about fishing. Seafood-related jobs include processing, packing, transport, retail and restaurants. Through these diverse businesses, the seafood economy generates financial security for individuals and a valuable source of GDP.¶ The value of the global seafood industry¶ The export value of world trade in fish was US$63 billion in 2003, and is more than the combined value of net exports of rice, coffee, sugar and tea ¶ Source: United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization¶ About 200 million livelihoods depend directly or indirectly on the fishing industry ¶ Source: United Nations Environment Program¶ Half of the seafood traded worldwide comes from developing countries ¶ Source: United Nations Environment Program¶ Fish exports are a valuable source of foreign exchange for many developing countries. Globally, developing countries are net exporters of fishery products. ¶ Source: United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization¶ Rising demand¶ Consumer demand for fish continues to climb, especially in affluent nations, which in 2004 imported 33 million tonnes of fish, in value terms 81% of all fish imports that year, and worth over US$61 billion (Environmental News Service).¶ Global consumption of seafood increased by 21% between 1992 and 2002. But levels of fish catches in the wild have remained roughly stable since the mid-1990s, close to 90-93 million tonnes annually. The UN Food and Agriculture Organization says there is little chance of any significant increase beyond these levels.¶ And it’s not just about seafood, fish is an ingredient in pet food, health supplements, fishmeal and many non-food products manufactured on a global scale.¶ The UN predicts another 2 billion people will join the world’s population within 20 years. Add to this the surge in consumption that is expected as the world’s emerging economies develop and expand, and it is clear that pressure on seafood resources will increase.¶ Sustainable fisheries set for success ¶ With pressure on seafood resources set to increase further, fisheries that are poorly managed may quickly collapse. We will need fisheries that are well-managed and sustainable, especially given the uncertainties and implications of global climate change.¶

The MSC is helping to transform the seafood market onto a sustainable basis, where well managed fisheries are recognised and rewarded, and marine conservation is at the heart of good fisheries management. You can support sustainable fishing by looking for the MSC ecolabel on certified sustainable seafood. Find out where to buy MSC-labelled sustainable seafood.

The Recreational Fishing Industry Generates Millions For US Economy NowThe Billfish Foundation 2013(The Billfish Foundation, 3/14/13, “Fisheries Economics of the United States Report Released”, http://www.billfish.org/news/fisheries-economics-of-the-united-states-report-released/, 6/29/14, AG)The National Oceanographic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) has released the annual edition of Fisheries Economics of the United States for 2011, highlighting the economic impact of both recreational and commercial fishing. In 2011, 11 million recreational anglers took 70 million saltwater fishing trips and generated $70 billion in sales impacts, $32 billion in value added impacts, and supported over 455,000 jobs nationally.¶ ¶ Taking a further look at the expenditures of U.S. anglers in 2011, a total of $4.5 billion in angler expenditures were related specifically to fishing trips with $2 billion of this for private boat-based fishing trips. Shore-based fishing trips generated $1.5 billion and

for-hire-based fishing trips brought in $1 billion. The angler expenditures on fishing-related equipment for 2011 totaled over $22 billion with most related to boat expenses ($11 billion). Other major expenditures incurred by anglers included vehicle expenses ($4.1 billion), fishing tackle ($3.8 billion) and second home expenses ($2.1 billion).¶ ¶ This is great news for the recreational fishing industry because of the rise seen between 2010 and 2011, especially in the Southeast portion of the United States (South Atlantic and Gulf of Mexico Regions) where recreational fishing is economically important and a large driver of tourism. In 2011, around 70% of all recreational fishing jobs in the US were occupied by fishermen in the Gulf of Mexico and South Atlantic Regions. Recreational Fishing in these two regions generated $15.9 billion in fishing trip and durable equipment expenditures with $6.1 billion and $9.8 billion in the South Atlantic and Gulf of Mexico regions respectively.

Florida’s Fishing Industry Contributes to EconomyBarth 2013(Cindy Barth, Orlando Business Journal, 8/27/13, “Florida fishing industry contributes $5B to state economy”, http://www.bizjournals.com/orlando/news/2013/08/27/florida-fishing-industry-contributes.html, 6/29/14, AG)Fishing is a $5 billion industry in Florida, according to the latest economic commentary report from Florida TaxWatch, a nonpartisan taxpayer research institute and government watchdog.¶ The TaxWatch report shows that more than 1.2 million nonresidents fished during a trip to Florida in 2013, in addition to the state hosting boating and fishing expos throughout the year — all of which draw visitors and their tax dollars to the state economy.¶ Florida fishing also helps support many industries that impact the state's economy, including retail, manufacturing and research, in addition to the impact on tourism, the report said. More than half of the $5 billion fishing industry expenditures come from non-angler related expenses.¶ In addition, Florida generated $36.2 million during fiscal year 2011-2012 from the issuance of freshwater and saltwater fishing licenses.¶ “Florida's unique location and variety of fishing opportunities position the state as the world leader in sport fishing tourism,” said Dominic M. Calabro, president and CEO of Florida TaxWatch.

Hurts Fishing Industry

Artificial reefs are actually detrimental to fishPlovina, Chief, Ecosystem & Oceanography Division at NOAA, 89(Jeff, 1989, California cooperative oceanic fisheries organization, “ARTIFICIAL REEFS: NOTHING MORE THAN BENTHIC FISH AGGREGATORS”, http://calcofi.org/publications/calcofireports/v30/Vol_30_Polovina.pdf, 6/25/2014, JW)The potential for artificial reefs to substantially increase standing stock of marine resources is con- sidered. Three sources - the Japanese artificial reef program; relationships between fishery production and the area of natural habitat for several fisheries; and population dynamics - offer evidence that ar- tificial reefs do not substantially increase the stand- ing stock of marine resources. RESUMEN Se considera el potencial de 10s arrecifes artifi- ciales para aumentar sustancialmente el stoc4 dis- ponible de 10s recursos marinos. Tres fuentes de evidencia: el programa de arrecifes artificiales ja- pods, la relaci6n entre producci6n y Area del hAbi- tat natural de varias pesquerias, y la dinimica de poblaciones, indican que 10s sustratos artificiales no aumentan sustancialmente el stock disponible de 10s recursos marinos. DISCUSSION Artificial reefs can be excellent fish aggregators, but they do not effectively increase standing stock. This position will be supported with three types of evidence: first, with observations from the Japanese artificial reef program; second, from the relation- ship between habitat and fishery production; and finally from considerations of population dynamics. Between 1976 and 1987, the Japanese spent U. S. $4.2 billion to construct and deploy 6,443 artificial reefs, covering 9.3% of the ocean bottom from shore to a depth of 200 m (Yamane, in press). But despite this enormous volume of artificial reefs de- ployed in coastal water, there has not been any measurable increase in coastal fishery landings (Ja- pan: Statistics and Information Department 1984). Studies specifically investigating the impact of the artificial reefs have generally not documented any significant increases in fish production that can be attributed to the reefs (Kawasaki 1984; Kakimoto and Okubo 1985). After three visits to Japan and numerous discussions with people involved in all aspects of the Japanese artificial reef program, I be- lieve the real benefit of the reefs is that they aggre- gate wide-ranging fishes close to shore so they can be harvested by fishermen with small vessels and thus keep the fleet of small vessels economically viable. Outside of Japan, artificial reefs have not been deployed on a large enough scale to evaluate their effectiveness in increasing standing stocks. How- ever, examining the relationship between habitat and fishery production can provide estimates of the level of fishery yield per area of habitat that might be expected from appropriately designed and sited artificial reefs. One example is penaeid shrimp: worldwide fishery yields range from 8 to 200 kg/ hectare of intertidal nursery habitat (Turner 1977). In the case of artificial reefs, yields are measured in production per unit of reef volume. Thus if a square meter of intertidal habitat is assumed to also contain about a meter of vertical structure, grass, or man- grove, then these yield figures are equivalent to 0- 0.02 kg/m2. Another example is the coral reef sys- tems, from which .fishery yields have been reported in the range of 5-20 t/km2 (Marten and Polovina 1982). If one square meter of coral reef habitat is conservatively assumed to be equal to one cubic meter of reef volume, then production per volume of reef habitat is 0.005-0.02 kg/m3. To put this production-per-unit-of-habitat vol- ume in perspective, I will relate it to an example from California, where recent annual commercial landings for rockfishes are about 15,000 metric tons (MT) (California Department of Fish and Game 1987). I will assume that the average figure for fish- ery production per habitat volume from coral reef fisheries, 0.01 kg/m3, can be applied to rockfishes. I will further assume that artificial reefs can be ten times more effective than natural habitat that might include barren or unproductive areas. With a level of fishery production of 0.1 kg/m3 of habitat vol- ume, it would require 15 million m3 of artificial reefs to increase the annual rockfish catches by 10%. At

the extremely low cost of $10/m3 of reef for con- struction and deployment, this would cost $150 million. To put 15 million m3 of artificial reefs into perspective, consider a space 100 X 50 m, about the 37 POLOVINA: ARTIFICIAL REEFS: BENTHIC FISH AGGREGATORS CalCOFl Rep., Vol. 30,1989 size of a football field, covered with 1-m cubes. One such field would contain 5,000 m3; therefore, 3,000 such fields covered with 1-m cubes would equal 15 million m3. Of course the major flaw in this brute force approach to fishery enhancement is that even if this enormous volume of artificial reefs was built and deployed, any benefits would not be noticeable, because landings annually fluctuate by 10% to 20%. That is exactly one of the lessons the Japanese learned with their $4.2 billion experiment. There is also the question of which resources lose habitat when low-relief habitat is covered with ar- tificial reefs. There is a perception that low-relief habitat is not used by important commerical spe- cies, whereas high-relief habitat is preferred by valuable species. This is often based on the obser- vation that the adults are seen and caught in high- relief habitat. This has been commonly accepted in Hawaii, but recently, when correct sampling gear was used, the juvenile habitat of the very valuable deepwater snappers was found to be the low-relief, flat-bottomed, sandy habitat, which had been con- sidered a biological desert. Large-scale deployment of artificial reefs on this flat, sandy-bottom habitat would have attracted shallow-water reef fishes at the cost of destroying juvenile habitat for the more commercially valuable deepwater snappers. In Ja- pan, a study around an artificial reef site found that the artificial reef attracted some species and repelled others and that the effectiveness of the reef could be negative, depending on which species were at- tracted or repelled (Kawasaki 1984). The wide ranges in the levels of fishery produc- tion per area of habitat suggest that, although habi- tat is necessary, it is not limiting to production. Current research suggests that for many species, population size is determined during the larval rather than benthic phase. For example, the adult population of the Caribbean coral reef fish, Thulus- soma bfusciatum, is determined primarily by recruit- ment and not by the supply of space on the reef (Victor 1983). In another study, the survival ofju- venile reef fishes was estimated for varying levels of recruitment, and survivorship appeared constant - independent ofjuvenile density on the reef (Sale and Ferrell 1988). These studies indicate that even for coral reef fishes that require reef habitat during ju- venile and adult phases, more reefhabitat would not increase standing stock. Insight into whether a resource can be enhanced with artificial reefs can be obtained from the rela- tionship between larval settement density and fish- ery catches. If the relationship is linear, then the same percentage of the larval settlement is caught by the fishery, independent of density. However, if the fraction of the settled larvae, which ultimately contribute to the fishery, declines as the density of settled larvae increases, then density dependence may be a factor, and artificial reefs, which provide additional habitat and reduce the density at some stage, may increase fishery production. A relation- ship between larval settlement and fishery catches is available for a spiny lobster (Punulirus Cygnus) fish- ery in western Australia (Phillips 1986). This rela- tionship is linear, indicating that the same fraction of the settled larvae are captured as adults by the fishery, independent of the level of larval settle- ment. Thus, even for a spiny lobster which requires shelter, larval settlement is the limiting factor to production, and even at high postlarval densities, habitat is not limiting to fishery production. Artificial reefs are often suggested as a solution to overfishing. Yet they do not help if either growth or recruitment overfishing is occurring. In the case of growth overfishing, they may aggregate younger fish, making them more vulnerable to cap- ture and actually increasing overfishing. In the case of recruitment overfishing, standing stock is a frac- tion of its unexploited level, and habitat is certainly not limiting. Aggregating adults further simply in- creases catchability, and hence fishing mortality, which further reduces the spawning stock biomass. Reefs are popular as management options be- cause they do not require reductions in fishing effort and they aggregate fish, resulting in higher catches in the initial stages. Thus artificial reefs may actually be detrimental to the fishery and the stock simply because they allow managers to delay making hard but necessary decisions, such as imposing size limits or reducing effort.

Overfishing Bad

Overfishing a Major Issue in the squoUnited Nations no date(United Nations, no date, “Overfishing: a threat to marine biodiversity”, http://www.un.org/events/tenstories/06/story.asp?storyID=800, 6/29/14, AG)“Overfishing cannot continue,” warned Nitin Desai, Secretary General of the 2002 World Summit on Sustainable Development, which took place in Johannesburg. “The depletion of fisheries poses a major threat to the food supply of millions of people.” The Johannesburg Plan of Implementation calls for the establishment of Marine Protected Areas (MPAs), which many experts believe may hold the key to conserving and boosting fish stocks. Yet, according to the UN Environment Programme’s (UNEP) World Conservation Monitoring Centre, in Cambridge, UK, less than one per cent of the world’s oceans and seas are currently in MPAs.¶ The magnitude of the problem of overfishing is often overlooked, given the competing claims of deforestation, desertification, energy resource exploitation and other biodiversity depletion dilemmas. The rapid growth in demand for fish and fish products is leading to fish prices increasing faster than prices of meat. As a result, fisheries investments have become more attractive to both entrepreneurs and governments, much to the detriment of small-scale fishing and fishing communities all over the world. In the last decade, in the north Atlantic region, commercial fish populations of cod, hake, haddock and flounder have fallen by as much as 95%, prompting calls for urgent measures. Some are even recommending zero catches to allow for regeneration of stocks, much to the ire of the fishing industry.¶ According to a Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) estimate, over 70% of the world’s fish species are either fully exploited or depleted. The dramatic increase of destructive fishing techniques worldwide destroys marine mammals and entire ecosystems. FAO reports that illegal, unreported and unregulated fishing worldwide appears to be increasing as fishermen seek to avoid stricter rules in many places in response to shrinking catches and declining fish stocks. Few, if any, developing countries and only a limited number of developed ones are on track to put into effect by this year the International Plan of Action to Prevent, Deter and Eliminate Unreported and Unregulated Fishing. Despite that fact that each region has its Regional Sea Conventions, and some 108 governments and the European Commission have adopted the UNEP Global Programme of Action for the Protection of the Marine Environment from Land based Activities, oceans are cleared at twice the rate of forests.¶ The Johannesburg forum stressed the importance of restoring depleted fisheries and acknowledged that sustainable fishing requires partnerships by and between governments, fishermen, communities and industry. It urged countries to ratify the Convention on the Law of the Sea and other instruments that promote maritime safety and protect the environment from marine pollution and environmental damage by ships. Only a multilateral approach can counterbalance the rate of depletion of the world’s fisheries which has increased more than four times in the past 40 years.¶

Overfishing will cause fisheries to shut down by 2050, thus hurting the economy drasticallySave Our Seas Foundation no date(Save Our Seas Foundation, no date, “Threat 1: Overfishing”, http://saveourseas.com/threats/overfishing, 6/29/14, AG)The statistics are grim: 3/4 of the world's fish stocks are being harvested faster than they can reproduce. Eighty percent are already fully exploited or in decline. Ninety percent of all large predatory fish – including tuna, sharks, swordfish, cod and halibut – are gone. Scientists predict that if

current trends continue, world food fisheries could collapse entirely by 2050. As fish populations closer to shore dwindle, commercial fishing operations have shifted their focus to largely unregulated deep-sea fisheries – as much as 40 percent of the world's trawling grounds are now in waters deeper than 200 meters. In doing so, they target species which are particularly vulnerable to overexploitation, like the orange roughly. Like many other deep-sea fish, this species matures late and lives very long — over 150 years. Its low fecundity means populations become depleted more quickly than inshore species when they are overfished, and take much longer to recover. Indeed, many orange roughly stocks have already collapsed, and recently discovered substitute stocks are also rapidly dwindling. Modern fishing vessels catch staggering amounts of unwanted fish and other marine life. It's estimated that anywhere from 8 to 25 percent of the total global catch is discarded, cast overboard either dead or dying.2 That's up to 27 million tonnes of fish thrown out each year -- the equivalent of 600 fully-laden Titanics. And the victims aren't just fish. Every year, an estimated 300,000 whales, dolphins and porpoises die entangled in fishing nets, along with thousands of critically-endangered sea turtles. Long-line fisheries also kill huge numbers of seabirds. Over 100,000 Albatrosses die this way every year, and many species are endangered as a result of bycatch.¶ All modern forms of commercial fishing produce bycatch, but shrimp trawling is by far the most destructive: it is responsible for a third of the world's bycatch, while producing only 2% of all seafood.

Fish Have Feelings Too – Fishing Makes You Complicit With EvilPETA no date(PETA, no date, “Fishing”, http://www.peta.org/issues/animals-in-entertainment/cruel-sports/fishing/, 6/29/14, AG)Billions of fish die every year in nets and on hooks. Some are destined for human consumption, many are tortured just for “sport,” and others are unintended victims who are maimed or killed simply because they were in the wrong place at the wrong time.¶ Fish Feel Pain¶ When fish are yanked from the water, they begin to suffocate. Their gills often collapse, and their swim bladders can rupture because of the sudden change in pressure. Numerous scientific reports from around the world confirm that fish feel pain. Researchers from the University of Edinburgh and University of Glasgow studied the pain receptors in fish and found that they were strikingly similar to those of mammals; the researchers concluded that “fish do have the capacity for pain perception and suffering.”¶ ‘Sport’ Fishing¶ While the numbers continue to decline compared to decades ago, more than 29 million people still went fishing in 2006, spending billions of dollars on their “hobby.” According to a Florida State University study, sport fishers are responsible for killing almost 25 percent of overfished saltwater species. Many trout streams are so intensively fished that they require that all fish caught be released; the fish in these streams may spend their entire lives being repeatedly traumatized and injured.¶ What’s Wrong With Catch-and-Release Fishing?¶ Fish who are released after being caught can suffer from loss of their protective scale coating that makes them vunerable to disease, a dangerous build-up of lactic acid in their muscles, oxygen depletion, and damage to their delicate fins and mouths. According to one fishery expert, catch-and-release victims “could be vulnerable to predators, unable to swim away, or if nesting, not capable of fending off nest raiders. Some guarding males could in fact abandon the nest.” Researchers at the Oklahoma Department of Wildlife Conservation found that as many as 43 percent of fish released after being caught died within six days.¶ Other Victims¶ According to the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, “[M]ore than one million birds and 100,000 marine mammals die each year due to ingestion of, and entanglement in marine debris.” The Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission reports that discarded monofilament fishing line is the number one killer of adult brown pelicans, although one Audubon biologist says that “[p]retty much every type of water or shore bird can get caught up in fishing line …. We find dead cormorants, anhingas, herons,

egrets, roseate spoonbills … you name it.”¶ One out of every five manatee rescues conducted in the 1980s and 1990s was related to fishing-line entanglement, and during a four-year span, at least 35 dolphins died from injuries that they sustained as a result of being tangled in fishing line

Fishing turns case – Commercial fishing has huge impacts on humanity. Food Empowerment Project, 11(Food Empowerment Project, 01/25/11, food empowerment project, Commercial Fishing”, http://www.foodispower.org/commercial-fishing/, 6/29/14, SJ)

As commercial fishing takes its toll on aquatic animal populations across the globe, fish farming has become increasingly common. Otherwise known as aquaculture, fish farming basically involves raising fish for food in underwater enclosures. With a growth rate of 9 percent annually since 1975, the fish farming industry now

supplies nearly 40 percent of the global “seafood” market.¶ While fish farming has often been touted as a “solution” to the world’s growing hunger for fish, this production method also comes with its own environmental hazards. For one, it is incredibly wasteful, in that nearly five pounds of “trash” fish are needed to make just one pound of fishmeal for farmed fish,[20] who now consume about one-quarter

of the total annual global fish catch of 20 to 30 metric tons.[21] This loss of biomass impacts species at every level of the food chain.[22]¶ Secondly, fish[ing] farms themselves damage the ecosystems where they are located. Farmed fish are densely packed together in

pens for maximum production efficiency, but the fecal matter that accumulates in these filthy conditions can create algal blooms that deplete the water around aquaculture facilities of oxygen so that these areas can no longer support sea life .[23] Deadly parasites (such as sea lice) and viruses (like the often-fatal salmon anemia) also thrive in the putrid waters where farmed fish are forced to live, and wild fish can become infected when they swim near aquaculture enclosures. Farmed fish can also escape their pens and interact with native species, sometimes swimming several miles to their colonies. Such communicable disease threats can quickly decimate whole wild fisheries as they spread through the population.[24]¶

Industrialized aquaculture can have devastating consequences not only for ecosystems and animals, but for people as well. Intensive shrimp farming in Southeast Asia, for example, has destroyed so many coastal mangrove forests over the last few decades that their shores are now more vulnerable to deadly tidal waves . On December 26, 2004, just minutes after a massive underwater earthquake measuring 9.0 on the Richter scale struck the India-Burma fault line, waves as high as 100 feet deluged the Indian and Indonesian coastlines, killing an estimated 150,000 people. The tsunami would have done less damage, however, if vast areas of offshore mangrove forests hadn’t been cleared to build shrimp farms and beachfront tourist hotels, because mangroves (along with coral reefs, sand bars and sand dunes) create a natural buffer zone that prevents waves from getting so big as they approach land. Scientists studying the aftermath of the tsunami documented fewer human deaths and less property damage in areas with intact mangrove forests compared to those where they had been decimated.¶

Fishing causing massive bycatchFood Empowerment Project, 11(Food Empowerment Project, 02/25/11, food empowerment project, Commercial Fishing”, http://www.foodispower.org/commercial-fishing/, 6/29/14, SJ)

Bycatch is the industry term for what they consider unwanted or economically-worthless aquatic animals who are unintentionally caught using destructively indiscriminate fishing methods like longlines and driftnets, which generally target marketable marine creatures such as tuna and

swordfish. However, billions of other animals, some of them endangered, are also killed in this manner every year,

including sea turtles[11], marine mammals, sharks, and sea birds.[12] Commercial fisheries’ bycatch discard is estimated to be between 17 and 39 million tons each year.[13]¶ Shrimp fisheries have the highest bycatch rates, with (on average) four tons of fish discarded for every ton of shrimp caught.[14] Even though the US (since 1987)[15] and some other countries have required shrimpers to install Turtle Exclusion Devices (TEDs) on their trawling nets that allow critically-endangered sea turtles to escape capture, shrimp

trawling and intensive commercial fishing remain among the gravest threats to sea turtles’ survival. Worldwide, between 1990 and 2008,

an estimated 8.5 million sea turtles were fatally caught in nets or on longlines as bycatch.[16]

Fish Depletion Alt causes

ALT Causes to fish depletion- rising demand for food, unemployment, and fishing methodsVince science writer 12 (Gaia, 9/22/12, BBC future, “How the world’s oceans could be running out of fish”, http://www.bbc.com/future/story/20120920-are-we-running-out-of-fish, accessed 6/29/14 SH)

It has been some time since most humans lived as hunter-gatherers – with one important exception. Fish are the last wild animal that we hunt in large numbers. And yet, we may be the last generation to do so. Entire species of marine life will never be seen in the Anthropocene (the Age of Man), let alone tasted, if we do not curb our insatiable voracity for fish. Last year, global fish consumption hit a record high of 17 kg (37 pounds) per person per year, even though global fish stocks have continued to decline. On average, people eat four times as much fish now than they did in 1950.

Around 85% of global fish stocks are over-exploited, depleted, fully exploited or in recovery from exploitation. Only this week, a report suggested there may be fewer than 100 cod over the age of 13 years in the North Sea between the United

Kingdom and Scandinavia. The figure is still under dispute, but it’s a worrying sign that we could be losing fish old enough to create offspring that replenish populations. Large areas of seabed in the Mediterranean and North Sea now resemble a desert

– the seas have been expunged of fish using increasingly efficient methods such as bottom trawling. And now, these heavily subsidised industrial fleets are cleaning up tropical oceans too. One-quarter of the EU catch is now made outside

European waters, much of it in previously rich West African seas, where each trawler can scoop up hundreds of thousands of kilos of fish in a day. All West African fisheries are now over-exploited, coastal fisheries have declined 50% in the

past 30 years, according to the UN Food and Agriculture Organisation. Catches in the tropics are expected to decline a further 40% by 2050, and yet some 400 million people in Africa and Southeast Asia rely on fish caught (mainly through artisanal

fishing) to provide their protein and minerals. With climate change expected to impact agricultural production, people are going to rely more than ever on fish for their nutritional needs. The policy of subsidising vast fishing fleets to catch ever-diminishing stocks is unsustainable. In Spain, for example, one in three fish landed is paid for by subsidy. Governments, concerned with keeping jobs alive in the fishing industry in the short-term, are essentially paying people to extinguish their own long-term job prospects – not to mention the effect on the next generation of fishermen. Artisanal fishing catches half the world’s fish, yet it provides 90% of the sector’s jobs.

Alt causes to fish depletion- inadequate fishing regulationsWWF 8 (2008, World Wild Life Foundation, “Fishing problems: poor fisheries management”, http://wwf.panda.org/about_our_earth/blue_planet/problems/problems_fishing/fisheries_management/, accessed 6/29/14 SH)

In many fisheries, current rules and regulations are not strong enough to limit fishing capacity to a sustainable level. This is particularly the case for the high seas, where there are few international fishing regulations. Lack of implementation/enforcement: Even when fisheries regulations exist, they are not always implemented or enforced. For example, many countries have still not ratified, implemented, or enforced international regulations such as the UN Convention on the Law of the Sea and the UN Fish Stocks Agreement. Lack of political will is also responsible for failures to adopt bycatch reduction devices, for example.

Alt causes for fish depletion- fishing bycatch WWF (World Wild Life Foundation, “Bycatch”, https://www.worldwildlife.org/threats/bycatch, accessed 6/29/14 SH)

Wherever there is fishing, there is bycatch—the incidental capture of non-target species such as dolphins, marine turtles and seabirds. Thousands of miles of nets and lines are set in the world's oceans each day. Modern fishing gear, often undetectable by sight and extremely strong, is very efficient at catching the desired fish species—as well as anything else in its path. A staggering amount of marine life—

including turtles, dolphins and juvenile fish—is hauled up with the catch, and then discarded overboard dead or dying. Fishing industry leaders increasingly realize the need to reduce this phenomenon. Proven solutions do exist, such as modifying fishing gear so that fewer non-target species are caught or can escape. In many cases, these modifications are simple and inexpensive, and often come from fishers themselves. Despite new technologies and industry recognition of the issue, bycatch is still a major problem. Not only

does it cause avoidable deaths and injuries, but the fishing methods can be harmful to the marine environments where they are employed. WWF aims to reduce bycatch by working with fisheries and helping develop and promote new

technologies and gear for more efficient operations.It is estimated that over 300,000 small whales, dolphins, and porpoises die from entanglement in fishing nets each year, making this the single largest cause of mortality for small cetaceans. Species such as the vaquita from the Gulf of California and Maui’s dolphin from New Zealand face

extinction if the threat of unselective fishing gear is not eliminated. Hundreds of thousands of endangered loggerhead turtles and

critically endangered leatherback turtles drown annually on longlines set for tuna, swordfish, and other fish.

