Copper 1

Copper

Copper

29Cu

nickel ← copper → zinc -↑Cu↓Ag

Copper in the periodic table

Appearance

red-orange metallic luster

Native copper (~4 cm in size)

General properties

Name, symbol, number copper, Cu, 29

Pronunciation /ˈkɒpər/ KOP-ər

Element category transition metal

Group, period, block 11, 4, d

Standard atomic weight 63.546(3)

Electron configuration [Ar] 3d10 4s1

2, 8, 18, 1

History

Naming after Cyprus, principal mining place in Roman era (Cyprium)

Discovery Middle Easterns (9000 BC)

Physical properties

Phase solid

Copper 2

Density (near r.t.) 8.96 g·cm−3

Liquid density at m.p. 8.02 g·cm−3

Melting point 1357.77 K, 1084.62 °C, 1984.32 °F

Boiling point 2835 K, 2562 °C, 4643 °F

Heat of fusion 13.26 kJ·mol−1

Heat of vaporization 300.4 kJ·mol−1

Molar heat capacity 24.440 J·mol−1·K−1

Vapor pressure

P (Pa) 1 10 100 1 k 10 k 100 k

at T (K) 1509 1661 1850 2089 2404 2834

Atomic properties

Oxidation states +1, +2, +3, +4(mildly basic oxide)

Electronegativity 1.90 (Pauling scale)

Ionization energies(more)

1st: 745.5 kJ·mol−1

2nd: 1957.9 kJ·mol−1

3rd: 3555 kJ·mol−1

Atomic radius 128 pm

Covalent radius 132±4 pm

Van der Waals radius 140 pm

Miscellanea

Crystal structure face-centered cubic

Magnetic ordering diamagnetic[1]

Electrical resistivity (20 °C) 16.78 nΩ·m

Thermal conductivity 401 W·m−1·K−1

Thermal expansion (25 °C) 16.5 µm·m−1·K−1

Speed of sound (thin rod) (r.t.) (annealed)3810 m·s−1

Young's modulus 110–128 GPa

Shear modulus 48 GPa

Bulk modulus 140 GPa

Poisson ratio 0.34

Mohs hardness 3.0

Vickers hardness 369 MPa

Copper 3

Brinell hardness 35 HB = 874 MPa

CAS registry number 7440-50-8

Most stable isotopes

Main article: Isotopes of copper

iso NA half-life DM DE (MeV) DP

63Cu 69.15% 63Cu is stable with 34 neutrons

64Cu syn 12.700 h ε - 64Ni

β− - 64Zn

65Cu 30.85% 65Cu is stable with 36 neutrons

67Cu syn 61.83 h β− - 67Zn

•• v•• t• e [2]

Copper is a chemical element with the symbol Cu (from Latin: cuprum) and atomic number 29. It is a ductile metalwith very high thermal and electrical conductivity. Pure copper is soft and malleable; a freshly exposed surface has areddish-orange color. It is used as a conductor of heat and electricity, a building material, and a constituent ofvarious metal alloys.The metal and its alloys have been used for thousands of years. In the Roman era, copper was principally mined onCyprus, hence the origin of the name of the metal as сyprium (metal of Cyprus), later shortened to сuprum. Itscompounds are commonly encountered as copper(II) salts, which often impart blue or green colors to minerals suchas azurite and turquoise and have been widely used historically as pigments. Architectural structures built withcopper corrode to give green verdigris (or patina). Decorative art prominently features copper, both by itself and aspart of pigments.Copper is essential to all living organisms as a trace dietary mineral because it is a key constituent of the respiratoryenzyme complex cytochrome c oxidase. In molluscs and crustacea copper is a constituent of the blood pigmenthemocyanin, which is replaced by the iron-complexed hemoglobin in fish and other vertebrates. The main areaswhere copper is found in humans are liver, muscle and bone. Copper compounds are used as bacteriostaticsubstances, fungicides, and wood preservatives.

Copper 4

Characteristics

Physical

A copper disc (99.95% pure) made bycontinuous casting and etching

Copper just above its melting point keepsits pink luster color when enough light

outshines the orange incandescencecolor.