Incidental capture of turtles by longlines, trawls and gillnets is the single greatest threat to the survival of most populations.

Alt causes for fish depletion- overfishing and harmful fishing methods Washington College of Law ( 2012, Washington college of Law, “Coral Reefs”, http://www.wcl.american.edu/environment/iel/sup3.cfm, accessed 6/27/14SH)

Reefs in Asia are vulnerable to two local fishing methods, both immensely destructive. Blast fishing involves the use of dynamite to stun or kill the fish by shock waves and collecting them as they float to the surface. Fish that are stunned are sold to restaurants that prepare fish live or, more and more, to satisfy the growing worldwide demand for ornamental aquarium fish. Another method uses cyanide poured into the water which also kills and stuns fish. The harmful impact of dynamite blasts and cyanide on coral is obvious, and leads directly to reduced numbers of fish overall since their habitat is degraded. Anthony Spaeth, Reef Killers; the use of toxic cyanide to snag live fish for gourmands in southeast Asia is damaging a delicate ocean habitat, Time, June 3, 1996. Even if heavy fishing activity in a reef does not directly damage the coral, overfishing of herbivores such as parrot fish will result in damage because no protection is left against fast-growing seaweed which always threatens to engulf reefs. Indeed, the complexity and interdependencies of a reef ecosystem makes it particularly vulnerable to overexploitation of particular species.

Ocean Acidification

SQUO Solves

Status Quo Solves For Ocean Acidification

Koch, environmental issue Congressional reporter, 6/3 (Wendy, 6/03/14, USA Today, “EPA seeks 30% cut in power plant carbon emissions by 2030”, http://www.usatoday.com/story/money/business/2014/06/02/epa-proposes-sharp-cuts-power-plant-emissions/9859913/, 6/29/14, AEG) Taking a historic step to fight climate change, the Obama administration proposed a plan Monday that aims to slash carbon dioxide emissions from existing power plants 30% by 2030 and could accelerate the nation's shift away from coal. The Environmental Protection Agency plan, which is President Obama's largest climate effort so far, could help the United States prod other countries like China to pledge similar emissions cuts as part of a new international treaty that's slate for negotiation next year in Paris.

Hurts Biodiversity

Corals deacidify oceans, but at the cost of changes to reef processes, ecosystem composition, and coral growth (neg card)Scripps Institution of Oceanography 13(11/26/13, Scripps Institution of Oceanography UC San Diego, “Can Coral Reefs Delay the Damaging Effects of Ocean Acidification?,” https://scripps.ucsd.edu/news/13963, 6/25/14, SM)Atmospheric carbon dioxide has gone up by 42 percent and global average temperatures have increased by 0.8°C (1.4°F)

since the Industrial Revolution. These changes have well-defined effects on the open ocean, increasing both the

acidity and temperature of surface seawater. This decrease in ocean pH has left many scientists concerned about the detrimental

effects it could have on coral reefs.¶ Increasing temperature and decreasing pH make it harder for corals to build calcium carbonate, and also cause calcium carbonate to dissolve more readily. The reef’s total ecosystem organic carbon

production (photosynthesis minus organic matter consumed) will also be affected. All of these processes – calcification, dissolution,

and ecosystem organic carbon production – affect seawater pH. By modeling how the balance between these processes will change in the future, Andersson and his coauthors discovered that the expected changes may actually increase the pH on the reef relative to the open ocean, thus partially offsetting the decrease in pH owing to uptake of CO2 from the atmosphere.¶ Many laboratory and field experiments have studied the effects of rising temperatures and ocean acidification on coral reef ecosystems. Although scientists aren’t sure exactly how much

reef processes will change, they are confident that calcification will decrease and dissolution will increase as the ocean becomes more acidic. These changes to calcification and dissolution could be so drastic that eventually the coral reefs’ dissolution rate will catch up to the rate at which they build, resulting in stunted growth or deterioration.¶ “This is something that a lot of experiments and models have predicted will happen,” Andersson

said. “This means the reef is dissolving as fast as it’s producing calcium carbonate, and this was the scenario in which we saw the greatest pH offset.” ¶ A reef’s survival depends on putting down more calcium carbonate than is dissolving or it won’t be able to grow, so a reef in this state is not a healthy one, even if it’s able to maintain a more beneficial pH . This outcome tempers the seemingly good news that corals can “fight” ocean acidification—these offsets will come at the cost of major changes to reef processes and ecosystem composition. The reefs may change from being dominated by calcifying corals to non-calcifying algae, a condition that may diminish their functional and biological diversity.

Reefs Not Key

Coral Reefs Can’t Solve- Don’t Stop the Root Cause of Ocean Acidification

National Geographic, N/A (National Geographic, “Ocean Acidification: Carbon Dioxide Is Putting Shelled Animals at Risk”, http://ocean.nationalgeographic.com/ocean/critical-issues-ocean-acidification/, 6/29/14, AEG) For tens of millions of years, Earth's oceans have maintained a relatively stable acidity level. It's within this steady environment that the rich and varied web of life in today's seas has arisen and flourished. But research shows that this ancient balance is being undone by a recent and rapid drop in surface pH that could have devastating global consequences. Since the beginning of the industrial revolution in the early 1800s, fossil fuel-powered machines have driven an unprecedented burst of human industry and advancement. The unfortunate consequence, however, has been the emission of billions of tons of carbon dioxide (CO2) and other greenhouse gases into Earth's atmosphere. Scientists now know that about half of this anthropogenic, or man-made, CO2 has been absorbed over time by the oceans. This has benefited us by slowing the climate change these emissions would have instigated if they had remained in the air. But relatively new research is finding that the introduction of massive amounts of CO2 into the seas is altering water chemistry and affecting the life cycles of many marine organisms, particularly those at the lower end of the food chain.

They have it backwards – reefs are destroyed by ocean acidification Parker, NOAA Coral Reef Watch Program, Eakin, NOAA Coral Reef Watch Program, no dateIn 2007 coral reef scientists from around the world, led by Ove Hoegh-Guldberg, published a paper entitled “Coral Reefs Under Rapid Climate Change and Ocean Acidification.” The paper appeared in the journal Science and summarized our current knowledge about coral reefs and climate change. As humans burn fossil fuels, such as coal, gasoline and natural gas, carbon dioxide (CO2) is released into the atmosphere. Before the Industrial Revolution, natural levels of CO2 in the atmosphere were around 280 parts per million (ppm). Today we are seeing levels that are about 30 percent higher — around 380 ppm — and those levels are increasing faster and faster. We now know that this increase in CO2 has contributed to the warming we have seen in the oceans and in air temperatures worldwide. During the 20th century, this has corresponded to an average increase in ocean temperature of 1.4 degrees Fahrenheit, though this increase is not felt equally around the world. The northern latitudes are warming faster than other areas, which is contributing to ice melt around the Arctic and Greenland. But there is another effect of adding CO2 to the atmosphere that you may not have heard much about. Roughly one-third of the CO2 added to the atmosphere each year is absorbed by the ocean, where it reacts with seawater to form carbonic acid. This process is changing the chemistry of the ocean, making the waters more acidic. The average pH of the global ocean has already dropped from around 8.2 to 8.1; this process is commonly referred to as ocean acidification. How are these changes different from past climate fluctuations? Scientists can determine the past composition of the atmosphere by analyzing the gases trapped in bubbles in ancient Antarctic ice. As a result of burning fossil fuels, CO2 levels are higher, oceans are warmer and pH is lower than at any time in at least 800,000 years and probably over 20 million years. Even more troubling is that all three are changing at a much faster rate than they have in the past. The Earth’s climate has varied in the past, but the changes we are seeing today are so fast that natural systems, including coral reefs, are unable to adapt quickly enough to keep up! Click image to enlarge Not only are fish hurt by rising temperatures, the places they rely on as

protection are hurt as well Fish are by no means immune to the impacts of rising temperatures and ocean acidification. This pink skunk clownfish hiding in its anemone at Eddie Reef, Australia, may feel safe, but anemones are subject to bleaching at high temperatures too. Rising temperatures can adversely affect reef diversity A mix of hard and soft corals creates the beautiful structure at Eddie Reef, Australia. Rising temperatures and acidification in our oceans threatens coral reefs and their diversity. Warming Ocean Temperatures and Coral Bleaching Corals are animals that live in a mutualistic symbiotic relationship with single-celled plants, algae known as zooxanthellae. A mutualistic relationship is one in which both partners benefit. In this case, the coral provides a safe, protected place for the zooxanthellae to live. In turn, through photosynthesis, the zooxanthellae use solar energy to convert carbon dioxide and water into oxygen and carbohydrates. The corals then use these carbohydrates as their major food source. The algae also give the corals their characteristicly brilliant colors. As with all organisms, both corals and zooxanthellae have optimal temperature ranges in which their systems function efficiently. But high temperatures stress both corals and zooxanthellae, much like our bodies can become stressed on hot, humid days. Zooxanthellae become more sensitive to the bright tropical sunlight, which causes their photosynthetic process to break down. When this happens, they become toxic to the corals. To protect themselves, the corals expel the zooxanthellae. This process is called “coral bleaching” because the corals turn a pale white color when the zooxanthellae are gone. Temperatures of only 1.8 to 3.6 degrees Fahrenheit above the hottest summertime temperatures that corals normally see can cause them to bleach. If bleaching continues for a month or more, the corals can starve and die. Even if the corals do survive, this stress increases their susceptibility to disease and reduces their ability to reproduce normally for years. Large-scale bleaching events on coral reefs have become more common with just a 1.4 degree increase in average ocean temperature. Future temperature increases of 1.8 degrees are almost certainly coming within this century, and the temperatures may rise by as much as 7.2 degrees on average, which means coral bleaching events will likely increase in their frequency and severity. This will leave corals with less time to recover between bleaching episodes, and it will make them more susceptible to other stressors in their environment. Ocean Acidification and Coral Growth In addition to the stress of warming ocean temperatures, oceans are becoming more acidic, thus slowing coral growth and hindering the ability of corals to build their skeletons. As the ocean takes up CO2 from the atmosphere, water becomes more acidic and the concentration of carbonate ions in the water decreases. Corals require these carbonate ions to form their calcium carbonate skeletons. As ocean acidification continues, some coral reefs may no longer be able to grow fast enough to keep up with the natural forces that break them down. Click image to enlarge The amount of marine life that coral reefs harbour make their safety a priority Often referred to as "underwater rain forests," coral reef ecosystems like this one in Australia sustain a myriad of marine life forms. As coral reefs disappear so do many of the species that depend on them. There is evidence from the Great Barrier Reef in Australia that coral growth rates have already decreased by 15 percent in the last 15 years. The skeletons that the corals are currently building also may be weaker, making them more vulnerable to erosion, storm damage and predators. There is still a great deal to be learned about ocean acidification. We used to think that the ocean could take up CO2 with little or no consequence. We believed it would be nearly impossible to change ocean pH — but it is apparent that we were wrong. Even though this process is not as well understood as warming waters and coral bleaching, it is important that we begin talking about the impact that ocean acidification can have on corals, as well as other calcium-building organisms such as foraminiferans and cocolithophores, which are at the base of the ocean food webs, and shellfish such as mussels and clams that we enjoy eating.

Ocean acidification weakens reefs – lowers their survivabilityDien, contributor for Climate Interpreter, 13

(Kevin, 12/18/14, Climate Interpreter, The Effects of Ocean Acidification on Coral Reefs, http://climateinterpreter.org/content/effects-ocean-acidification-coral-reefs, 6/29/14, JW)Most people are familiar with the concept that compares coral reefs to underwater rainforests. Coral reefs form the most biodiverse habitats in the ocean, and their presence is essential to the survival of thousands of other marine species - many of which we rely on for food. Hard corals are the reef-building corals, and their stonelike structures are composed of calcium carbonate, the same substance found in the shells of many marine organisms including oysters, clams and snails. Like these mollusks, corals must have access to available calcium in the seawater in order to build their hard skeleton. This is especially important in the early stages of a coral polyps's life, when it settles onto a hard substance and starts "building" its skeleton. Some studies have shown a 52-73% decline in larval settlement on reefs that are experiencing lower pH levels. Scientists can also measure the calcification rates of hard corals, and ocean acidification has had a negative impact on the rate at which corals calcify. This means that coral colonies in the future may be more brittle and less resilient to other factors influencing their survival. Ocean acidification is just one more threat to the success of hard corals. Coral reefs are already being affected by many other pressures, some human-related and some natural. Warming ocean temperatures are contributing to coral bleaching and making them more susceptible to diseases. Nutrient and chemical pollution coming into the oceans from rivers is also making suitable coral habitat very scarce. Natural threats impacting coral reefs include predation from urchins and a variety of fishes, and also tropical storms. Coral reefs are naturally very resilient to many of these threats, but now their ability to recolonize and grow sturdy structures is being compromised by ocean acidification. Sometimes, coral habitat is gradually being replaced by non-calcifying organisms, like seagrass, once the coral has been killed off.

Ocean acidification halts reef calcificationKleypas, researcher in NCAR's Climate and Global Dynamics Division, 09(Joan, 2009, NOAA, “Coral Reefs and Ocean Acidification”, http://coralreef.noaa.gov/education/oa/resources/22-4_kleypas.pdf, 6/29/14, JW)Research on the effects of ocean acidifcation on marine ecosystems continues to focus on calcifying organisms, and for good reason. Skeletal formation in many organisms that secrete one of the various minerals of calcium carbonate (aragonite, calcite, and high-magnesium calcite) changes when exposed to elevated-CO2 conditions. On coral reefs, the two main calcifying groupscorals and calcifying macroalgae (Figure 1A, B)—seem particularly sensitive to ocean acidification. However, noncalcifying organisms on coral reefs will also be affected. It is difficult to predict the overall impact on coral reefs of some species being “winners” and others “losers” in a progressively lowerpH ocean, but the loss of reef builders threatens both the biological and geological identities of this ecosystem. reef Builders (corals and calcifying macroalgae) History The pioneers in reef calcification studies have known for some time that calcification by coral reef communities affects seawater chemistry (Smith and Pesret, 1974; Smith and Key, 1975). Some of the early studies of “reef metabolism” used the alkalinity anomaly technique—a measure of the drawdown of alkalinity over time due to precipitation of calcium and carbonate ions as calcium carbonate—to quantify calcification rates of coral reef communities (GattusoLangdon et al., 2000). The Biosphere 2 studies, in particular, suggested that calcification rates of the coral/algal community correlated best with aragonite saturation state (Ωar) (Langdon et al., 2000, 2003). This result agrees well with geochemical studies that show that precipitation rates of inorganic aragonite from seawater can be expressed by the empirical equation R = k (Ωar – 1)n, where R is the rate of aragonite precipitation, k is the rate constant, and n is the order of the reaction (Burton and Walter, 1987). Because changes in Ωar correlate strongly with changes in carbonate ion concentration, the natural inference is that the carbonate ion exerts direct control on calcification rates of corals and coral communities.Unfortunately, this inference is too simple because corals and other organisms exert

energy to control their calcification, and because in most reef organisms it is internal and isolated from seawater. In corals, there is no evidence that carbonate ions are transported from seawater to the site of calcification (McConnaughey et al., 2000), so the carbonate ion concentration must affect calcification indirectly, or is simply a covariant of some other aspect of carbonate chemistry that controls calcifcation rate. Several studies have manipulated seawater chemistry by altering concentrations of Ca2+, CO3 2–, HCO3 –, or pH while holding the others constant in order to tease out which component of the carbonate system elicits a response from corals. Those that manipulated the calcium ion concentration (Gattuso et al., 1998; Marshall and Clode, 2002) did cause a calcification response (note that marine aquarists are certainly aware that calcium supplements speed coral growth), and thus demonstrated the impact of saturation state changes. Ocean acidification, however, does not alter Ca2+ concentration, but rather pH and the concentrations of CO2, CO3 2–, and HCO3 –. All of these change with ocean acidification, and each has been shown to affect calcification either directly or indirectly. Several mechanisms have been proposed to explain why changes in the CO2 system in seawater affect calcification rate in corals. Cohen and Holcomb (2009) show that corals maintain a high saturation state at the site of calcification, but at low pH this requires extra energy that they don’t readily divert from other energy demands. Even within corals, however, it is likely that the calcification process differs (1) between species, (2) between the life stages of species (note that the mineralogy of the initial calcium carbonate precipitated by larvae is sometimes a rare, highly soluble form), and (3) in some species, between different stages of calcification. Calcification Despite our incomplete understanding of the exact mechanisms that control calcifcation, decreased skeletal growth in reefbuilding corals and coralline algae is one of the best-known consequences of ocean acidification (Figure 2). A wide range of responses has been observed, but on average, a doubling of pre-industrial atmospheric CO2 concentration results in about a 10–50% decrease in the calcification rate of reef-building corals and coralline algae (Kleypas and Langdon, 2006). The good news is the response is reversible (calcification will increase if acidification is reversed). The bad news is it is highly unlikely that ocean acidification can be reversed, and we don’t know yet whether corals and coralline algae can adapt to these changes.

Ocean acidification harmful for reefs – lowers calcification.Feely, Pacific Marine Environmental Laboratory, Fabry, California State University San Marcos, Langdon, Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science, Sabine, Pacific Marine Environmental Laboratory, 06(Richard, Fabry, Langdon, Sabine, 2006, University Corporation for Atmospheric Research, “Impacts of Ocean Acidification on coral reefs and other marine calcifiers”, http://www.ucar.edu/communications/Final_acidification.pdf, 6/29/14, JW)The uptake of anthropogenic CO2 by the ocean changes the seawater chemistry and will significantly impact biological systems in the upper oceans. Estimates of future atmospheric and oceanic CO2 concentrations, based on the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) emission scenarios and general circulation models indicate that atmospheric CO2 levels could exceed 500 ppmv by the middle of the 21st century, and 800 ppmv by 2100. Corresponding models for the oceans indicate that by 2100, surface water pH will decrease by approximately 0.4 pH units relative to the preindustrial value, lower than it has been for more than 20 My. The carbonate ion concentration will also decrease by almost 50% relative to preindustrial levels. Such changes will significantly lower the ocean’s buffering capacity and, therefore, reduce its ability to accept more CO2 from the atmosphere.Recent field and laboratory studies reveal that the carbonate chemistry of seawater has a significant effect on the calcification rates of individual species and communities in both planktonic and benthic habitats. The calcification rates of most calcifying organisms studied to date decrease in response to decreased carbonate ion concentration. This response has been observed in multiple taxonomic groups— from reef-building

corals to single-celled protists. Experimental evidence points to a 5–50% reduction in calcification rate under a CO2 level twice that of the preindustrial. The decreased carbonate ion concentration significantly reduces the ability of reefbuilding corals to produce their CaCO3 skeletons, affecting growth of individual corals and the ability of the larger reef to maintain a positive balance between reef building and reef erosion. Several groups of calcifying plankton—coccolithophorids (single-celled algae), forams, and pteropods (planktonic molluscs)— also exhibit a reduction in their calcium carbonate structures. Many of these organisms are important components of the marine food web.The effects of reduced calcification on individual organisms and on ecosystems have not been investigated, however, and have only been inferred fromknowledge about the role of calcification in organism and ecosystem functioning. This knowledge is limited because calcification rates have only recently been considered vulnerable to increased atmospheric CO2. Because calcification provides some advantage (or multiple advantages) to calcifying organisms, decreased calcification is likely to compromise the fitness or success of these organisms and could shift the competitive advantage toward non-calcifiers. There is also little information regarding the capacity of calcifying organisms to adapt to changing seawater chemistry. Coral reef organisms have not demonstrated an ability to adapt to decreasing carbonate saturation state, but experiments so far have been relatively short-term (hours to months). Some planktonic organisms, particularly those with rapid generation times, may be able to adapt to lowered saturationstate via natural selection. Planktonic calcifiers that cannot adapt to future changes in seawater chemistry are likely to experience reductions in their geographic ranges, or latitudinal shifts. Decreased calcification in marine organisms is likely to impact marine food webs and, combined with other climatic changes in temperature, salinity, and nutrients, could substantially alter the biodiversity and productivity of the ocean.

Ocean Acidification bad for reefsParks, contributor to AAAS, 05(Noreen, 9/28/5, Advancing Science Serving Society, “Ocean acidification bad for Shells and Reefs”, http://news.sciencemag.org/2005/09/ocean-acidification-bad-shells-and-reefs, 6/29/14, JW)Rising levels of atmospheric carbon due to fossil fuel emissions have made seawater more acidic. Now, two new studies show that increasing acidification could wreak havoc on marine organisms that build their shells and skeletons from calcium carbonate. Since these creatures provide essential food and habitat for other ocean dwellers, the effects could ripple disastrously throughout the ocean, the researchers warn. Greenhouse gasses such as carbon dioxide are changing the oceans in many ways, such as warming the water. Marine creatures could get another shock as the ocean absorbs ever-greater quantities of the gas--expected to rise two to three times over pre-industrial levels during the next 50 to 100 years--creating more acidic conditions in the sea that diminish the concentration of carbonate needed for shell and skeleton building. To study the potential impact, a team of 27 marine chemists and biologists combined the latest measurements on ocean carbon with 13 global carbon models. The models project that polar waters will begin dissolving shells and other calcified materials when atmospheric CO2 reaches 600 parts per million, which could occur within several decades. Experiments with live pteropods--swimming snails consumed by fish and whales--exposed to sea water of the pH predicted for year 2100 showed that the creatures' shells began to dissolve after two days. "Unlike climate predictions, the uncertainties here are small," says lead author James Orr, of the French Laboratoire des Sciences du Climat et de l'Environnement, whose team reports its results 29 September in Nature. The projected ocean acidification also may take a heavy toll on tropical reef-building corals. Oceanographers Chris Langdon of the University of Miami and Marlin Atkinson of the University of Hawaii, Manoa, placed groups of two coral species, Porites compressa and Montipora verucosa, in a flume and measured baseline rates of two processes that must occur in balance for coral survival: the uptake of carbonate for skeleton building, and photosynthesis by the corals' symbiotic algae, which

supports tissue growth. When the researchers bathed the corals in seawater with a doubled concentration of CO2, skeletal growth plummeted by half, while algal photosynthesis shot up 65%. Unchecked, such an imbalance would severely hamper reef building, the researchers report in the current issue of the Journal of Geophysical Research. "The fascinating thing is that the conclusions of both papers are so similar for different latitudes, scales, systems, and organisms," says ecologist Donald Potts of the University of California, Santa Cruz. He cautions, though, that real-world conditions are enormously more complex than those in the experiments. Nonetheless, he says the papers deliver "a coherent and urgent message" that the addition of human-caused CO2 to the ocean may cause "potentially vast changes to ocean food chains and patterns of productivity."

Ocean acidification affects coral reef growthMathews, freelance writer about scientific matters, 11(James, 10/29/11, Earth Times, “How Ocean Acidification is Affecting Coral Reef Ecosystems”, http://www.earthtimes.org/conservation/ocean-acidification-affecting-coral-reef-ecosystems/1661/, 6/29/14, JW)Scientists are discovering the truth about the potential fate of coral reef ecosystems in relation to how ocean acidification is affecting them. This has been revealed through observations at Submarine Springs along the coast of Mexico's Yucatan Peninsula. Scientists expect increasing amounts of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere to see a low pH in the water and these conditions already naturally exist in the water around Submarine Springs, allowing for the perfect place for research. The research at the springs showed small unevenly distributed colonies of only a few species of coral. These also were not structurally complex as corals in nearby reefs such as the Mesoamerican Barrier Reef. This seems to show that the pH level is having a dramatic effect on coral health. The study has occurred over the last three years. The team led by scientists at the University of California, Santa Cruz, has published their findings in the journal Coral Reefs. "This study has some good news and some bad news for corals" said Adina Paytan. Paytan is a research professor in the Institute of Marine Sciences at UC Santa Cruz and continued, "The good news is that some species of corals are able to calcify and grow at very low pH. The bad news is that these are not the ones that build the framework of the coral reefs. So if this is an indication of what will happen with future ocean acidification, the reefs will not be as we know them today." The lower pH level of the springs has naturally existed for thousands of years but lowering the pH affects the chemical balance of seawater when it comes to calcium carbonate. This in turn reduces the concentration of carbonate ions and therefore makes it much harder for corals to build and maintain their structures. Paytan said, "We need to understand the mechanisms that allow these corals to calcify at these low-pH conditions. We should also make sure that the places where these species occur are protected". The research was funded by the National Science Foundation in order to see how acidification affected marine organisms. The conditions seen at the springs are the same conditions that the scientists expect to see in oceans across the world by the year 2100 due to increases in acidification. The findings have concerned the scientists but have also simply confirmed what they had already expected. The increased carbon dioxide in the atmosphere leads to higher acidification in seawater which is now proven to affect the corals growth as well as other organisms.

Ocean acidification harmful to reefs and related organismsThe Ocean Portal Team, no date(The Ocean Portal Team, no date, Smithsonian Institute, “Ocean Acidification”, http://ocean.si.edu/ocean-acidification, 6/29/14, JW)Reef-building corals craft their own homes from calcium carbonate, forming complex reefs that house the coral animals themselves and provide habitat for many other organisms. Acidification may limit

coral growth by corroding pre-existing coral skeletons while simultaneously slowing the growth of new ones, and the weaker reefs that result will be more vulnerable to erosion. This erosion will come not only from storm waves, but also from animals that drill into or eat coral. By the middle of the century, it’s possible that even otherwise healthy coral reefs will be eroding more quickly than they can rebuild. Acidification may also impact corals before they even begin constructing their homes. The eggs and larvae of only a few coral species have been studied, and more acidic water didn’t hurt their development while they were still in the plankton. However, larvae in acidic water had more trouble finding a good place to settle, preventing them from reaching adulthood. How much trouble corals run into will vary by species. Some types of coral can use bicarbonate instead of carbonate ions to build their skeletons, which gives them more options in an acidifying ocean. Some can survive without a skeleton and return to normal skeleton-building activities once the water returns to a more comfortable pH. Others can handle a wider pH range. Nonetheless, in the next century we will see the common types of coral found in reefs shifting—though we can't be entirely certain what that change will look like. On reefs in Papua New Guinea that are affected by natural carbon dioxide seeps, big boulder colonies have taken over and the delicately branching forms have disappeared, probably because their thin branches are more susceptible to dissolving. This change is also likely to affect the many thousands of organisms that live among the coral, including those that people fish and eat, in unpredictable ways. In addition, acidification gets piled on top of all the other stresses that reefs have been suffering from, such as warming water (which causes another threat to reefs known as coral bleaching), pollution, and overfishing.