Copper, silver and gold are in group 11 of the periodic table, and they sharecertain attributes: they have one s-orbital electron on top of a filled d-electronshell and are characterized by high ductility and electrical conductivity. Thefilled d-shells in these elements do not contribute much to the interatomicinteractions, which are dominated by the s-electrons through metallic bonds.Contrary to metals with incomplete d-shells, metallic bonds in copper arelacking a covalent character and are relatively weak. This explains the lowhardness and high ductility of single crystals of copper. At the macroscopicscale, introduction of extended defects to the crystal lattice, such as grainboundaries, hinders flow of the material under applied stress therebyincreasing its hardness. For this reason, copper is usually supplied in afine-grained polycrystalline form, which has greater strength thanmonocrystalline forms.

The softness of copper partly explains its high electrical conductivity(59.6×106 S/m) and thus also high thermal conductivity, which are the secondhighest among pure metals at room temperature. This is because theresistivity to electron transport in metals at room temperature mostlyoriginates from scattering of electrons on thermal vibrations of the lattice,which are relatively weak for a soft metal. The maximum permissible currentdensity of copper in open air is approximately 3.1×106 A/m2 ofcross-sectional area, above which it begins to heat excessively. As with othermetals, if copper is placed against another metal, galvanic corrosion willoccur.

Together with caesium and gold (both yellow), and osmium (bluish), copper is one of only four elemental metalswith a natural color other than gray or silver. Pure copper is orange-red and acquires a reddish tarnish when exposedto air. The characteristic color of copper results from the electronic transitions between the filled 3d and half-empty4s atomic shells – the energy difference between these shells is such that it corresponds to orange light. The samemechanism accounts for the yellow color of gold and caesium.

Copper 5

Chemical

Unoxidized copper wire (left) andoxidized copper wire (right).

The East Tower of the Royal Observatory,Edinburgh. The contrast between the refurbishedcopper installed in 2010 and the green color of

the original 1894 copper is clearly seen.

Copper does not react with water, but it slowly reacts with atmosphericoxygen forming a layer of brown-black copper oxide. In contrast to theoxidation of iron by wet air, this oxide layer stops the further, bulkcorrosion. A green layer of verdigris (copper carbonate) can often beseen on old copper constructions, such as the Statue of Liberty. Coppertarnishes when exposed to sulfides, which react with it to form variouscopper sulfides.

Isotopes

There are 29 isotopes of copper. 63Cu and 65Cu are stable, with 63Cucomprising approximately 69% of naturally occurring copper; theyboth have a spin of 3/2. The other isotopes are radioactive, with themost stable being 67Cu with a half-life of 61.83 hours. Sevenmetastable isotopes have been characterized, with 68mCu thelongest-lived with a half-life of 3.8 minutes. Isotopes with a massnumber above 64 decay by β-, whereas those with a mass numberbelow 64 decay by β+. 64Cu, which has a half-life of 12.7 hours,decays both ways.62Cu and 64Cu have significant applications. 64Cu is a radiocontrastagent for X-ray imaging, and complexed with a chelate can be used fortreating cancer. 62Cu is used in 62Cu-PTSM that is a radioactive tracerfor positron emission tomography.

Occurrence

Native copper from the KeweenawPeninsula Michigan about 2.5 inches (6.4

cm) long

Copper is synthesized in massive stars and is present in the Earth's crust at aconcentration of about 50 parts per million (ppm), where it occurs as nativecopper or in minerals such as the copper sulfides chalcopyrite and chalcocite,copper carbonates azurite and malachite and the copper(I) oxide mineralcuprite. The largest mass of elemental copper discovered weighed 420 tonnesand was found in 1857 on the Keweenaw Peninsula in Michigan, US. Nativecopper is a polycrystal, with the largest described single crystal measuring4.4×3.2×3.2 cm.

Copper 6

Production

Chuquicamata in Chile is one of the world'slargest open pit copper mines.

World production trend

Copper output in 2005

Copper prices 2003–2011 in USD per tonne

Most copper is mined or extracted as copper sulfides from large openpit mines in porphyry copper deposits that contain 0.4 to 1.0% copper.Examples include Chuquicamata in Chile, Bingham Canyon Mine inUtah, United States and El Chino Mine in New Mexico, United States.According to the British Geological Survey, in 2005, Chile was the topmine producer of copper with at least one-third world share followedby the United States, Indonesia and Peru. Copper can also be recoveredthrough the In-situ leach process. Several sites in the state of Arizonaare considered prime candidates for this method.[3] The amount ofcopper in use is increasing and the quantity available is barelysufficient to allow all countries to reach developed world levels ofusage.

Reserves

Copper has been in use at least 10,000 years, but more than 96% of allcopper ever mined and smelted has been extracted since 1900, andmore than half was extracted in only the last 24 years. As with manynatural resources, the total amount of copper on Earth is vast (around1014 tons just in the top kilometer of Earth's crust, or about 5 millionyears worth at the current rate of extraction). However, only a tinyfraction of these reserves is economically viable, given present-dayprices and technologies. Various estimates of existing copper reservesavailable for mining vary from 25 years to 60 years, depending on coreassumptions such as the growth rate. Recycling is a major source ofcopper in the modern world. Because of these and other factors, thefuture of copper production and supply is the subject of much debate,including the concept of peak copper, analogous to peak oil.

The price of copper has historically been unstable, and it quintupledfrom the 60-year low of US$0.60/lb (US$1.32/kg) in June 1999 toUS$3.75 per pound (US$8.27/kg) in May 2006. It dropped toUS$2.40/lb (US$5.29/kg) in February 2007, then rebounded toUS$3.50/lb (US$7.71/kg) in April 2007. In February 2009, weakeningglobal demand and a steep fall in commodity prices since the previousyear's highs left copper prices at US$1.51/lb.

Methods

The concentration of copper in ores averages only 0.6%, and most commercial ores are sulfides, especiallychalcopyrite (CuFeS2) and to a lesser extent chalcocite (Cu2S). These minerals are concentrated from crushed ores tothe level of 10–15% copper by froth flotation or bioleaching. Heating this material with silica in flash smeltingremoves much of the iron as slag. The process exploits the greater ease of converting iron sulfides into its oxides,which in turn react with the silica to form the silicate slag, which floats on top of the heated mass. The resultingcopper matte consisting of Cu2S is then roasted to convert all sulfides into oxides:

2 Cu2S + 3 O2 → 2 Cu2O + 2 SO2

Copper 7

The cuprous oxide is converted to blister copper upon heating:2 Cu2O → 4 Cu + O2

The Sudbury matte process converted only half the sulfide to oxide and then used this oxide to remove the rest of thesulfur as oxide. It was then electrolytically refined and the anode mud exploited for the platinum and gold itcontained. This step exploits the relatively easy reduction of copper oxides to copper metal. Natural gas is blownacross the blister to remove most of the remaining oxygen and electrorefining is performed on the resulting materialto produce pure copper:

Cu2+ + 2 e– → Cu

RecyclingCopper, like aluminium, is 100% recyclable without any loss of quality whether in a raw state or contained in amanufactured product. In volume, copper is the third most recycled metal after iron and aluminium. It is estimatedthat 80% of the copper ever mined is still in use today. According to the International Resource Panel's Metal Stocksin Society report, the global per capita stock of copper in use in society is 35–55 kg. Much of this is inmore-developed countries (140–300 kg per capita) rather than less-developed countries (30–40 kg per capita).The process of recycling copper follows roughly the same steps as is used to extract copper, but requires fewer steps.High purity scrap copper is melted in a furnace and then reduced and cast into billets and ingots; lower purity scrapis refined by electroplating in a bath of sulfuric acid.[4]

AlloysNumerous copper alloys exist, many with important uses. Brass is an alloy of copper and zinc. Bronze usually refersto copper-tin alloys, but can refer to any alloy of copper such as aluminium bronze. Copper is one of the mostimportant constituents of carat silver and gold alloys and carat solders used in the jewelry industry, modifying thecolor, hardness and melting point of the resulting alloys.The alloy of copper and nickel, called cupronickel, is used in low-denomination coins, often for the outer cladding.The US 5-cent coin called nickel consists of 75% copper and 25% nickel and has a homogeneous composition. The90% copper/10% nickel alloy is remarkable by its resistance to corrosion and is used in various parts being exposedto seawater. Alloys of copper with aluminium (about 7%) have a pleasant golden color and are used in decorations.Some lead-free solders consist of tin alloyed with a small proportion of copper and other metals.[5]

Copper 8

Compounds

A sample of copper(I) oxide.