No Impact – Ocean Acidification

The aff’s claim of the impacts of ocean acidification is not true. Acidic oceans can actually be beneficial for many marine dwellers.AAAS Science 9(American Association for the Advancement of Science, 12/1/2009, AAAS Science, “Acidic Oceans May be a Boon for Some Marine Dwellers”, http://news.sciencemag.org/2009/12/acidic-oceans-may-be-boon-some-marine-dwellers, 6/25/2014, AC)

Researchers fret that many species of invertebrates will disappear as the oceans acidify due to increased levels of atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO2). But a new study concludes that some of these species may benefit from ocean acidification, growing bigger shells or skeletons that provide more protection. The work suggests that the effects of increased CO2 on marine environments

will be more complex than previously thought. Bottom-dwelling marine critters such as lobsters and corals encase themselves in shells or exoskeletons made from calcium carbonate. Previous studies predict that rising ocean acidity will result in the loss or weakening of these exoskeletons or shells and increase their owner's vulnerability to disease, predators, and environmental stress. But marine scientist Justin Ries of the University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, hypothesized that not all ocean organisms would respond the same way to acidity because they use different forms of calcium carbonate for their shells. Ries and two colleagues from the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution in Massachusetts exposed 18 species of marine organisms to seawater with four levels of acidity. The first environment matched today's atmospheric CO2 levels, and two others were set at double and triple the pre-Industrial CO2 levels, mimicking conditions predicted to occur over the next century. The fourth CO2 level was 10 times pre-Industrial levels. Although CO2 levels won't rise that high in our lifetime, Ries says they could within 500 to 700 years. The atmosphere did contain that much CO2 during the Cretaceous period about 100 million years ago, Ries says. "This is an interval in which many of these organisms lived and apparently did okay, despite the extremely elevated levels of atmospheric CO2 that existed at that time." Blue crabs, lobsters, and shrimp prospered in the highest CO2 level, growing heavier shells, the researchers report today in Geology. Ries says a bulkier shell might be more resistant to crushing by predators. American oysters, scallops, temperate corals, and tube worms all fared poorly and grew thinner, weaker shells. The biggest losers included clams and pencil urchins; their exoskeletons dissolved at the highest CO2 levels. Susceptibility to acid depends in part on the type of calcium carbonate the animal makes, the researchers found. But a shell's mineralogy alone was not the only factor. If critters were able to control pH at their calcification sites by buffering the acid in the surrounding water, as the calcareous green algae did, they also fared better. But Ries points out that this coping mechanism takes energy--how much isn't known--which could have side effects such as diverting energy from maintaining an immune response. "The take-home message is that the responses to ocean acidification are going to be a lot more nuanced and complex than we thought," Ries says.

Ocean Acidification Is Not A Threat- Previous Studies used Predictions instead of Empirical Data or StudiesRidley, PhD in Zoology, 10 (Matt, 2010, The Global Warming Policy Foundation, “Threat From Ocean Acidification Greatly Exaggerated”, http://www.thegwpf.org/matt-ridley-threat-from-ocean-acidification-greatly-exaggerated/, 6/29/14, AEG) Lest my critics still accuse me of cherry-picking studies, let me refer them also to the results of Hendrikset al. (2010, Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf

Science 86:157). Far from being a cherry-picked study, this is a massive meta-analysis. The authors observed that `warnings that ocean acidification is a major threat to marine biodiversity are largely based on the analysis of predicted changes in ocean chemical fields’ rather than empirical data. So they constructed a database of 372 studies in which the responses of 44 different marine species to ocean acidification induced by equilibrating seawater with CO2-enriched air had been actually measured. They found that only a minority of studies demonstrated `significant responses to acidification’ and there was no significant mean effect even in these studies. They concluded that the world’s marine biota are `more resistant to ocean acidification than suggested by pessimistic predictions identifying ocean acidification as a major threat to marine biodiversity’ and that ocean acidification `may not be the widespread problem conjured into the 21st century…Biological processes can provide homeostasis against changes in pH in bulk waters of the range predicted during the 21st century.’ This important

paper alone contradicts Hoegh-Gudlberg’s assertion that `the vast bulk of scientific evidence shows that calcifiers… are being heavily impacted already’.

No oceans impact- pH variation is NaturalHofmann et al 2011 (Gretchen E., Professor of Ecology, Evolution and Marine Biology – University of California Santa Barbara, et al, “High-Frequency Dynamics of Ocean pH: A Multi-Ecosystem Comparison,” PLoS ONE Vol. 6, No. 12)

Since the publication of two reports in 2005–2006 [1], [2], the drive to forecast the effects of anthropogenic ocean acidification (OA) on marine ecosystems and their resident calcifying marine organisms has resulted in a growing body of research. Numerous laboratory studies testing the effects of altered seawater chemistry (low pH, altered pCO2, and undersaturation states - Ω - for calcium carbonate polymorphs) on biogenic calcification, growth, metabolism, and development have

demonstrated a range of responses in marine organisms (for reviews see [3]–[8]). However, the emerging picture of biological consequences of OA – from data gathered largely from laboratory experiments – is not currently matched by equally available

environmental data that describe present-day pH exposures or the natural variation in the carbonate system experienced by most marine organisms. Although researchers have documented variability in seawater carbonate chemistry on

several occasions in different marine ecosystems (e.g., [9]–[15]), this variation has been under-appreciated in these early stages of

OA research. Recently, a deeper consideration of ecosystem-specific variation in seawater chemistry has emerged (e.g., [16]–[18]), one that

is pertinent to the study of biological consequences of OA. Specifically, assessments of environmental heterogeneity present a nuanced complement to current laboratory experiments. The dynamics of specific natural carbonate chemistry on local scales provide critical context because outcomes of experiments on single species are used in meta-analyses to project the overall biological consequences of OA [7], [19], to forecast ecosystem-level outcomes [20], and ultimately to contribute to policy decisions [21] and the management of fisheries [22], [23]. As noted

earlier [24], natural variability in pH is seldom considered when effects of ocean acidification are considered. Natural variability may occur at rates much higher than the rate at which carbon dioxide is decreasing ocean pH, about −0.0017 pH/year [25], [26]. This ambient fluctuation in pH may have a large impact on the development of resilience in marine populations, or it may combine with the steady effects of acidification to produce extreme events with large

impacts [24]. In either case, understanding the environmental variability in ocean pH is essential. Although data on the natural variation in the seawater CO2 system are emerging, nearly all high-resolution (e.g. hourly) time series are based on pCO2 sensors, with

comparatively few pH time series found in the literature. From a research perspective, the absence of information regarding natural pH dynamics is a critical data gap for the biological and ecological arm of the multidisciplinary investigation

of OA. Our ability to understand processes ranging from physiological tolerances to local adaptation is compromised. Specifically, laboratory experiments to test tolerances are often not designed to encompass the actual habitat exposure of the organisms under study, a critical design criterion in organismal physiology that also applies to global change biology [27]–[29]. It is noted that neither pH nor pCO2 alone provide the information sufficient to fully constrain the CO2 system, and while it is preferred to measure both, the preference for measuring one over the other is evaluated on a case-by-case basis and is often dictated by the equipment available. In this light, data that reveal present-day pH dynamics in marine environments and therefore ground pH levels in CO2 perturbation experiments in an environmental context are valuable to the OA research community in two major ways. First, estimates of organismal resilience are greatly facilitated. Empiricists can contextualize lab experiments with actual environmental data, thereby improving them. Notably, the majority of manipulative laboratory experiments in OA research (including our own) have been parameterized using pCO2 levels as per the IPCC emission scenario predictions [30]. One consequence of this practice is that organisms are potentially tested outside of the current exposure across their biogeographic range, and tolerances are not bracketed appropriately. This situation may not be a lethal issue (i.e. negating all past observations in experiments where environmental context was not known); however, the lack of information about the ‘pH seascape’ may be translated through these organismal experiments in a manner that clouds the perspective of vulnerability of marine ecosystems. For example, recent data on the heterogeneity of pH in coastal waters of the Northeastern Pacific [31], [32] that are characterized by episodic upwelling has caused biologists to re-examine the physiological tolerances of organisms that live there. Specifically, resident calcifying marine invertebrates and algae are acclimatized to existing spatial and temporal heterogeneity [17], [18], and further, populations are likely adapted to local to regional differences in upwelling patterns [33]. Secondly, in addition to improving laboratory experiments, data regarding the nature of the pH seascape also facilitate hypothesis-generating science. Specifically, heterogeneity in the environment with regard to pH and pCO2 exposure may result in populations that are acclimatized to variable pH or extremes in pH. Although this process has been highlighted in thermal biology of marine invertebrates [34], such insight is not available with regard to gradients of seawater chemistry that occur on biogeographic scales. With that said, recent field studies have demonstrated that natural variation in seawater chemistry does influence organismal abundance and distribution [16], [35], [36]. With our newfound access to pH time series data, we can begin to explore the biophysical link between environmental seawater

chemistry and resilience to baseline shifts in pH regimes, to identify at-risk populations as well as tolerant ones. Additionally, the use of sensors in the field can identify hidden patterns in the CO2 system, revealing areas that are refugia to acidification or carbonate undersaturation; such knowledge could enable protection, management, and remediation of critical marine habitats and populations in the future. The recent development of sensors for in situ measurements of seawater pH [37], [38] has resulted in the ability to record pH more readily in the field in a manner that can support biological and ecological research. Since 2009, the Martz lab (SIO) has constructed 52 “SeaFET” pH sensors for 13 different collaborators (see http://martzlab.ucsd.edu) working in a broad range of settings. Using subsamples of data from many of these sensors, here we examine signatures of pH heterogeneity, presenting time series snapshots of sea-surface pH (upper 10 m) at 15 locations, spanning various overlapping habitat classifications including polar, temperate, tropical, open ocean, coastal, upwelling, estuarine, kelp forest, coral reef, pelagic, benthic, and extreme. Naturally, at many sites, multiple habitat classifications will apply. Characteristic patterns observed in the 30-day snapshots provide biome-specific pH signatures. This comparative dataset highlights the heterogeneity of present-day pH among marine ecosystems and underscores that contemporary marine organisms are currently exposed to different pH regimes in seawater that are not predicted until 2100. Results Overall, the patterns of pH recorded at each of the 15 deployment sites (shown in Figure 1, Table 1) were strikingly different. Figure 2 presents the temporal pattern of pH variation at each of these sites, and, for the sake of comparison, these are presented as 30-day time series “snapshots.” Note that all deployments generated >30 days of data except for sensors 3, 4, and 13, where the sensors were deliberately removed due to time constraints at the study sites. Though the patterns observed among the various marine ecosystems are driven by a variety of oceanographic forcing such as temperature, mixing, and biological activity, we do not provide a separate analysis of controlling factors on pH at each location. Each time series was accompanied by a different set of ancillary data, some rich with several co-located sensors, others devoid of co-located sensors. Given these differences in data collection across sites, here we focus on the comparative pH sensor data as a means to highlight observed pH variability and ecosystem-level differences between sites. For purposes of comparison, the metrics of variability presented here are pH minima, maxima, range, standard deviation, and rate of change (see Table 2). The rate presented in Table 2 and Figure 3 represents a mean instantaneous rate of change in pH hr−1, where a rate was calculated for each discrete time step as the absolute value of pH difference divided by the length of time between two adjacent data points. In terms of general patterns amongst the comparative datasets, the open ocean sites (CCE1 and Kingman Reef) and the Antarctic sites (Cape Evans and Cindercones) displayed the least variation in pH over the 30-day deployment period. For example, pH range fluctuated between 0.024 to 0.096 at CCE1, Kingman Reef, Cape Evans, and Cindercones (Figure 2A, B and Table 2). In distinct contrast to the stability of the open ocean and Antarctic sites, sensors at the other five site classifications (upwelling, estuarine/near-shore, coral reef, kelp forest, and extreme) captured much greater variability (pH fluctuations ranging between 0.121 to 1.430) and may provide insight towards ecosystem-specific patterns. The sites in upwelling regions (Pt. Conception and Pt. Ano Nuevo, Figure 2C), the two locations in Monterey Bay, CA (Figure 2D), and the kelp forest sites (La Jolla and Santa Barbara Mohawk Reef, Figure 2F) all exhibited large fluctuations in pH conditions (pH changes>0.25). Additionally, at these 6 sites, pH oscillated in semi-diurnal patterns, the most apparent at the estuarine sites. The pH recorded in coral reef ecosystems exhibited a distinct diel pattern characterized by relatively consistent, moderate fluctuations (0.1<pH change<0.25; Figure 2E). At the Palmyra fore reef site, pH maxima occurred in the early evening (~5:00 pm), and pH minima were recorded immediately pre-dawn (~6:30 am). On a fringing reef site in Moorea, French Polynesia, a similar diel pattern was observed, with pH maxima occurring shortly after sunset (~7:30 pm) and pH minima several hours after dawn (~10:00 am). Finally, the greatest transitions in pH over time were observed at locations termed our “Extreme” sites - a CO2 venting site in Italy (site S2 in ref. [36]) and a submarine spring site in Mexico. For these sites, the patterns were extremely variable and lacked a detectable periodicity (Figure 2G). The sites examined in this study do not comprehensively represent pH variability in coastal ecosystems, partly because we focused on surface epipelagic and shallow benthic pH variability. Many organisms that may be impacted by pH variability and ocean acidification reside at intermediate (>10 m) to abyssal depths. Notable regimes missing from Figure 2 include seasonally stratified open ocean locations that exhibit intense spring blooms; the equatorial upwelling zone; other temperate (and highly productive) Eastern Continental Boundary upwelling areas; subsurface oxygen minimum zones and seasonal dead zones; and a wide variety of unique estuarine, salt marsh, and tide pool environments. Spring bloom locations exhibit a marked increase in diel pCO2 variability during the peak bloom with a coincident drawdown similar in magnitude but opposite in sign to the upwelling signals shown in Figure 2 [39]. Equatorial upwelling locations undergo significant stochastic variability, as observed by pCO2 sensors in the TAO array (data viewable at http://www.pmel.noaa.gov/). Intertidal vegetated and tide pool habitats may exhibit major pH fluctuations due to macrophyte or animal respiratory cycles [15], while CO2 production in oxygen minimum zones can reduce pH to a limit of about 7.4 [40]. Due to local temperature differences, variable total alkalinity, and seasonal differences between deployment dates at each site, a comparison of average pH across the datasets would be somewhat misleading. However, some information can be gleaned from an examination of the averages: the overall binned average of all 15 mean values in Table 1 is 8.02±0.1. This pH value is generally in agreement with the global open ocean mean for 2010 of 8.07, a value generated by combining climatology data for temperature, salinity, phosphate, silicate [41]–[43], total alkalinity [44], and pCO2 [45] for the year 2000, corrected to 2010 using the average global rise of 1.5 µatm pCO2 yr−1. Rather than make a point-by-point comparison of the mean pH of each dataset, we focus instead on the differences in observed variability amongst the sites. For this analysis, summary statistics of

the comparative datasets were ranked in order to examine the range of variability across all 15 sites (Fig. 3). Discussion Collected by 15 individual SeaFET sensors in seven types of marine habitats, data presented here highlight natural variability in seawater pH. Based on Figure 3, it is evident that regions of the ocean exhibit a continuum of pH variability. At sites in the open ocean (CCE-1), Antarctica, and Kingman reef (a coastal region in the permanently stratified open Pacific Ocean with very low residence times, and thus representative of the surrounding open ocean water), pH was very stable (SD<0.01 pH over 30 days). Elsewhere, pH was highly variable across a range of ecosystems where sensors were deployed. The salient conclusions from this comparative dataset are two-fold: (1) most non-open ocean sites are indeed characterized by natural variation in seawater chemistry that can now be revealed through

continuous monitoring by autonomous instrumentation, and (2) in some cases, seawater in these sites reaches extremes in pH, sometimes daily, that are often considered to only occur in open ocean systems well into the future [46]. Admittedly, pH is only part of the story with regard to the biological impacts of OA on marine organisms. However, continuous long-term observations provided by sensors such as the SeaFET are a great first step in elucidating the biophysical link between natural variation and physiological capacity in resident marine organisms. In the end, knowledge of spatial and temporal variation in seawater chemistry is a critical resource for biological research, for aquaculture, and for management efforts. From a biological perspective, the evolutionary history of the

resident organisms will greatly influence the adaptation potential of organisms in marine populations. Thus, present-day natural variation will likely shape capacity for adaptation of resident organisms, influencing the resilience of critical marine ecosystems to future anthropogenic acidification. Below we discuss the comparative SeaFET-collected data and, where applicable, the biological consequences of the temporal heterogeneity that we found in each of the marine ecosystems where sensors were deployed. As the most stable area, the open ocean behaves in a predictable way and generally adheres to global models attempting to predict future CO2 conditions based on equilibration of the surface ocean with a given atmospheric pCO2 (e.g. [47]). This can be shown with longer-term pH records obtained with SeaFET sensors, which are available at the CCE-1 mooring (Fig. 4). The ambient pH values for this open ocean location can be predicted to better than ±0.02 from the CO2-corrected climatology mentioned above; pH has dropped by about 0.015 units since 2000. At CCE-1, the annual carbonate cycle followed the sea surface temperature cycle, and pH was driven mostly by changes in the temperature dependence of CO2 system thermodynamics (Figure 4). SeaFET observations at CCE-1 agree with the climatology to +0.017±0.014 pH units, with episodic excursions from the climatology but a general return to the climatological mean. Although the annual cycle in the open ocean is somewhat predictable, it is notable that even at these seemingly stable locations, climatology-based forecasts consistently underestimate natural variability. Our observations confirm an annual mean variability in pH at CCE-1 of nearly 0.1, suggest an inter-annual variability of ~0.02 pH, and capture episodic changes that deviate from the climatology (Figure 4). Similar underestimates of CO2 variability were observed at nine other open ocean locations, where the Takahashi pCO2 climatology overlaps PMEL moorings with pCO2

sensors (not shown). Thus, on both a monthly (Fig. 2) and annual scale (Fig. 4), even the most stable open ocean sites see pH changes many times larger than the annual rate of acidification. This natural variability has prompted the suggestion that “an appropriate null hypothesis may be, until evidence is obtained to the contrary, that major biogeochemical processes in the oceans other than calcification will not be fundamentally different under

future higher CO2/lower pH conditions” [24]. Similarly, the sensors deployed on the benthos in the Antarctic (Cindercones and Cape Evans, Figure 2B) recorded relatively stable pH conditions when compared to other sites in the study. Very few data exist for the Southern Ocean; however, open-water areas in this region experience a strong seasonal shift in seawater pH (~0.3–0.5 units) between austral summer and winter [48], [49] due to a decline in photosynthesis during winter and a disequilibrium of air-sea CO2 exchange due to annual surface sea ice and deep water entrainment [50]. Given the timing of deployment of our sensor in McMurdo Sound (austral spring: October–November), the sensor did not capture the change in seawater chemistry that might have occurred in the austral winter [49]. In general, due to sea ice conditions, observations from the Southern Ocean are limited, with water chemistry data falling into two categories: (1) discrete sampling events during oceanographic cruises (e.g. US Joint Global Ocean Flux Study, http://www1.whoi.edu/) and (2) single-point measurements from locations under sea ice [49], [51], [52]. Biologically speaking, the Southern Ocean is a region expected to experience acidification and undersaturated conditions earlier in time than other parts of the ocean [47], and calcifying Antarctic organisms are thought to be quite vulnerable to anthropogenic OA given the already challenging saturation states that are characteristic of cold polar waters [53]–[56]. Short-term CO2 perturbation experiments have shown that Antarctic calcifying marine invertebrates are sensitive to decreased saturation states [51], [57], although the number of species-level studies and community-level studies are very limited. The Western Antarctic Peninsula and the sub-Antarctic islands will experience pronounced increases in temperature [54] and could consequently undergo more variation and/or undersaturation given the increased potential for biological activity. Importantly, depending on the patterns of seasonally-dependent saturation

state that will be revealed with improved observations [58], Antarctic organisms may experience more variation than might be

expected, a situation that will influence their resilience to future acidification. Three other types of study sites –

the coastal upwelling, kelp forest and estuarine/near-shore sites – all exhibited variability due to a combination of mixing, tidal excursions, biological activity, and variable residence time (Fig. 2). Although these sites are all united by fairly obvious heterogeneity in pH,

organisms living in these areas encounter unique complexities in seawater chemistry that will influence their physiological response, resilience, and potential for adaptation. Typically, estuarine environments have riverine input that naturally creates very low saturation states [59]–[61]. Seawater chemistry conditions in these areas often shift dramatically, challenging biogenic calcification by resident organisms. Additionally, these species must also tolerate abiotic factors that interact with pH, such as temperature [62]. Two sensors in the Monterey Bay region, L1 (at the mouth of Elkhorn Slough) and L20 (~2 km seaward and north of L1), recorded rapid changes in pH. However, as opposed to riverine input, the low pH fluctuations observed here are likely due to isopycnal shoaling or low CO2 water that is pulsing up to the near shore on internal tides. These locations may also experience high

river run-off in the rainy season, but such conditions were not reflected in the time series shown in Fig. 2. Organisms living in upwelling

regions may be acclimatized and adapted to extremes in seawater chemistry; here, deep CO2-enriched waters

reach the surface and may shoal onto the benthos on the continental shelf [31], [32]. Data collected from our upwelling sites support the patterns found by cruise-based investigations; pH fluctuations were often sharp, and large transitions of up to ~0.35 pH units occurred over the course of days (Fig. 2). Laboratory studies on calcifying marine invertebrates living in upwelling regions suggest that these organisms maintain function under such stochastic conditions. However, overall

performance may be reduced, suggesting that these species are indeed threatened by future acidification [17], [18], [63]. For kelp forests,

although there is less influence from riverine inputs, pH variation is quite dynamic at these sites in the coastal California region (Fig

2; [18]). Patterns here are likely driven by fluctuations in coastal upwelling, biological activity, currents, internal

tides, seasonally shoaling isopleths, as well as the size of the kelp forest, which may influence residence times via reduced flow.

Kelps may respond positively to increased availability of CO2 and HCO3−, which may allow for reduced metabolic costs and increased productivity [64]. Increased kelp production may elevate pH within the

forest during periods of photosynthesis, causing wider daily fluctuations in pH, though this is speculative at this time. As a result, kelp forests, particularly those of surface canopy forming species such as Macrocystis pyrifera, may contain a greater level of spatial heterogeneity in terms of the pH environment; vertical gradients in pH may form due to enhanced levels of photosynthesis at shallower depths. Such gradients may increase the risk of low pH exposure for benthic species while buffering those found within the surface canopy. Kelp forests provide habitat to a rich diversity of organisms from a wide range of calcifying and non-calcifying taxa [65]. As with organisms from the other coastal locations (estuarine and upwelling), the biota living within kelp forest environments are most likely acclimatized to this degree of natural variation. However, continued declines in oxygenation and shoaling of hypoxic boundaries observed in recent decades in the southern California bight [66], [67] are likely accompanied by a reduction in pH and saturation state. Thus, pH exposure regimes for the coastal California region's kelp forest biota may be changing over relatively short time scales. Over longer temporal scales as pH and carbonate saturation levels decrease, the relative abundances of these species may change, with community shifts favoring non-calcified species, as exemplified by long-term studies in intertidal communities by Wootton et al. [15]. For all the marine habitats described above, one very important consideration is that the extreme range of environmental variability does not necessarily translate to extreme resistance to future OA. Instead, such a range of variation may mean that the organisms resident in tidal, estuarine, and upwelling regions are already operating at the limits of their physiological tolerances (a la the classic tolerance windows of Fox – see [68]). Thus, future acidification, whether it be atmospheric or from other sources, may drive the physiology of these organisms closer to the edges of their tolerance windows. When environmental change is layered upon their present-day range of environmental exposures, they may thereby be pushed to the “guardrails” of their tolerance [20], [68]. In contrast to more stochastic changes in pH that were observed in some sites, our coral reef locations displayed a strikingly consistent pattern of diel fluctuations over the 30-day recording period. Similar short-term pH time series with lower daily resolution [69], [70] have reported regular diel pH fluctuation correlated to changes in total alkalinity and oxygen levels. These environmental patterns of pH suggest that reef organisms may be acclimatized to consistent but moderate changes in the carbonate system. Coral reefs have been at the center of research regarding the effects of OA on marine ecosystems [71]–[73]. Along with the calcification biology of the dominant scleractinian corals and coralline algae, the biodiversity on coral reefs includes many other calcifying species that will likely be affected [74]–[77]. Across the existing datasets in tropical reef ecosystems, the biological response of calcifying species to variation in seawater chemistry is complex (see [78]) –all corals or calcifying algal species will not respond similarly, in part because these calcifying reef-builders are photo-autotrophs (or mixotrophs),

with algal symbionts that complicate the physiological response of the animal to changes in seawater chemistry. Finally, the “Extreme” sites in our comparative dataset are of interest in that the low pH levels observed here represent a natural analogue to OA conditions in the future, demonstrating how the abundance and distribution of calcifying benthic organisms, as well as multi-species assemblages, can vary as a function of seawater chemistry [16], [35], [36], [79]. The variability in seawater pH was higher at both the groundwater springs off the coast of Mexico and the natural CO2 vents off the coast of Italy than at any of the other sensor locations. Offshore of Puerto Morelos, Mexico (and at other sites along the Mesoamerican Reef), natural low-saturation (Ω~0.5, pH 6.70–7.30, due to non-ventilated, high CO2, high alkalinity groundwater) submarine springs have been discharging for millennia. Here, variability in pH is due to long-term respiration driving a low ratio of alkalinity to dissolved inorganic carbon in effluent ground water. These sites provide insight into potential long-term responses of coral backreef ecosystems to low saturation conditions [79]. Unlike Puerto Morelos, the variability of pH at volcanic CO2 vents at Ischia, Italy is almost purely abiotically derived, due entirely to CO2 venting and subsequent mixing. This site in the Mediterranean Sea

hosts a benthic assemblage that reflects the impacts of OA on rocky reef communities [16], [36]. Overall, the ‘extreme’ systems provide an opportunity to examine how variability in pH and extreme events (sensu [80]) affects ecological processes. Knowledge of this biophysical link is essential for forecasting ecological responses to acidification in ecosystems with sharp fluctuations in pH, such as upwelling or estuarine environments. Despite reductions in species richness, several calcifying organisms are found in low pH conditions close to the vents [16] and the

springs [79]. The persistence of calcifying organisms at these extreme sites, where mean pH values are comparable to those

that have reduced organism performance in laboratory experiments (i.e., pHT 7.8; reviewed in [16]), suggest that long exposures to such variability in pH, versus a consistently low-pH environment, could play an important role in regulating organism performance. Variability in pH could potentially promote acclimatization or adaptation to acidification through repeated exposure to low pH conditions [24]; alternatively, transient exposures to high pH conditions could buffer the effects of acidification by relieving physiological stress. Thus, the ecological patterns coupled with the high fluctuations in pH at the extreme sites highlight the need to consider carbonate chemistry variability in experiments and models aimed at understanding the impacts of acidification.

Ocean Acidification Isn’t Real- Data Is Incorrectly Gathered

Ball, PhD in Science, ’11 (Tim, 5/19/11, Dr. Tim Ball: A Different Perspective, “Analysis of Alarmism: Ocean Acidification”, http://drtimball.com/2011/analysis-of-alarmism-ocean-acidification/, 6/29/14, AEG) The claim of ocean acidification is based on estimates and computer models; these use the very questionable pre-industrial atmospheric level of CO2 to calculate an increase of about 0.1 pH units. Of course, the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) attributes the CO2

increase to human production, which is wrong because the global carbon cycle is very vague about sources, storage and length of time in each condition. For example, the error in the estimate of CO2 from the oceans each year is greater than the total human contribution. The idea that a 0.1 pH unit increase is significant is ludicrous when the estimate has a range of 0.3 units. There is a subtle but important point here, because words are part of the scare component. Even if you accept the claimed change it, is not acidification; it is proper to say the solution is becoming less alkaline, but that doesn’t sound threatening. More problematic is the validity of the measures Although pH in seawater has been measured for many decades, a reliable long-term trend of ocean water pH cannot be established due to data quality issues, in particular the lack of strict and stable calibration procedures and standards. Moreover, seawater pH is very sensitive to temperature, and temperature is not always recorded or measured at sufficient accuracy to constrain the pH measurement. Even if CO2 increases to 560 ppm by 2050 as the IPCC predict, it would only result in a 0.2 unit reduction of pH. This is still within the error of the estimate of global average.

Climate Change and Ocean Acidification Inevitable- the plan does not solve worldwide or for gas emissions

Marshall, New Scientist Environmental Editor, ‘12 (Michael, August 2012, New Scientist, “Lowest US Carbon Emissions Won’t Slow Climate Change”, http://www.newscientist.com/article/dn22196-lowest-us-carbon-emissions-wont-slow-climate-change.html#.U7CiKJSwLHg, 6/29/14, AEG) It looks like good news, but it's not. The US has recorded a sharp fall in its greenhouse gas emissions from energy use. Thanks to a rise in the use of natural gas, emissions are at their lowest since 1992. The fall will boost the natural gas industry, but in reality the emissions have simply been exported. According to the US Energy Information Administration (EIA), energy-related CO2 emissions in the first quarter of 2012 were the lowest in two decades. Emissions are normally high between January and March because people use more heating in the winter, but last winter was mild in the US. The EIA says that an increase in gas-fired power generation, and a corresponding decline in coal-fired, contributed to the fall in emissions. Burning natural gas produces fewer emissions than burning coal, and natural gas is currently unusually cheap in the US thanks to a glut of shale gas extracted by hydraulic fracturing or "fracking". If gas companies continue to expand their shale gas operations, the US could generate even more electricity from gas, and its emissions could fall for several years, says Kevin Anderson of the University of Manchester, UK. However, this will not slow down climate change. US coal consumption has fallen, but production is holding steady and the surplus is being sold to Asia. As a result, the US is effectively exporting the coa|-related emissions. "Gas is less bad than burning the coal, but only if you keep the coal in the ground," Anderson says. Proponents of natural gas argue that it is a "transition fuel" that we can burn for a few years while we install low-carbon infrastructure such as wind farms and nuclear power stations.

No Impact – Warming

Warming doesn’t lead to extinction—no data Bastasch, Investigative Reporter for the Daily Caller, 14(Michael, 3/24/14, The Daily Caller, “IPCC runs from claims that global warming will cause mass extinctions,” http://dailycaller.com/2014/03/24/ipcc-runs-from-claims-that-global-warming-will-cause-mass-extinctions/, 6/27/14, SM)The United Nations Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change is distancing itself from past claims that global warming could cause mass extinctions.¶ A leaked IPCC draft report says that there is “very little confidence that the models currently predict accurately the risk of extinction.”¶ The leaked report, obtained by

Germany’s Der Spiegel newspaper, says that an “acute lack of data” have added to doubts over past claims made by climate scientists of mass extinctions in the future. “[B]iological findings have increased doubt over the expected species extinction,” says the IPCC.¶ In its 2007 climate assessment, the IPCC said that there was a “medium confidence” that 20 to 30 percent of plant and animal species were at risk of going extinct if global temperatures rose between 1.5 and 2.5 degrees Celsius this century. If temperatures rose by 3.5 degrees Celsius the IPCC predicted “significant extinctions” would occur — between 40 and 70 percent of species.¶ Environmental groups have also warned of mass extinctions due to global warming. The Nature Conservancy says that “one-fourth of Earth’s species will be headed for extinction by 2050 if the warming trend continues at its current rate.” The group adds that “polar bears may be gone from the planet in as little as 100 years and that several “U.S. states may even lose their official birds as they head for cooler climates — including the Baltimore oriole of Maryland, black-capped chickadee of Massachusetts, and the American goldfinch

of Iowa.”¶ But Der Spiegel reports that the IPCC is shying away from such claims and gives no concrete numbers for how many plant and animal species could be at risk if global temperatures increased.¶

No Impact – BioD

Ocean species are resilientDulvy et al 2003 (Nicholas, School of Marine Science and Technology at the University of Newcastle, Yvonne Sadovy, Department of Ecology and Biodiversity at the University of Hong Kong, and John Reynolds, Centre for Ecology, Evolution and Conservation at the School of Biological Science at the University of East Anglia, Fish and Fisheries, “Extinction vulnerability in marine populations”, 4:1, Blackwell-Synergy)

Marine fish populations are more variable and resilient than terrestrial populations Great natural variability in population size is sometimes invoked to argue that IUCN Red List criteria, as one example, are too conservative for marine fishes (Hudson and Mace 1996; Matsuda et al. 1997; Musick 1999; Powles et al. 2000; Hutchings

2001a). For the (1996) IUCN list, a decline of 20% within 10 years or three generations (whichever is longer) triggered a classification of 'vulnerable', while declines of 50 and 80% led to classifications of 'endangered' and 'critically endangered', respectively. These criteria were designed to be applied to all animal and plant taxa, but many marine resource biologists feel that for marine fishes 'one size does not fit all' (see Hutchings 2001a). They argue that percent decline criteria are too conservative compared to the high

natural variability of fish populations. Powles et al. (2000) cite the six-fold variation of the Pacific sardine population (Sardinops sagax, Clupeidae) and a nine-fold variation in northern anchovy (Engraulis mordax, Clupeidae)

over the past two millennia to suggest that rapid declines and increases of up to 10-fold are relatively common in exploited fish stocks. It should, however, be borne in mind that the variation of exploited populations must be higher than unexploited populations because recruitment fluctuations increasingly drive population fluctuations when there are few adults (Pauly et al. 2002).

Econ

UQ

The US economy is actually on the verge of improving tremendously. Their econ uniqueness is not true. Coy 5/29(Peter, Economic Editor of Blommberg Newsweek, 5/29/2014, Bloomberg Newsweek, “Why the GDP Drop is Good for the U.S. Economic Outlook”, http://www.businessweek.com/articles/2014-05-29/why-the-gdp-drop-is-good-for-the-u-dot-s-dot-economic-outlook, 6/25/2014, AC)

The U.S. economy shrank at a 1 percent annual rate in the first quarter, but the red ink isn’t nearly as scary as it looks. In fact, the downward blip sets the U.S. up for strong growth in the current quarter covering April to June. “As far as terrible reports go, GDP wasn’t too bad,” reads the headline on the report today by Michael Feroli, chief U.S. economist of JPMorgan Chase (JPM). Most of the decline in gross domestic product occurred because companies slowed the pace of inventory accumulation, according to data released on Thursday by the Bureau of Economic Analysis. In other words, output slowed because they weren’t producing as much stuff to go on shelves. Now companies have an incentive to speed up production to rebuild those inventories. “The economy is in the process of reaccelerating,” David Rosenberg, chief economist and strategist at Gluskin Sheff + Associates (GS:CN), wrote to clients. He said his firm’s model of the economy “suggests near-0% odds of recession for the coming year.” Another not-to-be-repeated drag on the economy in the first quarter was poor weather. Investment in structures fell at a 7.5 percent rate, partly because construction workers couldn’t work effectively in the unusually excessive cold and snow. Adding to growth was health-care spending, which, boosted by the Affordable Care Act, grew at a 9.1 percent pace.

US Economy increasing nowMorici, esteemed economy professor, 14 (Peter, 6/30/14, "U.S. economy poised for stronger growth", thehill.com/blogs/congress-blog/economy-budget/210851-us-economy-poised-for-stronger-growth, 7/1/14, CH)

The U.S. economy is set to take off. Scarred by the financial crisis but on their feet again, consumers will lead the economy to growth in the range of 3 percent through the end of 2015.¶ The Commerce Department reported in the first quarter the GDP decreased at a 2.9 percent annual rate, but that dismal showing was from an unlikely confluence of factors not likely to reoccur.¶ Consumer spending, which accounts for the lion’s share of domestic demand, grew only 1 percent—about half the trend established over the previous 3 years. A bitterly cold winter was important but so was simple exhaustion from holiday spending.¶ In the fourth quarter, household spending increased 3.3 percent, and in the first quarter, many consumers rebuilt their savings and curbed credit cards use—the cold weather just made those tasks easier.¶ Consumers are now in a much stronger position than earlier in the economic recovery. Housing values have improved substantially, and most households have managed to significantly deleverage.¶ For the second and third quarters, consumer spending growth should average more than 3 percent, and average close to that level through the end of 2015.¶ Business investment dived 11.7 percent in first quarter and that simply can’t be attributed to cold weather.¶ According to the Federal Reserve, industrial capacity utilization was 79.1 percent in May and still below the average for the last two decades. However, structural changes and advances in technologies and product designs require new investments in physical assets and software to bring existing plants up to date to

accommodate more robust consumer spending.¶ Business outlays will turn around sharply in the second and third quarters. Core durable goods orders—those less the volatile defense and aircraft sectors—look solid, and indicate general business confidence.¶ New home sales jumped in May, and residential construction, which has disappointed so far this year, will add significantly to growth going forward. For the first time since the financial crisis, housing starts will exceed 1 million units per year on a continuing basis.¶ Auto sales will continue up as households replace vehicles that grew old during the recession and slow recovery, and take advantage of higher fuel economy offered by carmakers. Also, it will be a very good year for pickup trucks—those sales at Ford, GM and Chrysler closely track residential construction activity.¶

US Economy on track to improve- no impact to economic declineMufson, Washington Post reporter, 14 (6/16/14, "IMF says U.S. economy poised to accelerate", www.washingtonpost.com/business/economy/imf-says-us-economy-poised-to-accelerate/2014/06/16/556758b2-f58f-11e3-a3a5-42be35962a52_story.html, 7/1/14, CH)

The IMF noted that steady job gains and other recent data suggest the economy is rebounding. Employers have added 200,000-plus jobs for four straight months, and the unemployment rate has fallen to 6.3 percent. Auto sales and factory activity are increasing.¶ Yet growth this year isn’t likely to top last year’s lackluster performance, the IMF said. The Washington-based organization foresees the U.S. economy growing a modest 2 percent this year, below its previous estimate of 2.7 percent. That would be nearly identical to the 1.9 percent growth last year.

US Safe—no chance of collapseAmadeo, President of WorldMoneyWatch.com, 20 years senior-level experience w/ economic analysis & business strategy working for major international corporations,14, (Kimberly, 5/4, US economy, 10 Reasons Why the U.S. Economy Won't Collapse,useconomy.about.com/b/2014/05/04/10-reasons-why-the-u-s-economy-wont-collapse.htm, 7/1/14, aven)

Things have gotten slower in 2014, but last year the U.S. economy is poised had one of its best years since 2007. The stock market set new records, housing prices were headed in the right direction, GDP was be in the healthy 2-3% growth zone. Although this year is a little shakier, that's a far cry from a collapse. Maybe all the gloom-and-doomers who make money by selling gold (which is dropping), guns and canned food -- not to mention their own books on how to survive -- are worried because things are actually ok.¶ Anyway, here's 10 reasons why the U.S. economy, and the dollar, won't collapse:¶ The U.S. debt, though high, won't cause a collapse. Unlike Greece, the U.S. prints its own money.¶ The U.S. could possibly run a much higher debt to GDP ratio than it does now and still not face economic collapse.¶

Obama Added to the Debt to get us out of recession, not send us toward collapse.¶ The U.S. won't Default on Its Debt.¶ China Isn't Selling Its Dollar Holdings. ¶ China and Japan won't cause a Dollar Collapse.¶ The Dollar Is Slowly Declining, not collapsing.¶ The dollar won't be replaced as the World's Global Currency. ¶ The Fed's Quantitative Easing program can't cause Hyperinflation.¶ There are too many failsafe measures that will prevent a U.S. Economic Collapse.

Us economy on the riseCarmichael, Report on Business's correspondent in Washington, 14,(Kevin, 6/25 , The Globe and Mail, " Report on Business's correspondent in Washington." , www.theglobeandmail.com/report-on-business/economy/us-economy-has-biggest-setback-since-2009/article19325638/, 7/1/14, aven)

The United States survived the setback, which most economists agree was the result of an abnormally severe winter that reached into southern

states ill-equipped to deal with onslaughts of ice and snow.¶ More recent evidence shows the economy is back on track: Hiring, retail sales, new-home construction and consumer confidence all rebounded smartly this spring. A separate government report Wednesday showed inventories for non-defense durable goods jumped 1 per cent in May after a 0.4-per-cent increase the previous month.¶ “In my industry, it’s the busiest I’ve seen in 20 years,” said Steve Mai, chief executive of Cambridge, Ont.-based Eclipse Automation Inc., a custom maker of manufacturing equipment that also has operations in North Carolina and California.¶ The first-quarter reading still stings. The Commerce Department initially reported the GDP growth simply stalled. A second estimate said GDP shrunk at an annual rate of 1 per cent, the first contraction since first-quarter of 2011. The final reading shows the

U.S. endured its biggest economic collapse since the Great Recession in 2009.¶ America’s economy expanded at annual rates of 4.1 per cent in the third quarter of 2013 and 2.6 per cent in the fourth. Wall Street analysts had predicted the first-quarter estimate would be revised lower, but only to a contraction of 1.8 per cent. Equity markets rose, evidence that traders are more focused on signs of future growth.¶ Some also could be betting that a deeper-than-realized hole at the start of the year will cause the Federal Reserve to leave its benchmark interest rate at zero for longer than it had previously planned.¶ Central bankers watch something called the “output gap,” an imprecise measure of current economic production with the level of output policy makers reckon an economy can produce without stoking inflation. The Fed’s policy committee last week dropped its 2014 growth estimate to between 2.1 per cent and 2.3 per cent from as much as 3 per cent earlier. The Commerce Department’s surprisingly grim assessment of the first quarter could pull the Fed’s outlook lower, depending on how quickly the U.S. rebounds over the spring and summer months.¶ “If the economy is growing below 2.5 per cent, how can the labour market slack shrink enough to support a rate hike sooner rather than later?” said Adrian Miller, director of fixed-income strategy at GMP Securities in New York.¶ Mr. Miller said he likely will reduce his own 2014 outlook almost half a percentage point, dropping his forecast to as low as 2.3 per cent. That’s essentially what the Fed thinks is the U.S. economy’s natural rate of expansion over the longer term. However, it’s not fast enough to quickly lower the unemployment rate, which currently is the Fed’s primary goal. Mr. Miller said the first-quarter GDP

figures hardened his view that the Fed will leave its benchmark rate unchanged until the third quarter of 2015.¶ Like a race car coming out of a pit stop, the U.S. economy is reaccelerating. ¶ It had good momentum going into the winter. Personal consumption expenditures grew at an annual rate of 3.3 per cent in the fourth quarter, and exports surged 9.5 per cent. Non-residential fixed investment advanced at a 5.7-per-cent rate. Frigid temperatures and relentless snow storms knocked the recovery off track. Consumption gains slowed to 1 per cent in the first quarter and exports and investment plunged at annual rates of 8.9 per cent and 1.2 per cent respectively.¶ The U.S. economy now is growing again . Economists at National Bank Financial, PNC Financial Services, and Deutsche Bank, among others, say GDP likely grew at an annual rate of 4 per cent in the second quarter. State and local governments in the U.S. are starting to spend again, removing a drag on the economy. Steady hiring should buoy household spending and a stronger global growth should bolster exports.¶ But it’s possible the sustained surge in economic activity that typically follows recessions won’t come this time. The average annual growth rate of the current expansion is 2 per cent, slower than the 3.2-per-cent average pace in economic expansions since 1980, according to Hamilton Place Strategies, a consultancy based in Washington.¶ Mr. Mai of Eclipse Automation says the economy is behaving differently than he’s observed in the past. Eclipse supplies lots of different industries, including autos, solar and health. Typically, demand from one or two industries spikes, while others putter along. Now, orders are steady across the board.¶ “I’m not seeing any one industry spiking, I’m seeing six industries moving up gradually,” Mr. Mai said in an interview this month from Charlotte, NC. “In my business, that’s huge. That’s not common.”

Multiple Industries have sustainable gains—proves economy is back on trackWoellert, reporter for Bloomberg News., 14 ( Lorraine, 7/1, Businessweek, "Factories Sustain Gains as U.S. Growth Picks Up: Economy", www.businessweek.com/news/2014-07-01/u-dot-s-dot-ism-manufacturing-index-fell-to-55-dot-3-in-june-from-55-dot-4, 7/1/14, aven)

American factories, propelled by the strongest orders of the year, sustained gains in June and are poised to be part of the rebound in economic growth. ¶ The Institute for Supply Management’s manufacturing index was 55.3 last month, little changed from a five-month high of 55.4 in May, the Tempe, Arizona-based group’s report showed today. Readings greater than 50 indicate expansion.¶ Producers of wood products, furniture, metals and machinery

were among those seeing a pickup in demand as gains in auto and home sales rippled through the world’s largest economy. Growing consumer spending, lean inventories and improving overseas markets will probably keep assembly lines busy in the second half of the year.¶ “Manufacturing is back on track,” said Joshua Shapiro, chief U.S. economist at Maria Fiorini Ramirez Inc. in New York, the top U.S.-based ISM forecaster over the past two years, according to data compiled by Bloomberg. “It’s growing at a solid pace.” ¶ Factories globally were also mostly on an upswing, figures today showed. In China, the world’s second-largest economy, manufacturing grew in June at the fastest pace of the year, according to a gauge from the National Bureau of Statistics and China Federation of Logistics and Purchasing.¶ In the U.K., manufacturing expanded in June at the strongest pace in seven months, according to Markit Economics. Factories in the 18-nation euro area cooled last month, as a deepening downturn in France offset a pickup in Spain, other Markit data showed.¶ The Standard & Poor’s 500 Index rose to a record, after posting the longest streak of quarterly gains since 1998, as technology and consumer shares rallied. The S&P 500 climbed 0.7 percent to 1,973.32 at the close in New York.¶ The median forecast of 88 economists surveyed by Bloomberg projected the U.S. ISM index would rise to 55.9. Estimates ranged from 54 to 57. Manufacturing accounts for about 12 percent of the economy.¶ Auto sales in June are forecast to exceed a 16 million annualized rate for the third time in the past four months. General Motors Co. surprised investors today with a 1 percent sales gain from a year earlier after analysts projected a decrease. Demand at Ford Motor Co., Chrysler Group LLC and Nissan Motor Co. also beat estimates. Purchases at Toyota Motor Corp. rose 3.3

percent.¶ “Sales in the first half of 2014 indicate a steadily recovering industry, and we expect this pace to increase as we move into the second part of the year,” said Bill Fay, group vice president for the Toyota Division.¶ Another report showed construction spending climbed 0.1 percent in May after a revised 0.8 percent gain in April that was stronger than initially estimated, according to the Commerce Department. The increase was paced by growing outlays for non-residential structures and a jump in projects by state and local government agencies.¶

Fifteen of the 18 manufacturing industries measured by ISM reported growth in June. ¶ “Things are moving forward nicely,” Bradley Holcomb, chairman of the institute’s survey, said on a conference call with reporters today. “We’re on a very positive trend despite the very tiny decline in the rate.” ¶ Today’s ISM report showed a gauge of new orders climbed to the highest since December. The production measure came in at 60 compared with 61 in May for the best back-to-back showing since the end of 2013.¶

Many improving factors contribute to the rise of the economyStilwell, reporter for Bloomberg News in Washington, 14,(Victoria, 4/21, Bloomberg, "Improving Job Market Driving Rebound in U.S. Growth: Economy", www.bloomberg.com/news/2014-04-21/gain-in-u-s-leading-index-points-to-second,7/1/14, aven)

An improving job market and increasing factory production in March contributed to a jump in the U.S. index of leading indicators that signals the pace of economic growth is poised to snap back. ¶ The Conference Board’s index, a gauge of the outlook for the next three to six months, rose 0.8 percent, the most since November, after a 0.5 percent gain in February, the New York-based group said today. The measure’s 6.1 percent advance over the past year is the biggest since July 2011.¶ “The fact that we’re seeing some broad improvement across components bodes pretty well for the economy,” said Sarah House, an economist at Wells Fargo Securities LLC in Charlotte, North Carolina, which is the best forecaster of the leading index over the past two years, according to data compiled by Bloomberg. “The underlying pace of activity is picking up.”¶ The fewest firings since before the last recession are helping lift consumer confidence this month, which probably means recent gains in spending can be sustained. Today’s report also showed access to credit continues to thaw, making it more likely that the rebound in housing, which has showed signs of cooling, can be revived.¶ “Financial conditions remain supportive, consumers are in good shape with their balance sheets, and business conditions are pretty good,” House said.¶ Stocks rose a fifth day, with the Standard & Poor’s 500 Index capping its longest streak since October, amid signs of improving corporate earnings. The S&P 500 climbed 0.4 percent to 1,871.89 at the close in New York.

Labor market strengthening leads to economy reboundStilwell, reporter for Bloomberg News in Washington, 14,(Victoria, 4/21, Bloomberg, "Improving Job Market Driving Rebound in U.S. Growth: Economy", www.bloomberg.com/news/2014-04-21/gain-in-u-s-leading-index-points-to-second,7/1/14, aven)

The median forecast of 42 economists surveyed by Bloomberg called for an advance of 0.7 percent in the leading index. Estimates ranged from gains of 0.3 percent to 1 percent.¶ Six of the 10 indicators in the leading index contributed to the increase last month, led by the spread between short- and long-term interest rates, a drop in jobless claims and an increase in the length of the factory workweek. ¶

“The economy is rebounding from widespread inclement weather and the strengthening in the labor market is beginning to have a positive impact on growth,” Ken Goldstein, an economist at the Conference Board, said in a statement today. “Overall, this is an optimistic report, but the focus will continue to be on whether improvements in the labor market can be sustained, fueling stronger economic performance over the next few months.”¶ The drop in applications for unemployment insurance payments last month and an increase in the factory workweek accounted for 0.4 percentage point of the total advance in the leading index.

Economic growth is going strong—statistics proveStilwell, reporter for Bloomberg News in Washington, 14,(Victoria, 4/21, Bloomberg, "Improving Job Market Driving Rebound in U.S. Growth: Economy", www.bloomberg.com/news/2014-04-21/gain-in-u-s-leading-index-points-to-second,7/1/14, aven)

Growth in the U.S. is projected to reach 2.7 percent this year compared with 1.9 percent in 2013, according to a Bloomberg survey of economists, supporting the Federal Reserve’s outlook that the economy has improved enough to continue unwinding its bond-buying program. A 3 percent annualized growth rate this quarter will follow a 1.5 percent gain in the first three months of the year, the survey shows. ¶ The labor market has shown signs of shaking off its winter slump, with employers adding 192,000 workers to payrolls last month after a revised 197,000 gain in February that was larger than initially estimated, according to Labor Department data.¶ A separate report last week showed initial jobless claims are hovering near the lowest level since the last recession began almost seven years ago. The total number of people receiving benefits fell to 2.74 million in the week ended April 5, the fewest since December 2007, the Labor Department’s report showed.

Tourism Kills BioD

Turn- Tourism Bad For Coral ReefsICRI, No Date (Ministry of the Environment, “Status of and Threat to Coral Reefs”, http://www.icriforum.org/about-coral-reefs/status-and-threat-coral-reefs, 6/27/14, ML)

Tourism generates vast amounts of income for host countries. Where unregulated however, tourism pressures can cause damage to the very environment upon which the industry depends. Physical damage to the coral reefs can occur through contact from careless swimmers, divers, and poorly placed boat anchors. Hotels and resorts may also discharge untreated sewage and wastewater into the ocean, polluting the water and encouraging the growth of algae, which competes with corals for space on the reef.

With about 25% of all marine life being supported by coral reefs, preservation is key to sustain food, income, protection, and new medicine. NOAA ’04 (National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, 2004, United Department of Commerce, “Coral Reefs – An Important Part of Our Future”, http://www.noaa.gov/features/economic_0708/coralreefs.html, 6/29/14, JY) If you have ever visited a coral reef, its beauty, diversity, and many colorful inhabitants probably struck you. Even though coral reefs cover less than one percent of the ocean floor, they support an estimated 25 percent of all marine life, with more than 4,000 species of fish alone. In fact, coral reefs are some of the most diverse ecosystems in the world with thousands of species relying on reefs for survival. They also serve as important sources of food, income, protection, and new medicines for mankind. The fish that grow and live on coral reefs are a significant food source for half a billion people worldwide – many of whom live far from the reefs that feed them. Millions of people in coastal villages of tropical developing countries depend on reefs for their livelihoods, with 25 percent of all fish caught in these regions coming from coral reefs. These benefits are not limited to developing countries – approximately half of all federally managed fisheries in the United States depend on coral reefs and related habitats for a portion of their life cycles. The NOAA National Marine Fisheries Service estimates the commercial value of U.S. fisheries from coral reefs to be over $100 million.

Tourism Bad

Tourism advantage turns the case- tourism is actually worse for coral reefsRowe journalist 8 (Mark, 4/22/08, Travel News, “Tourist sunscreen ‘killing off coral reefs”, http://www.telegraph.co.uk/travel/travelnews/759600/Tourist-sunscreen-killing-off-coral-reefs.html, accessed 6/27/14)

Tourists who wear sunscreens may be contributing to the death of the Great Barrier Reef and other coral reefs around the world, new research has revealed. Scientists in Italy believe that up to 10 per cent of coral reefs are threatened by bleaching caused by chemicals in widely-used creams that are sold to protect users from the sun’s damaging UV rays. Between 4,000 and 6,000 tones of sunscreen wash off swimmers annually in oceans worldwide, mostly in warm tropical climates where reefs are popular tourist attractions. But scientists at Marche Polytechnic University in

Ancona found that many brands of sunscreen contain ingredients that can stimulate viruses in the algae, known as zooxanthellae, which live within corals. Zooxanthellae play an essential role in providing the vibrant colour associated with corals by supplying food energy through photosynthesis. The chemicals found in sunscreens — paraben, cinnamate, benzophenone, and a camphor derivative — cause the viruses to replicate until their algae hosts explode, spilling viruses into the surrounding seawater, where they can infect neighbouring coral communities. Without the algae, the coral turns white and dies. The study looked at the effect of sunscreen on corals in the Pacific, Atlantic and Indian oceans and the Red Sea. The research, which was funded by the European Union, indicated that the protection people need in order to enjoy coral reefs while wearing skimpy clothing is damaging precisely what draws tourists to reefs. In the case of the Great Barrier Reef — which attracts 1.6m people each year — this could jeopardise an industry that the Australian Ministry of Tourism calculates is worth some £2.31bn. “Sunscreens cause the rapid and complete bleaching of hard corals, even at very low concentrations,” said Roberto Danovaro, who led the research team. "By promoting viral infection, sunscreens can potentially play an important role in coral bleaching in areas prone to high levels of recreational use by humans.” The study is the latest to highlight the extent to which tourism is damaging coral reefs. According to the Worldwide Fund for Nature, a quarter of the world’s coral reefs is at imminent risk of collapse through human pressures; a further quarter is under a longer-term threat of collapse. Climate change is compounding the problem. In recent years, increased sea surface temperatures have caused coral bleaching, in which the plant-like organisms that make up coral die and leave behind the white limestone skeleton. Australian scientists are considering plans to cover sections of the Great Barrier Reef with giant canopies to try to reduce the destruction of the habitat by bleaching. A two-year trial that ended in 2006 used large shade cloths tethered to pontoons, and provided results described as “encouraging”.