Copper forms a rich variety of compounds, usually with oxidationstates +1 and +2, which are often called cuprous and cupric,respectively.

Binary compounds

As with other elements, the simplest compounds of copper are binarycompounds, i.e. those containing only two elements. The principalones are the oxides, sulfides, and halides. Both cuprous and cupricoxides are known. Among the numerous copper sulfides, importantexamples include copper(I) sulfide and copper(II) sulfide.

The cuprous halides with chlorine, bromine, and iodine are known, asare the cupric halides with fluorine, chlorine, and bromine. Attempts toprepare copper(II) iodide give cuprous iodide and iodine.

2 Cu2+ + 4 I− → 2 CuI + I2

Coordination chemistry

Copper(II) gives a deep blue coloration in thepresence of ammonia ligands. The one used here

is tetramminecopper(II) sulfate.

Copper, like all metals, forms coordination complexes with ligands. Inaqueous solution, copper(II) exists as [Cu(H2O)6]2+. This complexexhibits the fastest water exchange rate (speed of water ligandsattaching and detaching) for any transition metal aquo complex.Adding aqueous sodium hydroxide causes the precipitation of lightblue solid copper(II) hydroxide. A simplified equation is:

Cu2+ + 2 OH− → Cu(OH)2Aqueous ammonia results in the same precipitate. Upon adding excessammonia, the precipitate dissolves, forming tetraamminecopper(II):

Cu(H2O)4(OH)2 + 4 NH3 → [Cu(H2O)2(NH3)4]2+ + 2 H2O + 2OH−

Many other oxyanions form complexes; these include copper(II)acetate, copper(II) nitrate, and copper(II) carbonate. Copper(II) sulfateforms a blue crystalline pentahydrate, which is the most familiar

copper compound in the laboratory. It is used in a fungicide called the Bordeaux mixture.

Copper 9

Ball-and-stick model of the complex[Cu(NH3)4(H2O)2]2+, illustrating the octahedralcoordination geometry common for copper(II).

Polyols, compounds containing more than one alcohol functionalgroup, generally interact with cupric salts. For example, coppersalts are used to test for reducing sugars. Specifically, usingBenedict's reagent and Fehling's solution the presence of the sugaris signaled by a color change from blue Cu(II) to reddish copper(I)oxide.[6] Schweizer's reagent and related complexes withethylenediamine and other amines dissolve cellulose.[7] Aminoacids form very stable chelate complexes with copper(II). Manywet-chemical tests for copper ions exist, one involving potassiumferrocyanide, which gives a brown precipitate with copper(II)salts.

Organocopper chemistry

Compounds that contain a carbon-copper bond are known asorganocopper compounds. They are very reactive towards oxygento form copper(I) oxide and have many uses in chemistry. Theyare synthesized by treating copper(I) compounds with Grignard reagents, terminal alkynes or organolithiumreagents;[8] in particular, the last reaction described produces a Gilman reagent. These can undergo substitution withalkyl halides to form coupling products; as such, they are important in the field of organic synthesis. Copper(I)acetylide is highly shock-sensitive but is an intermediate in reactions such as the Cadiot-Chodkiewicz coupling andthe Sonogashira coupling. Conjugate addition to enones and carbocupration of alkynes can also be achieved withorganocopper compounds. Copper(I) forms a variety of weak complexes with alkenes and carbon monoxide,especially in the presence of amine ligands.