Mexico’s reefs being destroyed to make mega hotel for tourist Howard Writer 14 (Jammie, 6/4/14, Force Change, “Stop Mega Hotel from Destroying Coral Reef”, http://forcechange.com/125997/stop-the-building-of-mega-hotel-that-will-destroy-coral-reef/, accessed 6/ 29/14 SH)The diverse Cabo Pulmo National Park, home to hundreds of rare plants and animals including a coral reef, is once again at risk. Plans are being made for a 22,000 room “mega-hotel” to be built on the sight in Mexico, building plans that will likely damage the incredible biodiversity of the area. Although former Mexican

President Felipe Calderon shut down plans for a US-funded resort in 2012, a China-based company has recently developed plans of its own. The Cabo Pulmo National Park area, located on the Baja California peninsula, boasts some of the most diverse plants and

animals in the world. The coral reef itself has been referred to as “The Aquarium of the World” by famous

explorer and photographer Jacques Cousteau, and with good reason. A recent study by N-Gen of the Punta Arena, the eleven kilometer area the hotel is to be built on, found over 500 different plants and animals, including two types of vegetation found nowhere else on Earth. Additionally, there are concerns about the needed fresh water for the hotel. The Punta Arena is miles of desert meeting

the beautiful Gulf of California, where the fragile coral reef is located. Any plans of building a tourist zone would surely disrupt this precious ecosystem. This biodiversity hotspot deserves to be preserved.

Tourism destroys coral reefs- Caribbean proves increase in demands, infrastructure, snorkeling, etc.UNEP (United Nations Environmental Programme, “Tourism’s Impact on Reefs”, http://www.unep.org/resourceefficiency/Business/SectoralActivities/Tourism/Activities/WorkThematicAreas/EcosystemManagement/CoralReefs/TourismsImpactonReefs/tabid/78799/Default.aspx, accessed 6/29/14 SH)

The tourism-related impacts on coral reefs in the Caribbean are typical of those occurring worldwide.

The tourism sector is of major economic importance in the Caribbean region, both for foreign exchange earnings and

for employment. Since Caribbean tourism is primarily associated with beaches and the sea, there have been - and continue to be - impacts from tourism on the coastal environment, including the coral reefs. Tourism has both direct and indirect impacts on coral reefs. Snorkeling, diving and boating can cause direct physical damage to reefs, and fishing and collecting can contribute to over-exploitation of reef species and threaten local survival of endangered species. Indirect impacts relate to the development, construction and operation of tourism infrastructure as a whole (resorts, marinas, ports, airports, etc.).

Direct physical damage from snorkeling and diving has been the subject of extensive study and is well documented. The damage inflicted by divers and snorkelers consists mostly of breaking fragile, branched corals or causing lesions to massive corals. Most divers and snorkelers cause little damage; only a few cause severe or widespread damage. Research indicates that reef degradation and change of reef community structure occurs once a certain level of use by

divers and snorkelers is exceeded. As a rule of thumb it is recommended that the level of 5,000 to 6,000 dives per sites per year should not be exceeded. Training and briefing of divers and snorkelers will greatly help to reduce negative

impacts. Physical damage from anchors and especially boat groundings can be severe. Anchor damage is proportional to the size of the boat (i.e. weight of the anchor and length of anchor chain) and is further dependent on the type of coral

community. Recovery of coral damage from boat groundings is slow. Anchor damage can be avoided to a large extent by installing permanent moorings, designating anchorages and providing adequate information on anchoring and mooring. Although fishing has caused declines in reef fish stocks throughout the Caribbean, the direct role of tourism in fishing-related decline is most likely not significant.

Indirectly, however, tourism increases the demand for seafood and does have an impact of on reef fish resources. Collecting of marine souvenirs by tourists is probably insignificant but there still is a market for marine

curiosities in response to a certain tourist demand. This demand can definitely be decreased by increased awareness.

Tourism-related sources of sewage pollution include resorts and, to a much lesser extent, recreational vessels. There is evidence that a very large percentage of the sewage generated by hotels is discharged in coastal waters without adequate treatment. The main impact of sewage pollution is nutrient enrichment, which favours certain species (algae in particular) at the expense of

corals. The impacts of nutrient enrichment from sewage pollution on corals in general have been well studied, but those specifically from sewage pollution from hotels and recreational vessels have not been quantified. The studies indicate that the impact of sewage pollution depends on the level of treatment before discharge and the degree of natural flushing by tides and currents at the point of discharge. Tourism is not generally a source of petroleum hydrocarbon pollution, other than on a small scale when oil or fuel spills from recreational vessels and marinas occur. The effects of petroleum hydrocarbons on corals has been studied for quite some time, producing

evidence that chronic oil pollution is more harmful than a single exposure, and that dispersants and emulsifiers used to combat spills are more toxic to corals than oil alone. Coastal development and the construction and operation of related tourism infrastructure cause increased runoff and sedimentation. Sedimentation is one of the main

reasons for reef degradation. Increased sediment loading of coastal waters increases turbidity, reduces light levels and leads to stress on

corals, usually expressed by "bleaching" of corals. Heavy sediment loading may also cause corals to suffocate and die. Other documented impacts of sedimentation on corals include lower growth rates, reduced productivity and reduced recruitment.

Tourism is obviously a source of large amounts of solid waste, the impacts of which depend very much on the method

of disposal. If disposed of inappropriately, leaching of toxic substances may harm corals. Of particular concern is the

"accidental" waste - plastics in particular - that is blown into the ocean from beaches or vessels and has a detrimental effect on corals and other marine life. Tourism-related impacts on coral reefs are significant, but they are also compounded by other impacts that are not easily distinguished from those of tourism. This does not mean that we must disregard the impacts of tourism activities.

No Impact —Economy

US Economy Resilient – no impactDetrixhe and Katz, 14 ( John and Ian, 6/6/14, "U.S. Credit Rating Affirmed by S&P With Stable Outlook", www.bloomberg.com/news/2014-06-06/u-s-sovereign-credit-rating-affirmed-by-s-p-with-stable-outlook.html, 7/1/14, CH)

The U.S.’s AA+ credit rating was affirmed by Standard & Poor’s, which cited the resiliency and diversity of the economy, almost three years after downgrading the nation for the first time amid political wrangling.¶ There is a less than one-in-three probability that the ranking will change in the next two years, the New York-based company said in a statement today. The outlook on the rating is stable.¶ Since the August 2011 downgrade from AAA, record budget deficits have shrunk, economic growth accelerated, the dollar rallied, stocks climbed to all-time highs and Treasuries strengthened their hold as the world’s preferred haven from turmoil. Still, S&P said a polarized policy making environment, and high general government debt and budget deficits constrain the ratings.¶ “The S&P report reflects that the U.S. is on better footing, that the deficit situation has been reduced over the last year and that the amount of the money the Treasury borrows has declined,” said Thomas Tucci, managing director and head of Treasury trading in New York at CIBC World Markets Corp. “Ultimately the fundamental fiscal situation in the U.S. has improved and the credit quality of the U.S. is in very good shape right now.”

Economic collapse doesn’t cause war, history provesBarnett, WPR reporter, 09 (Thomas, 8/24/09, www.worldpoliticsreview.com/articles/4213/the-new-rules-security-remains-stable-amid-financial-crisis, 7/1/14, CH)

When the global financial crisis struck roughly a year ago, the blogosphere was ablaze with all sorts of scary predictions of, and commentary regarding, ensuing conflict and wars -- a rerun of the Great Depression leading to world war, as it were. Now, as global economic news brightens and recovery -- surprisingly led by China and emerging markets -- is the talk of the day, it's interesting to look back over the past year and realize how globalization's first truly worldwide recession has had virtually no impact whatsoever on the international security landscape. None of the more than three-dozen ongoing conflicts listed by GlobalSecurity.org can be clearly attributed to the global recession. Indeed, the last new entry (civil conflict between Hamas and Fatah in the Palestine) predates the economic crisis by a year, and three quarters of the chronic struggles began in the last century. Ditto for the 15 low-intensity conflicts listed by Wikipedia (where the latest entry is the Mexican "drug war" begun in 2006). Certainly, the Russia-Georgia conflict last August was specifically timed, but by most accounts the opening ceremony of the Beijing Olympics was the most important external trigger (followed by the U.S. presidential campaign) for that sudden spike in an almost two-decade long struggle between Georgia and its two breakaway regions.

Disease

UQ – HIV

Number of HIV/AIDS related deaths decliningCaba, Health Reporter at Medical Daily, 13(Justin, 9/23/13, Medical Daily, “AIDS-Related Deaths Dramatically Decline By 30% Since 2005: UN Report,” http://www.medicaldaily.com/aids-related-deaths-dramatically-decline-30-2005-un-report-257602, 6/28/14, SM)The number of AIDS-related deaths worldwide has decreased by 30 percent since reaching its peak back in 2005. According to report from the Joint United Nations Program on HIV/AIDS (UNAIDS), HIV infections and AIDS-related deaths are on a “dramatic” decline — and this trend is only expected to continue.¶ Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) causes a weakening of the immune system by killing off the body’s CD4 white blood cells. When our CD4 count drops below 200, AIDS (acquired immune deficiency

syndrome) complications begin to arise. Antiretroviral therapy (ART) has been seen as the most effective solution to transmission.¶ "The annual number of new HIV infections continues to decline with especially sharp reductions in the number of children newly infected with HIV," Executive Director of UNAIDS Michel Sidibe said in a statement.¶ The number of children infected with HIV has reduced from 550,000 in 2001 to 260,000 in 2012, amounting to a 52 percent decline in children newly infected with the HIV virus. Experts say mother-to-child transmission of HIV was lowered after 56 percent of pregnant women living with HIV received the most effective drug regimen recommended by the World Health Organization.¶ Sidibe and his colleagues from the UN identified antiretroviral treatment expansion as the source of this global improvement. A total of 9.7 million people from low- and middle-income countries were given access to antiretroviral therapy in 2012, a 20 percent increase since 2011. Donations amounting to $18.9 billion from around the world were collected for HIV/AIDS research in 2012 alone.

HIV/AIDS deaths on declineNational AIDS Council, 2014(4/26/14, National AIDS Council, “Sharp decline in HIV deaths,” http://www.nac.org.zw/news/sharp-decline-hiv-deaths, 6/28/14, SM)The number of people dying from HIV and Aids-related illnesses has significantly dropped from a high of 170 000 in 2003 to about 60 000 last year, a development attributed to Government programmes of effectively administering anti-retroviral therapy. The numbers include both adults and children. According to a preliminary report of the 2013 HIV

estimates presented to various Aids stakeholders in Harare yesterday, the number of adults who died in 2013 has gone down from 50 230 in 2012 to 49 605 in 2013. The number of deaths among children between 0 and 14 years has also gone down from about 36 000 (2003 statistics) to 10 795 in 2013.¶ In 2012, 12 004 child deaths were recorded.¶ Presenting the 2013 preliminary report, Ministry of Health and Child Care strategic information co-ordinator for the Aids and

TB Unit Dr Mutsa Mhangara said the number of people living with HIV seems to have stabilised and stands at 14,4 percent.¶ Last year, the prevalence rate was 14,5 percent. Dr Mhangara said the number of people getting infected had also decreased from 1,18 percent in 2012 to 1,05 percent in 2013. “Although this is a preliminary report, indications are that the number of people

living with HIV and Aids in the country is stabilising as many people living with the virus are now surviving longer, while the number of people getting infected continues to drop,” he said.

UQ—Exploration Now

The US is exploring the ocean now for cures of diseasesNOAA no date(NOAA, no date, “Medicines From the Sea”, http://www.noaa.gov/features/economic_0309/medicines.html, 7/1/14, AG)Ocean exploration often leads to new ideas, new theories and discoveries, including new medicines. From slime to sponges, researchers are exploring the ocean's depths for new medications to treat cancer, bacterial infections, viruses, heart disease, pain, and other ailments.¶ The seas contain an uncounted number of species of plants and animals. These creatures provide a vast storehouse of chemical compounds unknown on land. An ocean commission report lists chemicals and biological materials from marine organisms now in use or development, including 10 anti-cancer drugs, drugs to fight inflammation, fungus, tuberculosis, HIV, malaria and dengue.

Oceans are being explored alreadyHERMIONE no date(Hotspot Ecosystem Research and Man’s Impact on European Seas, no date, “exploring the oceans” http://www.eu-hermione.net/learning/exploring-the-oceans, 7/1//14, AG)Most of the developments in the techniques of exploring the seafloor have been witnessed over the last 150 years. However, it is known that the Vikings – such as Eric the Red, used 'sounding weights'. These were lead weights attached to a rope – or line, which were lowered to the bottom from the side of the boat. Often, the weight had a hollow bottom so a sample of the sediment could be collected. It was a straightforward matter to measure the length of line lowered in order to estimate the depth. The line length was divided up into sections which were equal to a man's arm span from fingertip to fingertip, a length of 1.83m [6 feet], this measurement was called a fathom, a term which is still used today. This method, of taking 'soundings', was used until the mid 1800s. During the mid 19th century governments and scientists launched systematic surveys of the world's oceans

No Internal Link—Disease

Coral reefs can’t solve disease – already dying of herpes which is being ignored

Astro Biology Magazine, 12(Astro Biology Magazine, 4/1/12, Astro Biology Magazine, “Coral Reefs Have Herpes”, http://www.astrobio.net/topic/origins/origin-and-evolution-of-life/coral-reefs-have-herpes/, 7/1/14, JW)As corals continue to decline in abundance around the world, researchers are turning their attention to a possible cause that’s almost totally unexplored – viral disease. It appears the corals that form such important parts of marine ecosystems harbor many different viruses – particularly herpes. And although they don’t get runny noses or stomach upset, corals also are home to the adenoviruses and other viral families that can cause human colds and gastrointestinal disease. In a research review published in the Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology, scientists point out that coral declines are reaching crisis proportions but little has been done so far to explore viral disease as one of the mechanisms for this problem. “Coral abundance in the Caribbean Sea has gone down about 80 percent in the past 30-40 years, and about one-third of the corals around the world are threatened with extinction,” said Rebecca Vega-Thurber, an assistant professor of microbiology at Oregon State University. “We’ve identified 22 kinds of emerging disease that affect corals, but still don’t know the pathogens that cause most of them,” Vega-Thurber said. “Most researchers have looked only at bacteria. But we suspect viruses may play a role in this as well, and it’s important to learn more about what is causing this problem. Corals are the building blocks of the tropical seas.” A research program at OSU, one of only two of its type in the world, is studying viral “metagenomics” in corals, meaning the analysis of multiple genomes at the same time. It may help explain one of the underlying causes of coral decline, Vega-Thurber said, and is one of the most comprehensive analyses yet done on the types of viruses in a marine animal. It may also shed light on the broader range of viruses that affect not only corals but many other animals, including humans. Around one-third of the Earth’s corals are now threatened with extinction. Image Credit: NOAA One of the surprises from recent research was the predominance in corals of herpes viruses – similar but not identical to the herpes virus that can infect humans. Herpes viruses appear to constitute a majority of the viruses found in corals, and one experiment showed that herpes-like viral sequences were produced in coral tissues after acute episodes of stress. “We were shocked to find that so many coral viruses were in the herpes family,” Vega-Thurber said. “But corals are one of the oldest animal life forms, evolving around 500 million years ago, and herpes is a very old family of viruses that can infect almost every kind of animal. Herpes and corals may have evolved together.” It’s not yet certain, researchers say, whether the viruses being found on corals are actually causing diseases. “Just because you harbor a virus doesn’t mean you are getting sick from it,” Vega-Thurber said. “This is part of what we have to pin down with further research.” Some of the possible causes of coral decline that have been identified so far include global warming that causes coral bleaching, loss of symbiotic algae that help nourish corals, pollution such as sewage runoff, and human-coral interactions. A “mucus” sometimes found on corals can harbor human-borne viruses, and levels of these viruses have been correlated with terrestrial human population density. “We have found that nutrient increases from pollution can cause increased levels of viral infection, as do warmer water and physical handling,” Vega-Thurber said. “Now we have to determine if those increases in infection cause actual diseases that are killing the coral.” Corals are often a major component of marine ecosystems and biodiversity, especially in the tropics. They host thousands of species of fish and other animals. And whether or not viruses are implicated in coral disease, it may also be that they are passing diseases along to fish. Research is “likely to reveal that viruses have numerous and profound

roles on coral reefs,” the scientists wrote in their study. “As the diversity, distribution and function of reef-associated viruses becomes increasingly well defined, so will our ability to predict, prevent and/or mitigate disease epizootics on coral reefs.”

Reefs going extinct – multiple causes

Kim Wright, masters in environmental conflict, 13(Kim Wright, 10/3/13, Hawaii News Now, “Scientists warn of mass extinctions in world's oceans”, http://www.hawaiinewsnow.com/story/23596939/scientists-warn-of-mass-extinctions-in-worlds-oceans, 7/1/14, JW)(RNN) - A team of marine scientists issued a dire warning Oct. 3 on the state of the world's oceans. They say that mass extinctions may already be inevitable. A report issued by the International Programme on the State of the Ocean and the International Union for Conservation of Nature states that the world's oceans are experiencing decreasing oxygen levels, warming and acidification as a result of several stressors, including climate change, pollution and overfishing. "The health of the ocean is spiraling downwards far more rapidly than we had thought," said Alex Rogers, the scientific director of IPSO. "We are seeing greater change, happening faster, and the effects are more imminent than previously anticipated. The situation should be of the gravest concern to everyone since everyone will be affected by changes in the ability of the ocean to support life on Earth." These factors have serious consequences for marine life, as temperature, chemistry, nutrient and oxygen supply all are necessary for the oceans to support an abundance of marine life. If the amount of carbon dioxide absorption remains at its current level, by about 2030 or 2050, the carbon dioxide content in the oceans is expected to cause coral reefs to erode and lead to the extinction of some species. Coral reefs provide shelter and protection for several species of fish, according to Texas A&M University, as well as helping to control the level of carbon dioxide in the oceans. A United Nations climate change panel report released in late September noted that the ocean is absorbing much of the increasing heat from the changing climate. The International Programme on the State of the Ocean's report noted that the warming of the world's oceans will have negative effects, including further reducing oceanic oxygen levels. Melting Arctic ice will also cause more methane to be released into the atmosphere, contributing to climate change. Seasonal ice zones will continue to shrink, with Arctic summer sea ice disappearing by about 2037. "Potential knock-on effects of climate change in the ocean, such as methane release from melting permafrost, and coral dieback, mean the consequences for human and ocean life could be even worse than presently calculated," the report noted. Marine life is also stressed by overfishing, with about 70 percent of the world's fish populations harvested in an unsustainable manner. Suggestions put forward by the study include further reducing global carbon emissions below the current targets and better management of vulnerable marine ecosystems. "What these latest reports make absolutely clear is that deferring action will increase costs in the future and lead to even greater, perhaps irreversible, losses," said IUCN's Dan Laffoley. The findings were published in the peer-reviewed journal Marine Pollution Bulletin.

No Impact—Disease

No impact, disease predictions are exaggeratedNewsweek, 10 (7/1/10, "Don't Listen to the Doomsayers", 7/1/14, www.newsweek.com/zakaria-dont-listen-doomsayers-80263, CH)

Why did the predictions of a pandemic turn out to be so exaggerated? Some people blame an overheated media, but it would have been difficult to ignore major international health organizations and governments when they were warning of catastrophe. I think there is a broader mistake in the way we look at the world. Once we see a problem, we can describe it in great detail, extrapolating all its possible consequences. But we can rarely anticipate the human response to that crisis.¶ Take swine flu. The virus had crucial characteristics that led researchers to worry that it could spread far and fast. They described—and the media reported—what would happen if it went unchecked. But it did not go unchecked. In fact, swine flu was met by an extremely vigorous response at its epicenter, Mexico. The Mexican government reacted quickly and massively, quarantining the infected population, testing others, providing medication to those who needed it. The noted expert on this subject, Laurie Garrett, says, "We should all stand up and scream, 'Gracias, Mexico!' because the Mexican people and the Mexican government have sacrificed on a level that I'm not sure as Americans we would be prepared to do in the exact same circumstances. They shut down their schools. They shut down businesses, restaurants, churches, sporting events. They basically paralyzed their own economy. They've suffered billions of dollars in financial losses still being tallied up, and thereby really brought transmission to a halt."

It is highly uncommon for species to become extinct through disease – studies prove.Amherst College 10(Amherst College, 8/25/2010, “Disease Likely Not a Common Cause of Species Extinction, New Amherst Study Finds”, https://www.amherst.edu/aboutamherst/news/faculty/node/222637, 7/1/2014, AC)

Challenging the widespread belief that rare and endangered plants and animals are unhealthy, a new study has found they in fact harbor a lower number and diversity of disease-causing parasites than non-threatened, close relatives of the same family, according to Amherst College biology professor Michael Hood and his research team. “We still have much more to study to fully understand this discovery, but this certainly contradicts the widely held notion that disease is a major accelerant of species decline,” said Hood of the group’s findings, which were published by the journal Oikos on its website. “Combined with the loss of habitat, it is probably other ‘extinction vortex’ factors—such as loss of genetic diversity or disruption of reproduction processes—that cause many species to die out, not disease.” Using information from the collections in natural history museums around the world, the U.S. Department of Agriculture databases and their own field work, Hood, former student Amanda K. Gibson ’08 and postdoctoral fellow Jorge Mena-Ali analyzed data from more than 42,000 flowering plants in the Silene genus for the destructive “anther smut” fungus. Anther smut, said Hood, is a model disease to study, because it is easy to see—it replaces the plant’s pollen with dark fungal spores—and because it is widely distributed in natural plant communities. In addition, it is harmless to humans and agriculture and safe for Hood and his team to handle. The group’s major finding was surprising: Naturally

occurring anther smut disease was significantly less frequent in threatened species than in non-

threatened species of Silene. What’s more, looking across all endangered U.S. plant species, the team found fewer pathogens and parasites, making endangered species as a group less diseased overall.

No impact to AIDS Blumenthal, US Assistant Surgeon General, 14 (" The Power of HIV/AIDS Prevention: Using a 21st Century Toolkit to Reverse the Epidemic", Dr. Susan, 6/27/14, www.huffingtonpost.com/susan-blumenthal/hivaids-prevention_b_5537199.html, 7/1/14, CH)

In response to the HIV/AIDS epidemic in the United States, the White House released the National HIV/AIDS Strategy (NHAS) in July 2010, the country's first comprehensive roadmap to reverse the impact of the disease with clear outcomes to be achieved by 2015. The three main NHAS goals are to: 1) reduce new HIV infections, 2) increase access to care as well as improve health outcomes for people living with HIV, and 3) decrease HIV-related health disparities. A key NHAS priority is to intensify HIV prevention in the communities where HIV is most heavily concentrated, expanding targeted use of effective combinations of evidence-based HIV prevention approaches, and educating all Americans about HIV and how to prevent it.¶ To advance these prevention goals and enhance the effectiveness of current HIV prevention strategies, the CDC has adopted a High-Impact Prevention (HIP) approach. The strategy combines the most effective, scientifically proven, cost effective and scalable prevention tools targeted to high-risk populations in the most affected regions of the country with the goal of significantly reducing new HIV infections. Methods employed by HIP include better geographic targeting of resources to locations with the highest burden of disease, expanding HIV testing, and identifying the combination of approaches with the greatest impact. These efforts have resulted in nearly 2.8 million HIV tests being administered over the past three years and 18,432 people previously unaware of their HIV status being diagnosed.

No impact to HIV, Medical Cannabis solvesHaglage, reporter at The Daily Beast, 14 (2/27/14, "Weed Could Block H.I.V.’s Spread. No, Seriously.", www.thedailybeast.com/articles/2014/02/15/weed-can-block-h-i-v-s-spread-no-seriously.html, 7/1/14, CH)

The study illustrates how THC works by targeting so-called “CB2” receptors in the brain. One of two known cannabinoid receptors activated by cannabinoids (terpenophenolic compounds present in Cannabis), the CB2 receptors manifest in cells connected with the immune system, such as the gastrointestinal tract and the spleen. Unlike CB1 receptors, which respond to the psychoactive qualities of THC (producing a feeling of “high”), CB2 receptors react to the therapeutic aspects of THC—for example, reducing swelling and relieving pain.¶ The changes that THC produces in the gut a process formally known as “microbial translocation,” isn’t as complicated as it sounds. During HIV infection, one of the earliest effects is that the virus spreads rapidly throughout the body and kills a significant part of cells in the gut and intestine. This activity damages the gut in a way that allows the HIV to leak through the cell wall of the intestines and into the bloodstream.¶ When THC is introduced into this environment, it activates the CB2 receptors in the intestines to build new, healthy bacterial cells that block the virus from leaking through the cell walls. In other words, the body works hard to keep bad stuff in the intestines and the good stuff out.¶ Put another way: HIV kills the cells that protect the walls— THC brings them back. Reducing the amount of the virus in the lower intestines could then help keep uninfected people uninfected.

New tech to decrease HIV transmission.Blumenthal, US Assistant Surgeon General, 14 (" The Power of HIV/AIDS Prevention: Using a 21st Century Toolkit to Reverse the Epidemic", Dr. Susan, 6/27/14,www.huffingtonpost.com/susan-blumenthal/hivaids-prevention_b_5537199.html, 7/1/14, SJ)It is critical to screen pregnant women for HIV for their own health as well as to prevent transmission of HIV

to their infant if they are HIV positive. The CDC recommends that healthcare providers test pregnant women for HIV and provide them with written materials and risk-reduction counseling. These efforts have proved effective with a

significant decrease in mother-to-child HIV transmission from 1,650 cases in 1991 to 162 cases in 2010. Despite dramatic reductions in the number of babies born HIV positive in America, every case of HIV infection in an infant is a missed opportunity for prevention. Our goal must be an HIV-free generation in the near future.Now, we have the potential to go much further.

High-Impact Prevention averting HIVCDC 13 (CDC, 04/17/13, CDC, "High-Impact HIV Prevention: CDC's Approach to Reducing HIV Infections in the United States", URL, 7/1/14, SJ)

In the United States, prevention has already averted more than 350,000* HIV infections.1 Now, we have the potential to go much further. The nation's HIV prevention efforts are guided by a single, ambitious strategy for combating the epidemic: the National

HIV/AIDS Strategy (NHAS).2 Recent scientific breakthroughs have equipped us with an unprecedented number of

effective tools to prevent infection.3-6 And in many of the communities hardest hit by HIV, there is growing leadership and momentum for change. Yet the challenges remain daunting. By CDC's latest estimates, approximately 50,000 Americans become infected with HIV annually, and 16,000 people with AIDS died in 2008.7,8 As a result, the number of people living with HIV in the United States, now at nearly 1.2 million, continues to grow by tens of thousands each year, creating more opportunities for HIV transmission.9 And a range of social, economic, and demographic factors affect some Americans' risk for HIV, such as stigma, discrimination, income, education, and geographic

region. While current prevention efforts have helped to keep the number of new infections stable in recent years, continued growth in the population living with HIV will ultimately lead to more new infections if prevention, care, and

treatment efforts are not intensified.10 To address these challenges, CDC and its partners are pursuing a High-Impact Prevention approach to reducing new HIV infections.11 By using combinations of scientifically proven, cost-effective, and

scalable interventions targeted to the right populations in the right geographic areas, this approach promises to increase the impact of HIV prevention efforts – an essential step in achieving the goals of NHAS. This approach is designed to maximize the impact of prevention efforts for all Americans at risk for HIV infection, including gay and bisexual men, communities of color, women, injection drug users, transgender women and men and youth. *A conservative estimate examining the period 1991 to 2006.

Solvency

Preservation

Preservation policies fail—MPAs prove.Rife et al, Oceans Program Coordinator @ Environmental Defense Fund 12 (Alexis, Brad Erisman, Alexandra Sanchez, Octavio Aburto-Oropeza, 12/14/12, Conservation Letters, “When good intentions are not enough…Insights on networks of ‘paper park’ marine protected areas”, http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1755-263X.2012.00303.x/abstract, 6/25/14, KM)

In efforts to protect the world's oceans, the Convention on Biological Diversity has moved the goal of establishing marine protected areas

(MPAs) to cover 10% of the ocean from 2012 to 2020. This adjustment suggests that the rush to establish MPAs without proper

resources does not resolve conservation problems. In fact, such actions may create a false sense of protection that camouflages degradation of marine ecosystems on regional scales. To exemplify this phenomenon, we reviewed MPA efficacy in the Gulf of California, Mexico, where some 23,300 km2 have been decreed as MPAs. With the

exception of Cabo Pulmo National Park, MPAs have not met conservation or sustainability goals. We examined MPA budgets and foundations’ investment in the region and found that funding for management is not the limiting factor in MPA efficacy, although

funding for enforcement may be deficient. We conclude that MPAs have failed because of insufficient no-take zones, lack of enforcement, poor governance, and minimal community involvement. We need a new philosophy to implement MPAs to take advantage of the scientific knowledge and monetary investment that have been generated worldwide and ensure that they complement effective fisheries management outside their borders.

Genetically engineered corals

Turn: Selective-breeding can lead to genetic bottlenecks and increase susceptibility to disease—if selective-breeding even works.Mascarelli, Fellow @ National Science Foundation 14 (Amanda, 4/23/14, Nature, “Climate-change adaption: Designer reefs”, http://www.nature.com/news/climate-change-adaptation-designer-reefs-1.15073#/b2, 6/25/14, KM)

Researchers such as Baker are starting to think about the possibility of intentionally seeding coral reefs with hardier strains of algae to help them to resist the perils of climate change. But it is still unclear whether it will be possible to manipulate symbiont populations effectively in the wild, where environmental conditions might cause the corals to favour one type of alga over another. ¶ Workers at existing coral nurseries and farms have been sending samples of coral and symbionts to researchers for genetic sequencing, while keeping tabs on which organisms fare well in heat shocks or disease outbreaks. Researchers have banked hundreds of genotyped strains from a handful of coral species, including the critically endangered staghorn coral (Acropora cervicornis) from locations in the Caribbean, says Les Kaufman, a marine biologist at Boston University in Massachusetts. ¶ Help or harm ¶ The days of trying to build reefs with designer-made corals are still in the future. But as the research heads in that direction, some are wary that such tinkering might do more harm than good. ¶ Selecting for traits such as resistance to heat or acidification might lead to a genetic bottleneck, for example. “Selective-breeding programmes may effectively reduce the capacity of corals to adapt to future changes in environmental conditions by narrowing genetic variation,” says David Miller, a coral biologist at James Cook University in Townsville. And that is if selective breeding in corals even works. It is too soon even to tell whether acid and heat resistance are strongly heritable, he says. ¶ Miller and others point out that cross-breeding to enhance specific traits in crops and dogs, for example, often comes at the expense of other traits. “There's often a 'trade-off' effect, so that, for example, more-stress-tolerant individuals are likely to grow more slowly,” says Miller. Selecting for resilience against heat and acidity could hypothetically lead to higher susceptibility to disease, for instance.

Artificial Reefs

Turn- Attempts to create artificial reefs damage the coral reefs dramatically

Florida Department of Environmental Protection, ’09 (7/08/09, DEP, “Osborne Reef Waste Tire Removal Project”, http://www.dep.state.fl.us/waste/quick_topics/publications/shw/tires/reef/OsborneReefProject-Final-7-8-09.pdf, 6/28/14, AEG) During the 1970s, between one and two million tires were put in the ocean off Broward County in an effort to create additional fish habitat. Over the years, many of the tires were mobilized by tropical storms and hurricanes, the movement of which caused damage to nearby existing coral reefs. The threat is serious, but the complexity and magnitude of the challenge of removing these tires has prevented any individual government agency from doing so. The NOAA Marine Debris Program funded a reconnaissance project that was conducted in August, 2006. The scope of work for this project included the development of a potential strategy for removing and properly disposing of the tires. It was decided that a pilot program was needed to test diver retrieval productivity, loading and transportation methods, and tire processing and disposal. In 2007, a group of federal, state and county government agencies worked jointly to complete the pilot study with the objective of defining the technical and economic feasibility of coordinating agency capabilities to accomplish the objectives listed above. This joint-effort program involved Coastal America, US Navy, Army, Coast Guard, Florida Department of Environmental Protection (DEP), Broward County Environmental Protection and Growth Management Department, and Broward County Port Everglades Department. Funding for the military mission, which included a multi-branch team of divers and an Army landing craft utility (LCU) ship was provided by the Department of Defense’s Innovative Readiness Training Program. Permit fees, equipment and supplies, and tire processing services were funded by DEP out of 2007 abatement funds. Project management and dockage for the 2007 pilot were provided by Broward County. The pilot project allowed productivity projections to be made for the remainder of the project. Monthly tire removal was estimated at 20,000 passenger tire equivalents (PTEs). At this rate, complete cleanup of the estimated 650,000 tires remaining would take more than the three years originally intended. After the pilot, it was decided that previously established priority areas needed to be redrawn to emphasize the importance of removing tires from the eastern edge of the affected middle reef (designated Priority Area 1). In order to remove the estimated 370,000 tires from Priority Area 1, an increase in military salvage resources, divers, and watercraft would be needed during 120-day project periods in each of the three years beginning in 2009.

Given these additional assets, Priority Area 1 could be cleared in three years. Actual productivity could increase in future years and these projections can be revised accordingly. The extent of the funding required for full abatement was estimated to be about $3.4 million in state and county funds. The cost to abate the pile exceeded amounts in DEP’s waste tire abatement contracts. Because of the need to save this resource, Governor Crist recommended and the Florida Legislature passed a $2 million special appropriation in 2007 for DEP to complete its share of the project.

Artificial Reefs cause huge environmental damage Bowerman, no date (Todd, "The Disadvantages of artificial coral reefs", animals.pawnation.com/disadvantages-artificial-coral-reefs-7638.html, 7/1/14, CH)

While some substances make excellent artificial reefs, scientists are divided on the use of certain materials for the creation of these underwater habitats. Heavy metals, often found in ships sunk for the sake of reef creation, contain toxic materials that can slowly creep into the environment and cause damage to the existing wildlife population. Even materials that have been thoroughly checked and cleaned may cause unforeseen problems when introduced into a delicate environment.¶

Artificial reefs don’t have a good track recordTS Lane, 10,( 1/15, dicover5ocean, "Artificial Reefs: The Good, The Bad, The Controversial", www.discover5oceans.com/2010/01/artificial-reefs-the-good-the-bad-the-controversial/, 7/1/14, aven)

Articial reef initiatives aren’t always successful, however, and the practice has critics. According to the Surfrider Foundation a 10-year experimental project at El Segundo near Los Angeles failed to produce

desired outcomes and is now being removed. Washington-based Ocean Conservancy suggests that while some projects may benefit some species of fish, others represent an inexpensive way to dispose of trash, which can introduce toxins and other pollutants into the ocean.¶ “Although most artificial reefs offer potential habitat for certain kinds of marine life, these are not always happy homes. Artificial reefs can cause damage to natural habitats during their construction and can displace naturally occurring species and habitats,” says the Ocean Conservancy web site. “They also tend to concentrate fish unnaturally, making them more vulnerable to overfishing.”

Artifical Reefs harm ocean lifeTS Lane, 10,( 1/15, dicover5ocean, "Artificial Reefs: The Good, The Bad, The Controversial", www.discover5oceans.com/2010/01/artificial-reefs-the-good-the-bad-the-controversial/, 7/1/14, aven)

Articial reef initiatives aren’t always successful, however, and the practice has critics. According to the Surfrider Foundation a 10-year experimental project at El Segundo near Los Angeles failed to produce desired outcomes and is now being removed. Washington-based Ocean Conservancy suggests that while some projects may benefit some species of fish, others represent an inexpensive way to dispose of trash, which can introduce toxins and other pollutants into the ocean.¶ “Although most artificial reefs offer potential habitat for certain kinds of marine life, these are not always happy homes. Artificial reefs can cause damage to natural habitats during their construction and can displace naturally occurring species and habitats,” says the Ocean Conservancy web site. “They also tend to concentrate fish unnaturally, making them more vulnerable to overfishing.”

The benefits of artificial reefs are limitedBohnsack, fisheries scientist, 14 (James, Georgia Strait Alliance, " ARTIFICIAL REEFS & FISH HABITAT: WHAT THE EXPERTS SAY", https://www.georgiastrait.org/?q=node/604, 7/1/14,aven)

Dr. James Bohnsack, a Florida fisheries scientist, has said: "...little direct scientific evidence exists to properly guide building efforts and show long-term beneficial or detrimental impacts", and that he is "concerned about the current US practice of relaying on "materials of convenience" [ie. old ships], especially considering that Japan has rejected this approach and has spent over $100 million annually since 1976 for reef construction and research. He has expressed worry that "the enthusiasm for artificial reefs could draw attention away from possibly more beneficial fishery management actions such as enhancing or preserving existing estuaries and other natural habitats."

Alt cause

Aff does not solve – Conservation, sustainable use, and recognition of Values solvesUNEP, 2007(UNEP, No Date, "Biodiversity", http://www.unep.org/geo/geo4/report/05_Biodiversity.pdf, SJ)

Reducing the rate of biodiversity loss will require ¶ multiple and mutually supportive policies of ¶ conservation and sustainable use, and the recognition ¶ of biodiversity values . New policies of integrated ¶ landscape and watershed management and ¶ sustainable use – the ecosystem approach – can be ¶ effective in reducing biodiversity loss (see Box 4.9). ¶ In recent years, legal structures such as “biodiversity ¶ easements” and

“payments for biodiversity services” ¶ have been developed to use market mechanisms ¶ to provide additional financial resources,

and ¶ new markets for biodiversity-friendly products are ¶ developing new options for producers. These present ¶ new

opportunities to recognize and mainstream the ¶ value of biodiversity, and can address many of the ¶ drivers of biodiversity loss. With a supportive policy ¶ framework, such changes will initiate market and ¶ behavioural corrections that will move society towards ¶ increased sustainability . Although they only make up ¶ a small fraction of total market share, organic and ¶ sustainably produced agricultural products, such as ¶ “bird-friendly” coffee and cocoa, are clear examples ¶ of this. However, each of these attempts also has to ¶ be cost-effective in the local or global marketplace, ¶ and comply with other obligations, such as ¶ international trade rules, which often remain perversely ¶ disconnected from environmental needs and policies

Coral Reefs are dying due to disease

NOAA 2008(NOAA, 3/25/08, “Coral Diseases”, http://oceanservice.noaa.gov/education/kits/corals/coral10_disease.html, 7/1/14, AG)The frequency of coral diseases has increased significantly over the last 10 years, causing widespread mortality among reef-building corals. Many scientists believe the increase is related to deteriorating water quality associated with human-made pollutants and increased sea surface temperatures. These factors may allow for the proliferation and colonization of microbes. However, exact causes for coral diseases remain elusive. The onset of most diseases likely is a response to multiple factors

MPA CP[insert plan text w/re-enforcing MPAs]

Planned net bens- econ, politics

A better placement and enforcements of MPAs have the ability to solve the aff’s issues.

Jameson, Coral Seas Inc – Integrated Coastal Zone Management, ‘02 (Stephen, Mark Tupper, University of Guam Marine Laboratory, Jonathon Riddley, Enterplan Limited, 2002, Marine Pollution Bulletin, “The three screen doors: Can marine “protected” areas be effective?”, 6/27/14, AEG) The great majority of marine protected areas (MPAs) fail to meet their management objectives. So MPAs can be effective ¶ conservation tools, we recommend two paradigm shifts, the first related to how they are located and the second related to ¶ how they are managed. MPAs are unlikely to be effective if they are located in areas that are subject to numerous, and often ¶ uncontrollable, external stressors from atmospheric, terrestrial, and oceanic sources, all of which can degrade the ¶ environment and compromise protection. MPA effectiveness is also limited by low institutional and community capacity for ¶ management and inappropriate size with respect to ecological needs. In particular, the check list approach to management ¶ does not ensure that key threats are dealt with, or that management expenditures provide a quantifiable return. We ¶ recommend a business planning approach to MPA management, in which managers focus on the viability of the management ¶ system, i.e. the ability of the MPA to provide ecological goods and services to its target users over the long term.

Florida CP

Solvency

Florida is Key-Only US state with Large Coral ReefsFlorida Department of Environmental Protection 11(No author, 7/19/2011, Florida Department of Environmental Protection, "Florida's Coral Reefs," http://www.dep.state.fl.us/coastal/habitats/coral/, 6/29/14, AF)

Florida is the only state in the continental United States to have extensive shallow coral reef formations near its coasts. Coral reefs create specialized habitats that provide shelter, food and breeding sites for numerous plants and animals, including spiny lobster, snapper and other commercial and recreational species. Coral reefs lay the foundation of a dynamic

ecosystem with tremendous biodiversity. The Florida Reef Tract (FRT) stretches 358 miles from the Dry Tortugas National Park off of the Florida Keys to the St. Lucie Inlet in Martin County. Roughly two thirds of the Florida Reef Tract lies within the Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary (FKNMS), a marine protected area

that surrounds the Florida Keys island chain. The reefs stretching north of the FKNMS are managed by the Florida Department of Environmental Protection's (DEP) Coral Reef Conservation Program (CRCP) and the Southeast Florida Coral Reef Initiative (SEFCRI), which is one of several programs administered by the CRCP. Florida's coral reefs came into existence 5,000 to 7,000 years ago when sea levels rose following the last Ice Age. Reef growth is relatively slow; an individual colony may grow one-half inch to 7 inches a year, depending on the species. All coral reefs are in a constant state of flux. While expanding with new polyps (the living tissue) on the outer surface, they are simultaneously being ground into sand by storms and animals. During long periods of favorable conditions, the reefs may reach awe-inspiring heights and diversity. Corals are classified as animals, yet microscopic plants live within the animal tissues in a symbiotic relationship. The coral animals benefit from the sugars and oxygen that the plants provide through photosynthesis and the plants gain nutrients from animal waste and are protected within the coral tissues. These tiny plants give the coral much of its color. Coral reef development occurs only in areas with specific environmental characteristics: a solid structure for attachment, relatively warm water temperatures, clear waters low in phosphate and nitrogen nutrients, and moderate wave action to disperse wastes and bring oxygen and plankton to the reef. Most of Florida's sport fish species and many other marine animals spend significant parts of their lives around coral reefs.

Florida is Key-Only state with Effective ProgramFlorida Department of Environmental Protection 14(No author, 5/8/14, Florida Department of Environmental Protection, "Coral Reef Conservation Program," http://www.dep.state.fl.us/coastal/habitats/coral/, 6/29/14, AF)

In 2000, the U.S. Coral Reef Task Force (USCRTF) adopted a National Action Plan to conserve coral reefs. With guidance from the USCRTF, the Florida Department of Environmental Protection and the Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission coordinated the formation of a team of interagency and non-agency marine resource professionals, scientists, resource users and other stakeholders. This team, known as the Southeast Florida Coral Reef Initiative (SEFCRI) Team, first gathered in May 2003 to develop local action strategies targeting coral reefs and associated reef resources from Miami-Dade, Broward, Palm Beach and Martin

counties to improve the coordination of technical and financial support for the conservation and management of coral reefs. SEFCRI is targeting this region because the coral habitats are close to shore and co-exist with intensely

urbanized areas that lack a coordinated management plan (like that of the Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary). The SEFCRI Team is comprised of four focus teams, each responsible for addressing one of the four focus areas of concern: Awareness and Appreciation Fishing, Diving, and Other Uses Land-Based Sources of Pollution and Water Quality Maritime Industry and Coastal Construction Impacts The SEFCRI focus teams have identified issues and threats to coral reefs and have developed and are implementing Local Action Strategies (LAS) for their component of the SEFCRI. This includes defining and revising goals, objectives and actions, priority setting, budget development, building implementation teams and tracking progress. Numerous stakeholders participated in the development of Florida's LAS, using a facilitated process including public review and

input. The outcome is a coordinated plan to address causes of coral reef degradation and provide a roadmap for successful conservation and management.

Florida has the best artificial reef programs and experience- over 2,700 artificial reefsFFWCC n/a (Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission, “Artificial Reefs”, http://myfwc.com/conservation/saltwater/artificial-reefs/,accessed 6/29/14 SH)

Other reef building objectives undertaken in Florida, beyond the scope of the FWC artificial reef program include mitigation or restoration reefs replacing hard bottom habitat lost through such activities as beach re-nourishment, repair of reef system damage caused by vessel groundings, substrate for the regeneration of oyster reefs and protection of re-planted vegetated shorelines vulnerable to erosion from wave activity. Florida has one of the most active artificial reef programs among the 14 Gulf and Atlantic coastal states involved in artificial reef development. The Florida artificial reef program is the only state program that is not exclusively run at a state agency level where the state holds all the reef area permits. Because of the extent of coastline and statewide involvement in reef activities, the FWC program continues a cooperative partnership with local coastal county governments. Today, some local coastal cities, universities and qualified nonprofit corporations also work directly with the FWC in artificial reef development and monitoring activities. Thirty-four of Florida’s 35 coastal counties spread along 8,426 miles of tidal coastline (1,200 miles fronting the Gulf of Mexico and Atlantic Ocean) are, or have been, involved in artificial reef development. Starting in the 1940s through August 2012, more than 2,700 planned public artificial reefs have been placed in state and federal waters off these counties. Most of the artificial reef development has taken place since the inception of the Florida Artificial Reef Program in 1982. Local coastal governments hold all of the more than 300 active artificial reef permits off both Florida coasts. About half of these sites are in federal waters. Fishing clubs, nonprofit corporations and interested private individuals work through their local governments as the liable permit holders to provide input into public reef building activities.

Florida is already is doing the plan and it has already impacted the economy to it’s ability- meaning they have no inherency

Adams, professor, Food and Resource Economics Department, 11 (Chuck, Bill Lindberg, associate professor, Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences Department; John Stevely, Florida Sea Grant marine extension agent, 2011, University Of Florida, “The Economic Benefits Associated with Florida's Artificial Reefs”, http://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/fe649#FOOTNOTE_2, 6/28/14, AEG) Florida reportedly has the largest complement of permitted artificial reefs in the nation. These reefs have been shown to be beneficial to the local economies. The studies reviewed above show that artificial reefs do increase economic activity in surrounding communities. Because artificial reefs are valued by users and non-users alike and provide benefits that exceed costs, they may be an effective tool for redirecting use away from natural reefs if such an management objective is required. Overall, artificial reefs are a source of economic value that may justify additional deployments, even after taking into account the opportunity costs associated with scarce public funds.

Florida is Key-Only US state with Large Coral ReefsNo Author 11(No author, 7/19/2011, Florida Department of Environmental Protection, "Florida's Coral Reefs," http://www.dep.state.fl.us/coastal/habitats/coral/, 6/29/14, AF)

Florida is the only state in the continental United States to have extensive shallow coral reef formations near its coasts. Coral reefs create specialized habitats that provide shelter, food and breeding sites for numerous plants and animals, including spiny lobster, snapper and other commercial and recreational species. Coral reefs lay the foundation of a dynamic

ecosystem with tremendous biodiversity. The Florida Reef Tract (FRT) stretches 358 miles from the Dry Tortugas National Park off of the Florida Keys to the St. Lucie Inlet in Martin County. Roughly two thirds of the Florida Reef Tract lies within the Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary (FKNMS), a marine protected area

that surrounds the Florida Keys island chain. The reefs stretching north of the FKNMS are managed by the Florida Department of Environmental Protection's (DEP) Coral Reef Conservation Program (CRCP) and the Southeast Florida Coral Reef Initiative (SEFCRI), which is one of several programs administered by the CRCP. Florida's coral reefs came into existence 5,000 to 7,000 years ago when sea levels rose following the last Ice Age. Reef growth is relatively slow; an individual colony may grow one-half inch to 7 inches a year, depending on the species. All coral reefs are in a constant state of flux. While expanding with new polyps (the living tissue) on the outer surface, they are simultaneously being ground into sand by storms and animals. During long periods of favorable conditions, the reefs may reach awe-inspiring heights and diversity. Corals are classified as animals, yet microscopic plants live within the animal tissues in a symbiotic relationship. The coral animals benefit from the sugars and oxygen that the plants provide through photosynthesis and the plants gain nutrients from animal waste and are protected within the coral tissues. These tiny plants give the coral much of its color. Coral reef development occurs only in areas with specific environmental characteristics: a solid structure for attachment, relatively warm water temperatures, clear waters low in phosphate and nitrogen nutrients, and moderate wave action to disperse wastes and bring oxygen and plankton to the reef. Most of Florida's sport fish species and many other marine animals spend significant parts of their lives around coral reefs.

Florida is Key-Only state with Effective ProgramNo Author 11(No author, 5/8/14, Florida Department of Environmental Protection, "Coral Reef Conservation Program," http://www.dep.state.fl.us/coastal/habitats/coral/, 6/29/14, AF)

In 2000, the U.S. Coral Reef Task Force (USCRTF) adopted a National Action Plan to conserve coral reefs. With guidance from the USCRTF, the Florida Department of Environmental Protection and the Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission coordinated the formation of a team of interagency and non-agency marine resource professionals, scientists, resource users and other stakeholders. This team, known as the Southeast Florida Coral Reef Initiative (SEFCRI) Team, first gathered in May 2003 to develop local action strategies targeting coral reefs and associated reef resources from Miami-Dade, Broward, Palm Beach and Martin

counties to improve the coordination of technical and financial support for the conservation and management of coral reefs. SEFCRI is targeting this region because the coral habitats are close to shore and co-exist with intensely

urbanized areas that lack a coordinated management plan (like that of the Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary). The SEFCRI Team is comprised of four focus teams, each responsible for addressing one of the four focus areas of concern: Awareness and Appreciation Fishing, Diving, and Other Uses Land-Based Sources of Pollution and Water Quality Maritime Industry and Coastal Construction Impacts The SEFCRI focus teams have identified issues and threats to coral reefs and have developed and are implementing Local Action Strategies (LAS) for their component of the SEFCRI. This includes defining and revising goals, objectives and actions, priority setting, budget development, building implementation teams and tracking progress. Numerous stakeholders participated in the development of Florida's LAS, using a facilitated process including public review and

input. The outcome is a coordinated plan to address causes of coral reef degradation and provide a roadmap for successful conservation and management.

Plan Costs Money-Can go very HighCesar 00(Herman, 2000, Cordio, "Collected Essays on the Economics of Coral Reefs," www.mcatoolkit.org/pdf/Publications_and_Presentations/Pub_TZ_Collected_Essays.pdf, 6/29/14, AF)This chapter provides an introduction to the economics of coral reef restoration. A comparison of coral restoration schemes from four countries indicates that costs can vary from some US$ 13,000 per ha to over a hundred

million US$ per ha. However, it also reveals that cost estimates in the literature are not readily comparable, and that many cost components of restoration are ignored. Little work has been conducted into the potential benefits of coral restoration. This issue is briefly considered with reference to the case studies. The chapter suggests that a benefit–cost analysis approach should be used more often to help assess the justification for coral reef restoration and to improve the efficiency of any such expenditure. It is clear that a greater understanding of the economics and biology of coral reef restoration is required, as well as consideration of alternative management options, before being able to determine with confidence whether coral reef restoration really is an effective use of available funds.

Operational costs will be highly variable depending on the nature of the scheme and site specific factors. Few studies highlight

and reveal the likely costs involved. However, Miller et al. do provide an indication of costs for 25 different types of coral restoration monitoring activities. Costs are shown to range from between US$ 5,000–100,000 for each activity although it is not clear as to how large an area these costs relate to.

Florida DA

Florida UQ—Economy

Florida’s economy high now, but will remain fragileFlorida Chamber of Commerce 13(1/15/13, Florida Chamber of Commerce, “FLORIDA’S ECONOMY AND THE FISCAL CLIFF,” http://www.flchamber.com/floridas-economy-and-the-fiscal-cliff/, 7/1/14, SM)The Fiscal Cliff and Florida’s Future Economy¶ While many analysts expect Congress and the White House to reach an agreement on key provisions of the coming fiscal cliff, the total effect of higher taxes and spending cuts pose significant obstacles to Florida’s economic growth in 2013. According to Dr. David Denslow, an economist at the University of Florida, the combined effect of tax hikes and spending cuts would lead

to job losses of up to 140,000 by the end of 2013. In addition, Florida could see a reduction a $16 billion in GSP which is more than 2% of Florida’s economy. The projected job losses from the fiscal cliff in 2013 would be equivalent to over half of the

jobs created over the last year.¶ Currently, Florida is on track for the highest level of economic output since 2008 but this recovery remains fragile . Florida’s economy needs hundreds of thousands new jobs to reach its pre-recession

employment level. Florida’s economic growth and job creation will be temporarily stunted in 2013 if the nation falls off the fiscal cliff. Reaching a compromise to avert the fiscal changes may help reduce economic risk and uncertainty, providing more stability for Florida businesses. At the same time, policy makers will be pressed to consider the growing national debt as they craft a solution.

Florida’s economy fragileBlake, Reporter for Miami Today, 14(Scott, 1/15/14, Miami Today, “Florida’s rebound from Great Recession strengthens,” http://www.miamitodaynews.com/2014/01/15/floridas-rebound-great-recession-strengthens/, 7/1/14, SM)Florida’s economy is expected to continue to rebound in 2014 – albeit very fragilely – from the Great Recession of 2008 and 2009.¶ Although the housing market has made significant progress, economists expect it will take many more years to recover what was lost when the market collapsed.¶ And unemployment rates have fallen to their lowest levels since 2008 but, economists note, much of the drop is because many Floridians have stopped looking for work and are no longer counted as unemployed.¶ “Forgive me if I do not raise a toast to the start of a new phase of robust growth in the US economy that is here to stay: to a long-awaited period of actual recovery that will lift all boats with its rising tide of prosperity,” University of Central Florida economist Sean Snaith wrote recently in his annual economic forecast.¶ “I’ve seen this movie before and that is not what follows this current

scene of economic data reports,” he added. “I know the villain awaits us in 2014 and the uncertainty of the Affordable Care Act, Dodd-Frank regulatory reform, and what path the Fed will follow as it unexpectedly took its first step in its taper off of bond purchases in December are a cabal conspiring to suck out the wind that currently is providing the economy with its lift.”¶ For starters, the housing market is expected to continue to strengthen from what Mr. Snaith, director of the university’s Institute for Economic Competiveness, calls a “deep and protracted depression.”¶ Data shows that prices have risen significantly, inventories have fallen to low levels, and sales have climbed. It has lifted many Floridians above water on their mortgages for the first time in years. It also has restored billions of dollars in lost housing wealth, he noted, and has sent a signal to builders that more inventory is needed as housing construction activity has increased.¶ In the Miami-Fort Lauderdale-Pompano Beach metro area, housing starts are expected to rise in 2014 for the fifth consecutive year after bottoming out in 2009.¶

“All these are indicators of a high grade housing market,” Mr. Snaith wrote, “yet housing in Florida enters 2014 in a delicate condition as new regulations are set to kick in, interest rates are set to rise as the Fed has taken its first steps to tighten monetary policy, and the diminishing role of cash investors raises questions about the sturdiness of Florida’s housing recovery.”