Copper(III) and copper(IV)Copper(III) is most characteristically found in oxides. A simple example is potassium cuprate, KCuO2, a blue-blacksolid. The best studied copper(III) compounds are the cuprate superconductors. Yttrium barium copper oxide(YBa2Cu3O7) consists of both Cu(II) and Cu(III) centres. Like oxide, fluoride is a highly basic anion and is knownto stabilize metal ions in high oxidation states. Indeed, both copper(III) and even copper(IV) fluorides are known,K3CuF6 and Cs2CuF6, respectively.Some copper proteins form oxo complexes, which also feature copper(III). With di- and tripeptides, purple-coloredcopper(III) complexes are stabilized by the deprotonated amide ligands.Complexes of copper(III) are also observed as intermediates in reactions of organocopper compounds.

Copper 10

History

Copper Age

A corroded copper ingot from Zakros, Crete,shaped in the form of an animal skin typical in

that era.

Copper ore (chrysocolla) in Cambrian sandstonefrom Chalcolithic mines in the Timna Valley,

southern Israel.

Copper occurs naturally as native copper and was known to some ofthe oldest civilizations on record. It has a history of use that is at least10,000 years old, and estimates of its discovery place it at 9000 BC inthe Middle East; a copper pendant was found in northern Iraq thatdates to 8700 BC. There is evidence that gold and meteoric iron (butnot iron smelting) were the only metals used by humans before copper.The history of copper metallurgy is thought to have followed thefollowing sequence: 1) cold working of native copper, 2) annealing, 3)smelting, and 4) the lost wax method. In southeastern Anatolia, all fourof these metallurgical techniques appears more or less simultaneouslyat the beginning of the Neolithic c. 7500 BC. However, just asagriculture was independently invented in several parts of the world(including Pakistan, China, and the Americas) copper smelting wasinvented locally in several different places. It was probably discoveredindependently in China before 2800 BC, in Central America perhapsaround 600 AD, and in West Africa about the 9th or 10th century AD.Investment casting was invented in 4500–4000 BC in Southeast Asiaand carbon dating has established mining at Alderley Edge in Cheshire,UK at 2280 to 1890 BC. Ötzi the Iceman, a male dated from3300–3200 BC, was found with an axe with a copper head 99.7% pure;high levels of arsenic in his hair suggest his involvement in coppersmelting. Experience with copper has assisted the development ofother metals; in particular, copper smelting led to the discovery of iron

smelting. Production in the Old Copper Complex in Michigan and Wisconsin is dated between 6000 and 3000BC.[9][10] Natural bronze, a type of copper made from ores rich in silicon, arsenic, and (rarely) tin, came into generaluse in the Balkans around 5500 BC.

Bronze Age

Alloying copper with tin to make bronze was first practiced about 4000 years after the discovery of copper smelting,and about 2000 years after "natural bronze" had come into general use. Bronze artifacts from Sumerian cities andEgyptian artifacts of copper and bronze alloys date to 3000 BC. The Bronze Age began in Southeastern Europearound 3700–3300 BC, in Northwestern Europe about 2500 BC. It ended with the beginning of the Iron Age,2000–1000 BC in the Near East, 600 BC in Northern Europe. The transition between the Neolithic period and theBronze Age was formerly termed the Chalcolithic period (copper-stone), with copper tools being used with stonetools. This term has gradually fallen out of favor because in some parts of the world the Chalcolithic and Neolithicare coterminous at both ends. Brass, an alloy of copper and zinc, is of much more recent origin. It was known to theGreeks, but became a significant supplement to bronze during the Roman Empire.

Copper 11

Antiquity and Middle Ages

In alchemy the symbol forcopper was also the symbolfor the goddess and planet

Venus.

Chalcolithic copper mine in Timna Valley, NegevDesert, Israel.

In Greece, copper was known by the name chalkos (χαλκός). It was animportant resource for the Romans, Greeks and other ancient peoples.In Roman times, it was known as aes Cyprium, aes being the genericLatin term for copper alloys and Cyprium from Cyprus, where muchcopper was mined. The phrase was simplified to cuprum, hence theEnglish copper. Aphrodite and Venus represented copper in mythologyand alchemy, because of its lustrous beauty, its ancient use inproducing mirrors, and its association with Cyprus, which was sacredto the goddess. The seven heavenly bodies known to the ancients wereassociated with the seven metals known in antiquity, and Venus wasassigned to copper.