Florida k2 BioD

Endangered Species Located In the Florida Keys ReefsFlorida Department of Environmental Protection, 12(Florida Department of Environmental Protection, 5/02/12, Florida Department of Environmental Protection, http://www.dep.state.fl.us/coastal/sites/keys/info.htm, 6/29/14, TH)

The Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary contains one of North America's most diverse assemblages of terrestrial, estuarine, and marine fauna and flora. Formed by significant geological, physical, and biological processes, the area is one of the most complex ecosystems on Earth, and includes mangrove-fringed shorelines, mangrove islands, seagrass meadows, hardbottom habitats, thousands of patch reefs, and one of the world's largest coral reef tracts. The Key's ecosystem supports a diverse assemblage of species, including commercially and recreationally important, unique to the area or spatially limited due to

habitat constraints. Fully one third of Florida’s endangered species call the coral reef ecosystem home for at least part of their lifespan.

Florida k2 Disease

Florida Reefs Key To Cure Diseases Caron, NBC News, 12(Christina, 4/20/12, NBC News, http://dailynightly.nbcnews.com/_news/2012/04/20/11308813-doctors-develop-life-saving-drugs-from-coral-reefs?lite, 6/29/14, TH)

KEY WEST -- The kaleidoscope of life in the coral reefs under the turquoise waters of the Florida Keys is a magnet for tourists, but it’s not

just a pretty view. The same chemistry that helps corals and sponges survive is also helping people fight cancer. “What we’re

doing is taking advantage of that chemistry and turning those chemicals into drugs to save lives,” said Stephanie Wear, director of coral reef conservation at the Nature Conservancy. Wear describes the reefs as the "New York City" of the oceans,

“where everything is happening,” because it is 400 to 600 times more likely to find a source for a drug in the ocean than on land -- and the densely packed coral reefs are an even more plentiful source. But climate change and waterway pollution threaten the sea life that house these healing properties. “The [coral reef] population is diminished by about 90 percent across the Caribbean,” said James Byrne, the marine science program manager at the Nature Conservancy. With corals under siege, scientists at the Nature Conservancy have created coral farms --- currently supporting more than 30,000 corals across Florida and the U.S. Virgin Islands -- to sustainably harvest the life-saving properties of the reef. “We’re taking these corals and growing them out in nurseries just like a tree farm would and replanting them back on the reef and doing it in a way that we’re really maximizing that potential for reproduction in

the future,” said Byrne. In the clear waters of the Florida Keys, scientists glue some of the corals to cinder blocks on the ocean floor, and hang others from a rope resembling a laundry line, allowing them to float in the water. Eventually, they hope to put out up to 4,000 corals a

year – all to battle some of the worst diseases known to humankind: cancer, leukemia, AIDS -- and perhaps even Lupus, Alzheimer’s, and Parkinson’s.

Florida k2 Fishing

Florida reefs key to the fishing industryFlorida Department of Environmental Protection: Coral Reef Conservation Program, No Date(Florida Department of Environmental Protection: Coral Reef Conservation Program, No Date, http://www.dep.state.fl.us/coastal/programs/coral/reports/AA/AA_Project2_MediaKits.pdf, 6/29/14, TH)

In addition to supporting a diverse assortment of marine life, coral reefs drive an important economic engine in southeast Florida. Reefs support a thriving tourism industry, as well as recreational and commercial fisheries, and provide shoreline protection. The economic benefits derived from coral reefs decline when reefs are negatively impacted by human activities.

Recent studies have revealed the following: • Florida's commercial fishing fleet brought in $180 million worth of seafood in 2002. Coral reef ecosystems provide nursery habitat for important recreational and commercial fisheries2. • Recreational boating employs 110,000 people in Broward County and nearly 7,000 people in Palm Beach County3. • Each meter of reef is estimated to protect $47,000 in property values by mitigating the effects of coastal erosion and storms4. It has further been estimated that the cost of destroying 1 kilometer of coral reef ranges from $137,000 to over $1 million over a 25-year period when taking into account the benefits derived from fisheries, shoreline protection and tourism5. Southeast Florida reefs have the potential to provide many additional social benefits. Scientists are isolating and using fluorescent proteins found in coral to study biological processes associated with AIDS, Alzheimer's disease, cancer, and other diseases6. Other coral compounds are being studied in an effort to develop medicines to combat serious diseases like cancer. More recently, corals have been used for bone grafting7. Corals are also credited with removing, fixing and recycling atmospheric carbon dioxide, excessive amounts of which contribute to global warming.

Florida k2 Tourism

Florida Reefs Key To Economy Florida Department of Environmental Protection: Coral Reef Conservation Program, No Date(Florida Department of Environmental Protection: Coral Reef Conservation Program, No Date, http://www.dep.state.fl.us/coastal/programs/coral/reports/AA/AA_Project2_MediaKits.pdf, 6/29/14, TH)

In addition to supporting a diverse assortment of marine life, coral reefs drive an important economic engine in southeast Florida. Reefs support a thriving tourism industry, as well as recreational and commercial fisheries, and provide shoreline protection. The economic benefits derived from coral reefs decline when reefs are negatively impacted by human activities.

Recent studies have revealed the following: • In southeast Florida, 28 million person-days are spent using natural and artificial reefs annually1. (A person-day is defined as one person participating in an activity for a portion or all of a day.) •

Reef-related expenditures generate $1 billion in income to Broward County and sustain 36,000 jobs annually1. • Reef-related expenditures generate $614 million in income to Miami-Dade County and sustain 19,000 jobs annually1. • Reef-related expenditures generate $194 million in income to Palm Beach County and sustain 6,300 jobs annually1. • Reef-related expenditures generate $5.8 million in income to Martin County and sustain 182 jobs annually2. • Reef-related expenditures generate nearly $4 billion dollars in sales in the southeast Florida region annually1. • Florida's commercial fishing fleet brought in $180 million worth of seafood in 2002. Coral reef ecosystems provide nursery habitat for important recreational and commercial fisheries2. • Recreational boating employs 110,000 people in Broward County and nearly 7,000 people in Palm Beach County3. • Each meter of reef is estimated to protect $47,000 in property values by mitigating the effects of coastal erosion and storms4. It has further been estimated that the cost of destroying 1 kilometer of coral reef ranges from $137,000 to over $1 million over a 25-year period when taking into account the benefits derived from fisheries, shoreline protection and tourism5. Southeast Florida reefs have the potential to provide many additional social benefits. Scientists are isolating and using fluorescent proteins found in coral to study biological processes associated with AIDS, Alzheimer's disease, cancer, and other diseases6. Other coral compounds are being studied in an effort to develop medicines to combat serious diseases like cancer. More recently, corals have been used for bone grafting7. Corals are also credited with removing, fixing and recycling atmospheric carbon dioxide, excessive amounts of which contribute to global warming.

Florida k2 Panama

Florida k2 global trade

Development of Florida’s ports key to Florida’s global trade—Panama Canal expansionRevello, Co-Publisher & Editor at FORWARD Florida, 14(Susan, 4/5/14, Forward Florida, “Panama Canal Expansion, Ripple Effect to Florida,” http://forwardflorida.com/florida-transportation/ripple-effect/, 7/1/14, SM)Since the announcement of the Panama Canal expansion in 2006, shock waves have been felt by businesses and ports around the world of the

economic opportunities this portends for trade. At just 1,162 miles from the Canal, Florida is sitting pretty in terms of direct benefits from the expanded Canal, scheduled for completion in late 2015 (barring further delays). The Florida peninsula is the only state to directly border the Atlantic Ocean and the Gulf of Mexico. ¶ Port Miami is the first port of call and, on the Gulf side, Port Manatee and Port Tampa Bay are also gearing up. Simply put, Florida ports are the closest to the Panama Canal. And all 15 ports are looking at economic ripple effects, whether direct or indirect from the increased cargo via the Canal.¶ PortMiami will be the first Florida port to reach a depth of 50 feet.¶ Port Miami will be the first Florida port to reach a depth of 50 feet.¶ The expansion, started in 2007, has given new meaning to the term deep water ports. The massive $5.25 billion (and growing) construction project entails the addition of a third set of locks for the 50-mile Canal that links the Pacific and Atlantic oceans, essentially doubling its capacity. Accommodating a larger sized vessel known as New Panamax, the ramifications for global trade are staggering. (Different terms have been used to describe the size of these new ships; for official terminology see chart below.)¶ Evolution of Container Ships¶ Evolution of Container Ships¶ Given the lack of federal funds

for ports in recent years, Florida has stepped up under the leadership of Gov. Rick Scott, and the state is taking care of business when it comes to its infrastructure and especially seaports.¶ “As a businessman, Gov. Scott saw the value of this type of investment and the return on investment that will be provided to the state in jobs and revenue,” says Doug

Wheeler, president and CEO of the Florida Ports Council. He adds, “The level of investment is unprecedented.”¶ In late January

the governor announced $8.8 billion for the Florida Department of Transportation in his 2014 budget, the

largest amount designated for the FDOT in the state’s history. Of that, nearly $139 million is going toward seaport infrastructure improvements. This comes on the heels of last year’s $8.6 billion budget. “The Department of Transportation is much more than roads and bridges,” says Florida Secretary of Transportation Ananth Prasad. “It is truly an economic development agency.”¶ Wheeler noted that most of the state funds are matched 50/50 by the ports, which makes the investments even more impressive. He cites, for example, the Port Tampa Bay container yard improvement project that received $10.4 million and was matched by the port, resulting in a total investment of $20.8 million. Since the voters of Panama overwhelmingly voted (80 percent) to widen and deepen the 50-mile Canal in 2006, the world has been watching, waiting and making preparations. It’s a global event—trade routes are being scrutinized, larger ships are being ordered and built, and countries and ports are all competing for a share of the bounty that will come from the enlarged Panama Canal.¶ The project, now estimated at nearly $7 billion, will encompass a new set of locks—known as “Panamax”—that will allow ships of 1,400 feet in length, 180 feet in width and 60 feet in depth to pass through. Current ships have a cargo capacity of 5,000 TEU, or twenty-foot equivalent unit (a measure of cargo capacity). After the widening that number will increase to 13,000 TEU. The new vessels will be able to carry 12,600 20-foot

containers.¶ While no one has a proverbial crystal ball when it comes to the ultimate economic impact from the expanded Canal, even if Florida does not capture as much new trade as anticipated, it is still a win for the state. New infrastructure is critical to economic development and even a small movement in cargo from the Panama Canal will result in hundreds of millions of dollars. If the ports did not dredge to deeper depths and upgrade, they would not be a player and by extension would be out of the game entirely.¶ In order to remain competitive, the same can be said for the Panama Canal. Just as so many things in today’s society have gotten bigger (Super Size Me mentality), so too, goes the way of shipping. In the immortal words of Roy Scheider in the classic movie Jaws, “You’re going to need a bigger boat.”¶ The Canal had to expand in this era of extremely large ships. Back in 1914, the year the Canal opened, U.S. Navy ships narrowly fit through the waterways. By 1996, three years before the U.S. handed control of the Canal back to Panama, full-fledged Post Panamax container ships were introduced. Applying the principle of economies of scale to maritime transportation: the larger the ship, the lower the cost per unit transported. The larger container ships are already navigating the Suez Canal.¶ “You can’t say unequivocally if you go to 50 feet you’re going to get all this business from the Canal. But I can assure you that if you don’t go to 50 feet, you will definitely not get the business,” says Wheeler.¶ He sees the investment in the state’s port

infrastructures as keeping Florida competitive and viable in the new “wave” of supersized container vessels.¶ DRILLING FOR DOLLARS¶ PortMiami is undergoing a $2 billion expansion and improvement. The dredging of the channel entrance from 42 feet to 50 feet began in January. Scott provided $112.5 million for the $220 million, 18-month dredging project. Panamanian President Ricardo Martinelli visited Miami last November and advised ports along the East Coast to follow Miami’s lead and dredge to 50 feet or become irrelevant.¶ “The countdown is on! The Panama Canal project is two-thirds completed. A wider and deeper Canal means shippers will have new

options for all water routes from Asia to markets on the East Coast,” says Bill Johnson, director of PortMiami. “PortMiami, the first U.S. port of call from Panama, is well positioned to benefit from the new trade opportunities. PortMiami

will be the only port south of Norfolk, Va., at the required 50 feet depth to accommodate the new generation of larger cargo vessels.”¶ ¶ MAKING WAVES¶ Most massive construction projects have encountered difficulties and the Panama Canal is no exception. Given that the original Canal took nearly 32 years to build, from conception to completion, this project has hit a $1.6 billion bump in the road. The original opening was to coincide with the Canal’s Centennial celebration this summer. However, it has been pushed back to late 2015.¶ Currently there are concerns the opening may be pushed back further due to a dispute between the consortium contracted for the work and the Panama Canal Authority (PCA). While it has been reported problems arose in 2010, the dispute went public in January. The Grupo Unidos Por el Canal (GUPC) is led by Spain’s Sacyr SA and Italy’s Impreglio. A $1.6 billion cost overrun has landed both parties in arbitration.¶ A key issue is whether the two sides can work it out or whether the project will be completed by another consortium. There have been conflicting media reports about the work slowing down or being stopped outright.¶ PCA feels the consortium purposefully underbid ($1 billion lower than U.S. firm Bechtel). Meanwhile the consortium blames problems on studies by Panama before work began, resulting in excavation problems in getting the basalt it requires to make its cement. Cement is a very important material as the expansion will require 4.3 million cubic meters of concrete.¶ “Panama has the resources and will finish work by 2015, regardless of what happens—rain, thunder or lightning,” Panamian President Martinelli said at the World Economic Forum in Davos, Switzerland, in January.¶ With the world watching, most officials are confident the project will be completed in 2015. Prasad and others noted that much of the construction has already occurred.¶ ¶ LOCATION¶ Any company in the world is going to seek the cheapest route for product distribution. Getting from Point A to Point B in the most cost-efficient method will always be the guiding principle. Ships being able to sail to Florida from Asia via the Panama Canal, instead of embarking at West Coast U.S. ports and then spending money on inland transit, will be less expensive. U.S. importers may also look to the Panama Canal versus the Suez Canal for time-saving, shorter routes.¶ Companies that will benefit are those that move goods from Asia to the U.S.¶ Copenhagen-based A.P. Moeller-Maersk, the world’s biggest container-shipping company, and Beijing-based China Ocean Shipping Group Co. are prime examples. Transportation companies may be able to cut transport costs as much as 30 percent by sending bigger ships through the Panama Canal.¶ Ninety percent of goods that come to Florida arrive by water. In only 48 hours goods can arrive to any destination on the East Coast and the Midwest.¶ Florida is also gaining in population and is expected to surpass New York this year as the third most populous state. (See Page 10.) There are more than 19 million consumers in the Sunshine State.¶ While California is No. 1 in population at 38 million, its West Coast ports are aware of the potential ramifications of the Panama Canal expansion. It has been reported that in Los Angeles, the busiest container port in the U.S., officials are spending $1 million per day to improve infrastructure and defend their market share.¶ ¶ ENERGY MARKET¶ Another important feature of the Panama Canal expansion is the ability to export U.S. natural gas and crude oil to markets in Asia. The latest data shows that the U.S. is the world’s biggest producer of natural gas. U.S. natural gas is inexpensive when used domestically, but it must be frozen and liquefied to be piped onto tankers for global export. Without the Canal expansion, U.S. tankers would have to pass the Cape of Horn at the southern end of South America to reach Asian markets. In addition to being a longer route, it is also significantly more expensive.¶ Currently only about 6 percent of the world’s LNG (liquified natural gas) tankers can pass through the Canal. After the expansion, it will accommodate about 90 percent of the tankers.¶ Placed into service in 2002, the 745-mile Gulfstream pipeline originates in Mississippi, continues to Coden—a fishing village near Mobile Bay, Ala.—and runs natural gas under the Gulf of Mexico to the sea at Port Manatee.¶ Air Products opened a manufacturing facility adjacent to Port Manatee in January. The 32-acre site next to the port will cut transportation costs as it is just one mile from the plant to the port docks. The company’s proprietary technology processes and cryogenically liquefies natural gas.¶ Clean Energy Fuels opened the first LNG fueling station in Jacksonville, where it will supply maritime vessels and heavy duty trucks and trains. One of Jaxport’s goals is to become a leader in liquefied natural gas, and it will also be dredging the St. Johns River Channel to 47 feet to accommodate larger cargo ships.¶ ¶ MADE IN FLORIDA¶ In addition to preparing for new larger ships, Florida is also focusing on increased manufacturing.¶ “We saw a lot of cargo ships leaving empty, so we rolled in manufacturing opportunities for the state,” says Prasad.¶ On a recent trade mission to Panama, Secretary of Agriculture Adam Putnam was working on an agriculture deal with the Panamanians to export blueberries and strawberries. Putnam wants Florida farmers to take advantage of an influx of new ships to Florida ports by putting their fruit on the outbound freighters.¶ Manny Mencia, senior vice president of international trade and business development for Enterprise Florida, feels energized when it comes to manufacturing. He believes Florida has a tremendous infrastructure to support the international business: “We’ve been one of the fastest growing exporters in the nation as an origin export.” He also touted an Enterprise Florida program that helps Florida companies with export diversification to identify second and third export markets.¶ Wheeler would love to see companies relocate to the state that can take advantage of the improved infrastructure. “So bring a company to Florida that wants to manufacture a product that needs to utilize an airport in order to get a component in, put the piece together and then put it on a ship and send it to China. Let’s attract businesses that need to use our ports and airports,” he says.¶ Beginning in April, the state senate approved the governor’s initiative to provide Florida manufacturers with an exemption on sales taxes on new machinery and equipment bought for use in their factories.¶ ¶ WATER’S EDGE¶ While the depth of water is critical to accommodate the bigger ships, there also remains all the infrastructure requirements to offload cargo, transport and store, and distribute. PortMiami has invested $39 million from the state and county to purchase four Super Post-Panamax cranes with the capacity to handle the new class of megaships with a cargo capacity of more than 10,000 TEUs. PortMiami’s nearly $1 billion tunnel project (120 feet below sea level) is also in the works and expected to be complete this May. It will allow trucks to bypass downtown Miami, resulting in twice the traffic capacity to the port. Port Manatee has extended berth capacity and container storage space. Within the next 10 to 15 years, the port plans to develop its north side as a draw for additional container shipments. Port Tampa Bay has been preparing for Canal-borne cargo, including the construction of a new container terminal and the purchase of Post-Panamax cranes. Port Canaveral also continues to develop expansion plans.¶ In addition, seaports are teaming up with private partners and regional governments, as well as the state, and building ramps and access roads, overpasses and underpasses, rail linkages, and intermodal container transfer facilities and logistics centers.¶ “There are things we can be doing on the land side that make shipping to the East Coast more attractive, whether you go through the Panama Canal or the Suez Canal than perhaps going to a South American country or the West Coast,” says Wheeler. (See Page 32 for coverage of inland ports.)¶ Flying under the flag of Panama, the MSC SAMANTHA container ship lists Port Tampa Bay among its destinations. Photo: Port Tampa Bay¶ Flying under the flag of Panama, the MSC SAMANTHA container ship lists Port Tampa Bay among its destinations. ¶ Photo: Port Tampa Bay¶ ¶ RISING TIDE¶ Ultimately when it comes to

infrastructure, by virtue of its definition, it is all connected. “I have to thank my boss, Gov. Scott, for recognizing the role infrastructure plays in the vision for our state and its overall role in economic development,” notes

Prasad.¶ With that said, while the Panama Canal expansion represents a huge opportunity for Florida to

increase its global trade, considering that Florida seaports currently generate 550,000 direct and indirect jobs and contribute $96 billion in economic value to the state through cargo and cruise activities, it’s already a healthy sector. Florida maritime activities account for approximately 13 percent of Florida’s Gross Domestic Product. When you factor in that a recent DOT study confirmed a return on investment of $7 for every $1 invested in port infrastructure, according to Wheeler, it’s not only smart business but a very safe bet for the future.¶ The European explorers who discovered the Americas came by sea to our shores looking for gold. Today, more than 500 years later, we are looking once again to the ocean to seek our own share of riches.

Expansion of the ports will boost Florida’s economy—jobs and tax revenueTurner, Reporter for the News Service of Florida, 14(Jim, 5/19/14, Florida Today, “PortMiami tunnel sets stage for Florida projects,” http://www.floridatoday.com/story/news/local/2014/05/19/portmiami-tunnel-sets-stage-florida-projects/9311021/, 7/1/14, SM)TALLAHASSEE – Gov. Rick Scott on Monday celebrated the soon-to-open, $915 million PortMiami tunnel.¶ And when the new state budget arrives on his desk, Scott will get to decide on spending $139 million more over the next year to continue the rush to upgrade Florida’s

seaports.¶ The port funding — tied to expanding global trade and attracting the larger cargo ships expected to traverse a widened Panama Canal — has been packaged at more than $117 million for the fourth consecutive year.¶ The proposed funding would go to about 20 port projects, including $15 million for a gantry crane at Port Tampa Bay; $9.75 million for a new cruise terminal at Port Canaveral; and $2.6 million for a revamp of Port of Jacksonville's Blount Island marine terminal.¶ In a prepared statement

following the tunnel ceremony, Scott said “investing in our ports is key to our success” in creating jobs.¶ However, his office wasn’t ready Monday to say that any of the proposed port funding approved by lawmakers this spring is safe from the veto pen. Legislative leaders have not yet sent the proposed 2014-15 budget to Scott for his signature and vetoes.¶ “Governor Scott has made investments in Florida’s ports a top priority for growing jobs for Florida families — and looks forward to reviewing the budget once it reaches his desk,” stated John Tupps, a spokesman for Scott, in an email.¶ Using the scheduled 2015 completion of the Panama Canal work as a catalyst,

Florida has been in a race against other east coast states to deepen harbors and improve dockside facilities, with seaport funding jumping from $8 million in 2008 to $117 million in 2011, reaching nearly $288 million in the current year.¶

Florida Ports Council spokeswoman Jennifer Davis called the money “another critical step in making Florida’s infrastructure competitive in the global marketplace.”¶ “The fact is that our geography and built-in consumer market are unique assets that are attractive to global business leaders,” Davis said in an email

Monday. “However, building the transportation infrastructure they need is the final piece that will make Florida a global hub for commerce.”¶ During media interviews Monday morning, the governor continued to highlight the need to improve the state’s seaports and transportation infrastructure.¶ “It’s going to put us on the map,” Scott said of the PortMiami work during an appearance on WFOR in Miami. “We’ll be dredged to 50 feet, the only port south of Virginia. But the most important thing, it will create more jobs.”¶ The state- and locally-funded tunnel, which could open to the public by the end of the month, is designed to speed trucks and passenger vehicles on an alternative bay crossing between the port and the MacArthur Causeway, providing a direct connection to Miami International

Airport and Interstate 95.¶ Scott said the tunnel and an ongoing $220 million dredging to deepen the channel and harbor from 42 feet to 52

feet, will bring an additional 33,000 jobs and $34 billion annual impact from the port.¶ Hopeful of an eventual federal repayment, Scott directed $77 million from the Florida Department of Transportation’s work plan to the dredging in 2011, with the state’s contribution eventually growing to $112.5 million. Miami-Dade County covered the rest of the work.¶ Scott also used the tunnel opening to repeatedly criticize his potential Democratic gubernatorial challenger, former Republican Gov. Charlie Crist.¶ “This is something that Jeb Bush pushed, it had a big priority, Charlie Crist didn’t, so it slowed down and we lost some jobs,” Scott said on WFOR. “But we’re back on track.”¶ Similar comments were repeated in other interviews.¶ The project actually has been on the board for more than 30 years, getting approved to proceed in October 2009, a little more than two years before the massive tunnel work began.¶ However, improving the ports across Florida has grown in importance since Scott took office, with the Florida Chamber of Commerce's 2010 report, “Florida Trade and Logistics Study,” serving

as the blueprint for the governor and state lawmakers.¶ The report declared the state has a “once in a generation” opportunity to add 143,000 port-related jobs while boosting port business by $21.5 billion and tax revenue by $723 million a year.¶ “We believe … we can create 150,000 new high paying jobs over the next five years by simply doubling our exports from Florida,” Mark Wilson, president and CEO of the Florida Chamber of Commerce, told the state Cabinet last week.

Florida k2 Economy

Florida has a large economy—key to US economyFlorida Chamber of Commerce 14(6/16/14, Florida Chamber of Commerce, “DID YOU KNOW: FLORIDA’S ECONOMY IS AN $800 BILLION POWERHOUSE,” http://www.flchamber.com/article/know-floridas-economy-800-billion-powerhouse/, 7/1/14, SM)Did you know? Florida’s economy is an $800 billion powerhouse. If the Sunshine State was a country, Florida’s economy would be the 18th largest in the world – larger than Saudi Arabia, Poland, Chile and Argentina.¶ Florida’s economy can be measured any number of ways. From employment and unemployment rates to education rankings and income metrics- there are a number of ways to examine how Florida is moving toward a prosperous future. One important economic measure we will focus on in this Scorecard Did You Know is Florida’s gross domestic product (GDP).¶ Florida’s GDP is the measure of all economic activity within the state. It is calculated as the sum of all value added by industries in the state. All of Florida’s economic activity – from production to consumption – is calculated and reported in dollars.¶ The official GDP figures for all 50 states for 2013 have just been

released by the Bureau of Economic Analysis, and the results show sunnier skies for the Sunshine State. For 2013, Florida’s economy passed the $800 billion mark for the first time – a 4.1 percent growth rate from 2012. Throughout the past

three years, the economy in Florida has grown a total of 9.9 percent, from $728 billion to its current level. The 2013 numbers rank Florida number four in size (behind California, Texas and New York). ¶ What does this mean?¶ Florida’s thriving economy continues to diversify and as such, helps fuel the production of goods and services. Moreover, a growth like that also means more jobs are being created, more Floridians are getting back to work and Florida’s business climate continues to be one of the most business friendly climates in the nation. Almost four years ago, Florida had more than 11 percent unemployment, lost 830,000 jobs and added

$5.2 billion in debt. Now we can appreciate the more than $70 billion in economic growth in the past three years.

Mexico CP

(Mexico key to artificial reefs?)- Mexico already has artificial reef tech/ building experience Fikes, Staff Scientist at the National Wildlife Federation, ‘13 (Ryan, November 2013, NFW, “Artificial Reefs of the Gulf of Mexico: A Review of Gulf State Programs & Key Considerations”, http://www.nwf.org/~/media/PDFs/Water/Review-of-GoM-Artificial-Reefs-Report.pdf, 6/27/14, AEG& 6/28/14 SH) There are many different types of natural occurring reefs within the Gulf of Mexico, but‐ the natural bottom of the Northern Gulf of Mexico is predominately flat sand. Outside of a few, ecologically important coral reefs off the Florida coast and the Texas/Louisiana border, ‐ the Gulf’s natural nearshore reefs are primarily shallow carbonate banks of scattered boulders rather than discrete reef complexes. The Gulf’s estuaries are also home to reef complexes, primarily oyster reefs which provide nursery habitat for fish and other wildlife, protection from predators, water filtration, and reduced erosion. In addition, oyster reefs have significant economic impacts, including commercial fishing and indirect contributions to Gulf Coast tourism. The Gulf of Mexico accounts for approximately 67% of the nation’s total oyster harvest. Unfortunately, the estuaries of the Northern Gulf of Mexico are believed to have lost well over half of their historic oyster reefs, primarily a result of overharvesting by means of destructive dredging practices and habitat degradation, including reductions in water quality and quantity. Additional types of natural reefs found in Gulf estuaries are serpulid (calcareous) reefs in Texas and fragmented coral reefs in bays of Florida leading to the Florida Keys coral archipelago. Serpulid reefs were formed from the calcareous tubes of serpulid worms in hypersaline bays such as Baffin Bay in Texas. Formation of the reefs began about 3,000 years ago and ended about 300 years ago, so degradation of these reefs contributes to the loss of hard substrate in the system. Florida reefs face threats from coral bleaching events and outbreaks of various coral diseases. 4 | Page All five Gulf States have implemented artificial reef programs that aim to supplement the Gulf’s natural reef habitats . According to William Seaman, Jr. (2000) an artificial reef is defined as "one or more objects of natural or human origin deployed purposefully on the sea floor to influence physical, biological, or socioeconomic processes related to living marine resources." Nearshore artificial reefs can be created that will develop communities of encrusting organisms and bait fish over time. As various encrusting organisms such as corals and sponges cover the artificial reef material, small animals take up residence. As these small animals become abundant larger animals are attracted and feed upon these, and so on until a reef food web is created. Energy is able to then provide biological growth potential that provides additional protective habitat, as well as sustenance for fish species. Some experts believe that artificial reefs can function comparably to natural reef communities. Others argue that artificial reefs merely attract existing fish from the adjacent open water habitat, forming more dense fish aggregations

Mexico has more experience in building artificial reefs- successful projects in Isla Mujeres

Romano & Provenzani, GUE, N/A (Global Underwater Explorers, GUE collaborates with a wide range of governmental and

non-governmental organizations to explore and protect the aquatic realm, “Artificial Reefs”, https://www.globalunderwaterexplorers.org/artificial-reefs, 6/27/14, AEG& 6/28/14SH)

A good example of a well-designed, well-planned, and well-executed artificial reef can be found in the National Marine Park of Isla Mujeres in Mexico. This national park was established in 1996 in the Caribbean marine area delimited by Cancun, Isla Mujeres and Puerto Morelos in the southern state of Quintana Roo. The reef (so far) consists of two decommissioned minesweepers, gifted to the park by the Secreteria de Marina Armada de Mexico (SM-AM). These are the C-58 Anaya and C-55 Juan de la Barrera. The vessels, each 60 feet long and of 1,000-ton displacement, were sunk at a depth of 83 feet/25 meters on May 28 and October 25, 2000, respectively. The park management decided to use the “artificial reef strategy” to try and protect its coralline barrier because of the important ecological and tourist value it offers. Future plans by the park’s monitoring project include the sinking of several additional structures to provide further building blocks for new marine ecosystems. These will be strategically placed around the marine park area to create alternative diving sites for the burgeoning scuba industry and to reduce the environmental impact caused by scuba diving activities on natural marine ecosystems.

Australia CP

Australia is one of the leaders in coral reef preservation- successful on going preservation programsACF n/a (Australian Conservation Foundation, “Conserving the Great Barrier Reef”, http://www.acfonline.org.au/about-us/our-success-stories/conserving-great-barrier, accessed 6/29/14 SH)Despite being such an extraordinary, irreplaceable natural resource, the Reef is constantly at risk. Over the past 40 years, ACF has worked to conserve this unique ecosystem and protect it from the threat of petroleum extraction, limestone mining, overfishing and trawling. Perhaps our greatest success was influencing the expansion of the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park in 2003 and 2004. Over 3500 dedicated submissions from our supporters to the Marine Park Authority saw environmentally protected areas of the Reef increase from 5 per cent to one third of its expanse. We pushed for the formation of a single body to oversee the reef, which resulted in the establishment of the National Park and the Maritime Authority. With the support of the community we advocated for World Heritage Listing for the Reef, which was

achieved in 1983 after an extensive media campaign. Today, the Reef faces ongoing challenges such as coral bleaching, caused by increases in water temperature linked to global warming. Melting sea ice and climbing global temperatures pose a real and pronounced threat to the viability of this national treasure. We stand for the Great Barrier’s ongoing preservation, so future generations can appreciate the diversity of life that flourishes in the Reef.

Politics LinksOpposition to coral reef preservation—economic consequences—history provesNielson et al, Northwest territory manager at Western Marine Insurance Services, 08(John, David Malakoff, 5/23/08, NPR, “Bush Eyes Unprecedented Conservation Program,” http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=90766237, 6/29/14, SM)Local Hurdles¶ There is already opposition to several of the potential reserves. This month, Republican Sen. David Vitter of Louisiana said he didn't like the plan to protect corals in the Gulf of Mexico, arguing that the economic consequences are "potentially grave," particularly for the fishing industry. Members of Congress from states along the Gulf also floated, and then withdrew, legislative language that would have prevented the government from spending money to

establish the monument.¶ Out in the Pacific, local politicians and commercial interests also are voicing opposition to a Marianas Trench monument.¶ "We don't even have a voting member in Congress, and we've got the president of the U.S., who basically could slam the door on any future potential that is there," says John Gourley, an environmental consultant on the island of Saipan, who has worked for the fishing industry. "[We] should be able to use these resources in an environmentally sensitive manner."¶ A decision on the initiative could come within a month.

Plan unpopular with Sen. Vitter and Rep. Hastings—based on false scienceUS Senate Committee on Environment and Public Works 13(6/14/13, US Senate Committee on Environment and Public Works, “Vitter, Hastings Ask National Marine Fisheries Service to Start Over on Corals Proposal,” http://www.epw.senate.gov/public/index.cfm?FuseAction=PressRoom.PressReleases&ContentRecord_id=43ef626a-f1d1-9719-9da9-2d2f7b3e8b20, 6/29/14, SM)Today, U.S. Sen. David Vitter (R-LA), top Republican on the Senate Environment and Public Works Committee, and U.S. Rep. Doc Hastings (R-WA-04), Chairman of the House Committee on Natural Resources, urged the Administration to start over on their proposal to list 66 coral species as threatened or endangered under the Endangered Species Act (ESA). In a letter to Dr. Kathryn Sullivan, Acting Under

Secretary of Commerce for Oceans and Atmosphere and Acting NOAA Administrator, they cite concerns for the scope and analyses behind the recent proposal and say it will lead to unprecedented regulatory authority over oceans.¶ "This proposal appears designed more to respond to far-left environmentalists' concerns coming from closed-door settlements than it does to ensure it is based on sound science," Vitter said. "The proposed listing relies on highly questionable modeling that attempts to predict ocean temperatures more than 50 years from now. I'd like to see someone tell us with a straight face that listing dozens of species covering millions of ocean miles based on predictions for five decades from now is in the name of science."¶ "Like the Interior Department's closed-door ESA

settlements with litigious groups to list potentially hundreds of species, NOAA's sweeping coral listing proposal appears rushed and focused on meeting settlement demands rather than being based on real data or science," said Chairman Hastings. "A regulatory proposal affecting nearly 60,000 miles of coastline and over 40 million square ocean miles of U.S. and other coastal areas could cause vast economic and energy impacts, and must be carefully scrutinized."

Plan unpopular with GOP—history provesMulvaney 08(Timothy M., Water Log, “Republican Senators Halt President Bush’s Plan for Marine Sanctuaries in Gulf,” http://masgc.org/assets/uploads/publications/326/08-003-03.pdf, 6/29/14, SM)Background¶ In July of 2006, President Bush signed a proclamation protecting over 140,000¶ square miles of the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands and the surrounding¶ waters. Environmentalists hoped that President Bush’s initiative in protecting¶ the waters off Hawaii could serve as a

model for increased marine conservation¶ programs. A plan for a similar sanctuary in Gulf waters would restrict fishing ¶ and oil drilling in certain deep-water reefs and coral banks that scientific ¶ research shows are

essential to the sustenance of the Gulf’s marine ecosystem. ¶ The proposal is known as “Islands in the Stream,” in light of the biological links between submerged hard bottom features, or “islands,” that serve as bastions for marine life but currently are managed in isolation. The islands are connected by the natural looping movement of water, or “the stream,” in the Gulf. Certain links in this island chain lie off the coasts of Mexico and Belize, suggesting that international partnerships could strengthen the preservation of any established sanctuary. ¶ Opposition Prevails for the Present Time¶ On November 7, 2008, William Causey, a southeast regional director for

the¶ National Marine Sanctuary Program organized under NOAA, announced¶ that progress on the proposal had come to a standstill.1Causey noted the ¶ intense opposition from the fishing industry and GOP senators representing ¶ Gulf states. For example, in April, Alabama’s Republican senators, Richard Shelby and Jeffrey Sessions, as well as Sen. David Vitter, R-La., advised the executive branch that they strongly objected to the sanctuary proposal, in light of potential effects on both fishing and the drilling industry.

Opponents of the sanctuary suggest that preserved areas could hold valuable oil and natural gas reserves. Sen. Vitter has asserted that he would oppose any similar sanctuary proposal by any future administration. Causey stressed that the protected areas would be small and the measures would result in little or no change in existing fishing and extraction practices, particularly in light of some prohibitions already in place.

Too many fights already happened over Obama’s national ocean policy—plan causes similar oppositionEilperin, Bachelor’s in Politics from Princeton, 12(Juliet, 10/28/12, Washington Post, “National ocean policy sparks partisan fight,” http://www.washingtonpost.com/national/health-science/national-ocean-policy-sparks-partisan-fight/2012/10/28/af73e464-17a7-11e2-a55c-39408fbe6a4b_story.html, 6/29/14, SM)Partisan battles are engulfing the nation’s ocean policy, showing that polarization over environmental issues doesn’t stop at the water’s edge.¶ For years, ocean policy was the preserve of wonks. But President Obama created the first national ocean policy, with a tiny White House staff, and with that set off some fierce election-year fights.¶ Conservative Republicans warn that the administration is determined to expand its regulatory reach and curb the extraction of valuable energy resources, while many Democrats, and their environmentalist allies, argue that the policy will keep the ocean healthy and reduce conflicts over its use.¶ The wrangling threatens to overshadow a fundamental issue — the country’s patchwork approach to managing offshore waters. Twenty-seven federal agencies, representing interests as diverse as farmers and shippers, have some role in governing the oceans. Obama’s July 2010 executive order set up a National Ocean Council, based at the White House, that is designed to reconcile the competing interests of different agencies and ocean users.¶

The policy is already having an impact. The council, for example, is trying to broker a compromise among six federal agencies over the fate of defunct offshore oil rigs in the Gulf of Mexico. Recreational fishermen want the rigs, which attract fish, to stay, but some operators of commercial fishing trawlers consider them a hazard and want them removed.¶ Still, activists invoking the ocean policy to press for federal limits on traditional maritime interests are having little success. The Center for Biological Diversity cited the policy as a reason to slow the speed of vessels traveling through national marine sanctuaries off the California coast. Federal officials denied the petition.¶ During a House Natural Resources Committee hearing on ocean policy last year, the panel’s top Democrat, Rep. Edward J. Markey (Mass.), said that “opposing ocean planning is like opposing air traffic control: You can do it, but it will cause a mess or lead to dire consequences.”¶ Rep. Steve Southerland II (R-Fla.), who is in a tight reelection race, retorted that the policy was “like air traffic control helping coordinate an air invasion on our freedoms.” An environmental group called Ocean Champions is spending hundreds of thousands of dollars to unseat him.¶ The sharp rhetoric puzzles academics such as Boston University biologist Les Kaufman. He contributed to a recent study that showed that using ocean zoning to help design wind farms in Massachusetts Bay could prevent more than $1 million in losses to local fishery and whale-watching operators while allowing wind producers to reap $10 billion in added profits by placing the turbines in the best locations. Massachusetts adopted its own ocean policy, which was introduced by Mitt Romney, the Republican governor at the time, and later embraced by his Democratic successor, Deval L. Patrick.¶ “The whole concept of national ocean policy is to maximize the benefit and minimize the damage. What’s not to love?” Kaufman said, adding that federal officials make decisions about offshore energy production, fisheries and shipping without proper coordination.¶ Nearly a decade ago, two bipartisan commissions called upon the government to coordinate its decisions regarding federal waters, which extend from the roughly three-mile mark where state waters end to 200 miles from shore.¶ When Romney moved to establish ocean zoning in 2005 in Massachusetts, he warned that without it there could be “a Wild West shootout, where projects were permitted on a ‘first come, first served’ basis.”¶ In Washington, however, legislation to create an ocean zoning process failed. The policy set by Obama in 2010 calls for five regions of the country — the Mid-Atlantic, New England, the Caribbean, the West Coast and the Pacific — to set up regional bodies to offer input.¶ White House Council for Environmental Quality spokeswoman Taryn Tuss said the policy does not give the federal government new authority or change congressional mandates. “It simply streamlines implementation of the more than 100 laws and regulations that already affect our oceans.”¶ House Natural Resources Committee Chairman Doc Hastings (R-Wash.) said he is not opposed to a national ocean policy in theory. But he said he is concerned that the administration’s broad definition of what affects the ocean — including runoff from land — could open the

door to regulating all inland activities, because “all water going downhill goes into the ocean. . . . That potential could be there.”¶ The

House voted in May to block the federal government from spending money on implementing the policy, though the amendment has not passed the Senate.¶ Two influential groups — anglers and energy firms — have joined Republicans in questioning the administration’s approach.¶ In March, ESPN Outdoors published a piece arguing that the policy “could prohibit U.S. citizens from fishing some of the nation’s oceans, coastal areas, Great Lakes, and even inland waters.” The article, which convinced many recreational fishermen

that their fishing rights were in jeopardy, should have been labeled an opinion piece, the editor said later.¶ “Fishermen saw this as just another area where fishing was going to be racheted down,” said Michael Leonard, director of ocean resource policy for the American Sportfishing Association, whose 700 members include the nation’s major boat manufacturers, as well as fish and tackle retailers. Leonard added that the White House has solicited some input from anglers since launching the policy and that they will judge the

policy once its final implementation plan is released, after the election.¶ The National Ocean Policy Coalition — a group based in Houston that includes oil and gas firms as well as mining, farming and chemical interests — has galvanized industry opposition to the policy. Its vice president works as an energy lobbyist at the law firm Arent Fox; its president and executive director work for the firm HBW Resources, which lobbies for energy and shipping interests.¶ Brent Greenfield, the

group’s executive director, said that the public has not had enough input into the development of the policy and that his group worries about “the potential economic impacts of the policy on commercial or recreational activity.”¶ Sarah Cooksey, who is Delaware’s coastal-programs administrator and is slated to co-chair the Mid-Atlantic’s regional planning body, said the policy will streamline application of laws already on the books. “No government wants another layer of bureaucracy,” she said.¶ In Southerland’s reelection race, Ocean Champions has labeled the congressman “Ocean Enemy #1” and sponsored TV ads against him. Jim Clements, a commercial fisherman in the Florida Panhandle district, has mounted billboards against Southerland on the grounds his stance hurts local businesses.¶ Southerland declined to comment for this article.¶ Ocean Champions President David Wilmot said that while most ocean policy

fights are regional, this is “the first issue I’ve seen that’s become partisan. I do not think it will be the last.”

Republican aggression over Obama’s latest ocean policy—same will happen for planLederman, Master’s in journalism from Northwestern University’s Medill School of Journalism, 14(Josh, 6/17/14, White House reporter for AP, St. Louis Post-Dispatch, “Obama setting aside massive Pacific Ocean preserve,” http://www.stltoday.com/news/national/govt-and-politics/obama-setting-aside-massive-pacific-ocean-preserve/article_f0807993-4b36-5d83-85f9-cd8b0e75fde0.html, 6/29/14, SM)Vowing to protect fragile marine life, President Barack Obama acted Tuesday to create the world's largest ocean preserve by expanding a national monument his predecessor established in waters thousands of miles from the American mainland.¶ The designation for a remote stretch of the Pacific Ocean marks a major symbolic victory for environmentalists, who have urged the president to take action on his own to protect the planet as Congress turns its focus elsewhere. But

the initiative will have limited practical implications because little fishing or drilling are taking place even without the new protections.¶ Protecting the world's oceans and the vibrant ecosystems that thrive deep under the surface is a task that's bigger than any one country but the U.S. must take the lead, Obama said, announcing the initiative during an ocean conservation conference.¶ "Let's make sure that years from now we can look our children in the eye and tell them that, yes, we did our part, we took action, and we led the way toward a safer, more stable world," Obama said in a video message.¶ Obama hasn't settled on the final boundaries for the expanded Pacific Remote Islands Marine National Monument, and will solicit input from fishermen, scientists and conservation experts. Obama's senior counselor, John Podesta, said that process would start immediately and wrap up "in the very near future."¶ President George W. Bush, a Republican, created the monument in 2009 by setting aside waters that encircle an array of remote islands in the south-central Pacific, between Hawaii and American Samoa.¶ Bush's protections extend about 50 miles from the shore of the U.S.-administered islands, but maritime law gives the U.S. control up to 200 nautical miles from the coast, forming the outer limit of what Obama could protect using the 1906 Antiquities Act.¶ Conservation groups urged Obama to be bold. If Obama opts for the full 200 miles, conservation groups said, he could roughly double the amount of ocean that's protected worldwide.¶ A geographic analysis by the Pew Charitable Trusts estimated Obama could protect more than 780,000 square miles — almost nine times what Bush set aside — and far more if he included the waters around other U.S. islands in the Pacific Ocean.¶ "Our oceans are feeling the strain of human activity from increased acidification, overfishing, and pollution, and we need to take bold action to protect this vital natural resource," said Carol Browner, the former Environmental Protection Agency administrator.¶ But in practical terms, the expanded sanctuary will likely have a modest impact.¶ Very little commercial fishing is conducted around the islands. And Bob Fryklund, chief upstream strategist for analytics agency IHS Energy, said no one is currently exploring for oil or gas in the area.¶ But conservation groups said it's critical to take proactive steps to safeguard underwater ecosystems even if direct human damage isn't imminent.¶ "These are fairly long distances from any ports, and they're very expensive to get to," said Lance Morgan of the Marine Conservation Institute.

"Still, we don't know what all the future uses are going to be."¶ Obama has increasingly invoked his own authority to impose environmental protections during his second term, wary of ceding control to lawmakers who have shown no

appetite for major legislation to fight climate change and other ecological challenges. Earlier this month Obama unveiled unprecedented pollution limits on power plants, enraging Republicans and even some Democrats. ¶ Republicans reacted with similar indignation Tuesday and accused Obama of overreaching.¶ Rep. John Fleming, R-La., who chairs the House subpanel dealing with oceans and wildlife, said Obama was invoking climate change even though the century-old Antiquities Act wasn't intended to deal with global warming.¶ "This is clearly way outside of his constitutional boundaries," Fleming said in an interview. "It's just another step in the wrong direction for our imperial president."¶ In another environmental move, Obama launched a task force to combat black-market fishing and seafood fraud, in which seafood products are mislabeled to hide their origin. One-fifth of wild marine fish caught each year are considered to be part of the black market, the White House said. The black market for fish cost the legitimate fishing industry $23 billion. The presidential memorandum calls for the task force to submit recommendations within six months.

Obamas actions unpopular with RepublicansGolden, editorial intern at The Daily Beast and a student at Columbia University, 14 ( Abigail, 6/23, The Daily Beast, "Republicans: Obama’s Ocean Protection Plan Evidence of ‘Imperial Presidency’"www.thedailybeast.com/articles/2014/06/23/republicans-obama-s-ocean-protection-plan-evidence-of-imperial-presidency.html. 6/29/14, AVEN)Republican lawmakers: Obama’s use of an executive order to establish the reserve expansion angered Republicans in government, who viewed it as an attempt to test the limits of White House authority. Congressman Doc Hastings (R-Wash.), the chairman of the House Natural Resources Committee, was quick to denounce Obama as an “Imperial President” who is “intent on taking unilateral action, behind closed doors, to impose new regulations and layers of restrictive red-tape.” ¶ By Hastings’ standards, another candidate for an “imperial presidency” would be George W. Bush, who created four marine national monuments during his time in office¶ , totaling some 300,000 square miles of protected ocean.

Plan hurts the commercial fishing industryGolden, editorial intern at The Daily Beast and a student at Columbia University, 14 ( Abigail, 6/23, The Daily Beast, "Republicans: Obama’s Ocean Protection Plan Evidence of ‘Imperial Presidency’"www.thedailybeast.com/articles/2014/06/23/republicans-obama-s-ocean-protection-plan-evidence-of-imperial-presidency.html. 6/29/14, AVEN)The commercial fishing industry: Currently, about 3 percent of the U.S.’ tuna catch in the western and southern Pacific comes from the area now under protection, according to Pew Charitable Trusts. Congressman Hastings has criticized Obama for closing this area to tuna fishing, cautioning that this move will “make the U.S. tuna fleet even less viable, meaning that in the not-too-distant future all of America’s tuna will be caught by foreign vessels.” ¶ Paul Dalzell, a senior scientist with the Western and Central Pacific Regional Fisheries Management Council, echoed this industry-centric approach. “The islands [in the reserve] already have 50-nautical-mile boundaries around them to protect all the coral reef and shallow water habitats, so they’re more than adequately protected already,” Dalzell told The Daily Beast. But for migratory species like tuna, he argues, large-scale ocean reserves have little conservation value, since tuna simply swim beyond the boundaries of the closed areas to be caught by other fleets. The reserve “has no major conservation benefits, will penalize U.S. fishermen, and there’s no net gain,” Dalzell continued.¶ It’s worth noting that Pew Charitable Trusts, which works on ocean conservation issues, has condemned the Western and Central Pacific Regional Fisheries Management Council for its poor fisheries practices, which it claims are hastening overfishing in the Pacific region.¶

Recreational fishers oppose the ReserveGolden, editorial intern at The Daily Beast and a student at Columbia University, 14 ( Abigail, 6/23, The Daily Beast, "Republicans: Obama’s Ocean Protection Plan Evidence of ‘Imperial Presidency’"www.thedailybeast.com/articles/2014/06/23/republicans-obama-s-ocean-protection-plan-evidence-of-imperial-presidency.html. 6/29/14, AVEN)Recreational fishers: After Bush first established the Remote Pacific Islands reserve in 2009, the American Sportfishing Association successfully petitioned for a recreational fishing exemption within the reserve. Now the group, which represents manufacturers of fishing tackle rather than sport fishermen themselves, plans to push for the exemption to apply throughout the expanded area. ¶ “We believe in almost all instances you can still have marine conservation and make sure that your fisheries resources are in good, healthy condition, and still allow some recreational fishing to take place,” Mike Leonard, a spokesperson for the ASA, told The Daily Beast. The group’s insistence on a recreational fishing exemption is mostly academic, since the areas within the expanded reserve are so remote as to be unreachable to sport fishermen. Williams, who has traveled to the reserve repeatedly for his research, said that he has never seen a recreational fishing boat there.¶ But Leonard claims that the reserve could set a precedent for the federal government closing more high-use areas of sport fishing. “It seems to be a growing trend that, when you add it up nationally, can be one of those death-by-a-thousand-cuts issues, where you continue to close off areas one by one,” he told the Beast. “Cumulatively that can have a major impact, from a national standpoint, for the entirety of the recreational fishing and boating industry.” Of course, marine reserves won’t keep fishermen from enjoying protected natural spaces—just from using the expensive fishing tackle that the ASA’s members sell.¶

Historically, republicans are not in support of environmental plansSkelton, writer for the Los Angeles Times, 14 ( George, 6/25/14, "California lawmakers should not procrastinate on water plan", www.latimes.com/local/politics/la-me-cap-water-bond-20140626-column.html, 6/29/14, CH)Now fast forward to Monday in the state Senate.¶ Up for a vote was a proposed $10.5-billion water bond that contained $3 billion for dam-building. It was a particularly generous offer for the reservoir beneficiaries.¶ The borrowed $3 billion — repaid by taxpayers through the state's general fund — would have covered up to half the cost of a dam project. The rest would have been paid for by the beneficiaries — the water consumers — through higher monthly rates. Historically, the beneficiaries have footed 90% or more of such costs.¶ But no Republican senator voted for the bond. It needed a two-thirds majority and fell five votes short at 22, all supplied by Democrats.

Fisherman against plan—Obamas Ocean Preserve provesCruz, reporter at KITV4, 14, (Catherine, 6/17, KITV4, "President's plan for world's largest marine preserve draws fire", www.kitv.com/news/presidents-plan-for-worlds-largest-marine-preserve-draws-fire/26542816#!5, 6/29/14, AVEN)

Expanding the marine preserve out Western would mean including areas around the deepest point of the ocean, the Marianas Trench, near the island of Guam.¶ But it would also push into areas where Hawaii's long liners and other U.S. fishermen fish¶ near Johnston atoll, Palmyra Island as well as Jarvis and Holland.¶ "It has no conservation benefit other than to penalize.U.S, fishermen,” said Paul Dalzelle, senior scientist for the Western Pacific Regional Fishery Management Council.¶ Scientists of the council met in Honolulu Tuesday.¶ It was a prelude to next week's full council meeting which will include

members from Guam and Samoa.¶ It is expected to take a strong position against the marine preserve plan.¶ Members argue that expanding the no-fishing zone is not only bad for businesss, but will not help tuna and sharks that migrate. ¶ "There are already 50 nautical-mile closures around those areas. It’s called part of the marine national monument. They are already protecting the coral reefs, all the near shore fish, precious corals, coral reef fish and sharks pushing out to the 200 nautical miles. It will have no major conservation benefit," said Dalzelle.¶ The council believes the move could also leave much of the protected areas open to fishing from foreign fishers who are already banned from U.S. waters.¶

Fewer U.S. fishermen in the area, means fewer eyes on the water.¶ ¶ "They can let the government know they have seen boats making encroachments and if you take those away what’s to stop foreigners from fishing," said Dalzelle.¶ The concern is for the areas around the nation of Kiribas, which permits European fishers to troll in their waters.¶ "I suspect there will be a great temptation to just pop into our area, because they know they will be no fishing vessels be there to see them if they do that," said Dalzelle.¶

The proposal could go into effect as soon as this year after a comment period, which has the U.S. fishers worried. ¶ Dalzell said the move shows the political vunerability of the region, with only the Hawaii congressional delegation and two non-voting delegates to congress representing Guam and Samoa.

Regulations in place already anger many, any more would cross the lineCNR, 14 ( 6/17, Committee on Natural Resources, Chairman Hastings DOCS, "Hastings: Imperial President Moves Forward with Ocean Zoning", naturalresources.house.gov/news/documentsingle.aspx?DocumentID=384712, 6/29/14, AVEN)

ASHINGTON, D.C., June 17, 2014 - House Natural Resources Committee Chairman Doc Hastings (WA-04) released the following statement regarding President Obama’s announcement of overreaching Executive action to unilaterally lock-up huge portions of the Pacific Ocean:¶ "For years the Obama Administration has threatened to impose ocean zoning to shut down our oceans, and today the President is making good on that threat. This is yet another example of how an Imperial President is intent on taking unilateral action, behind closed doors, to impose new regulations and layers of restrictive red-tape. Oceans, like our federal lands, are intended to be multiple-use and open for a wide range of economic activities that includes fishing, recreation, conservation, and energy production. It appears this Administration will use whatever authorities – real or made-up – to close our ocean and coastal areas with blatant disregard for possible economic consequences. ¶ “This Administration is creating an unworkable patchwork of management regimes that will hurt our economy and further strain our enforcement capabilities. The State Department just completed negotiating several science-based international fishery management agreements in the Pacific and is working on changes to an existing international agreement to allow U.S. tuna boats to have access to waters in the South Pacific. This announcement undercuts all of that work and will likely make the U.S. tuna fleet even less viable, meaning in the not-too-distant future all of America’s tuna will be caught by foreign vessels.” ¶