Britain's first use of brass occurred around the 3rd–2nd century BC. InNorth America, copper mining began with marginal workings byNative Americans. Native copper is known to have been extractedfrom sites on Isle Royale with primitive stone tools between 800 and1600. Copper metallurgy was flourishing in South America,particularly in Peru around 1000 AD; it proceeded at a much slowerrate on other continents. Copper burial ornamentals from the 15thcentury have been uncovered, but the metal's commercial productiondid not start until the early 20th century.

The cultural role of copper has been important, particularly incurrency. Romans in the 6th through 3rd centuries BC used copper

lumps as money. At first, the copper itself was valued, but gradually the shape and look of the copper became moreimportant. Julius Caesar had his own coins made from brass, while Octavianus Augustus Caesar's coins were madefrom Cu-Pb-Sn alloys. With an estimated annual output of around 15,000 t, Roman copper mining and smeltingactivities reached a scale unsurpassed until the time of the Industrial Revolution; the provinces most intensely minedwere those of Hispania, Cyprus and in Central Europe.

The gates of the Temple of Jerusalem used Corinthian bronze made by depletion gilding. It was most prevalent inAlexandria, where alchemy is thought to have begun. In ancient India, copper was used in the holistic medicalscience Ayurveda for surgical instruments and other medical equipment. Ancient Egyptians (~2400 BC) used copperfor sterilizing wounds and drinking water, and later on for headaches, burns, and itching. The Baghdad Battery, withcopper cylinders soldered to lead, dates back to 248 BC to AD 226 and resembles a galvanic cell, leading people tobelieve this was the first battery; the claim has not been verified.

Copper 12

Modern period

Acid mine drainage affecting the stream runningfrom the disused Parys Mountain copper mines

The Great Copper Mountain was a mine in Falun, Sweden, thatoperated from the 10th century to 1992. It produced two thirds ofEurope's copper demand in the 17th century and helped fund many ofSweden's wars during that time. It was referred to as the nation'streasury; Sweden had a copper backed currency.

The uses of copper in art were not limited to currency: it was used byRenaissance sculptors, in photographic technology known as thedaguerreotype, and the Statue of Liberty. Copper plating and coppersheathing for ships' hulls was widespread; the ships of ChristopherColumbus were among the earliest to have this feature. TheNorddeutsche Affinerie in Hamburg was the first modernelectroplating plant starting its production in 1876. The Germanscientist Gottfried Osann invented powder metallurgy in 1830 whiledetermining the metal's atomic mass; around then it was discoveredthat the amount and type of alloying element (e.g., tin) to copper wouldaffect bell tones. Flash smelting was developed by Outokumpu inFinland and first applied at Harjavalta in 1949; the energy-efficientprocess accounts for 50% of the world’s primary copper production.

The Intergovernmental Council of Copper Exporting Countries, formed in 1967 with Chile, Peru, Zaire and Zambia,played a similar role for copper as OPEC does for oil. It never achieved the same influence, particularly because thesecond-largest producer, the United States, was never a member; it was dissolved in 1988.

Applications

Assorted copper fittings

The major applications of copper are in electrical wires (60%), roofingand plumbing (20%) and industrial machinery (15%). Copper is mostlyused as a pure metal, but when a higher hardness is required it iscombined with other elements to make an alloy (5% of total use) suchas brass and bronze. A small part of copper supply is used inproduction of compounds for nutritional supplements and fungicides inagriculture. Machining of copper is possible, although it is usuallynecessary to use an alloy for intricate parts to get good machinabilitycharacteristics.

Wire and cableDespite competition from other materials, copper remains the preferred electrical conductor in nearly all categories of electrical wiring with the major exception being overhead electric power transmission where aluminium is often preferred.[11][12] Copper wire is used in power generation, power transmission, power distribution, telecommunications, electronics circuitry, and countless types of electrical equipment.[13] Electrical wiring is the most important market for the copper industry. This includes building wire, communications cable, power distribution cable, appliance wire, automotive wire and cable, and magnet wire. Roughly half of all copper mined is used to manufacture electrical wire and cable conductors.[14] Many electrical devices rely on copper wiring because of its multitude of inherent beneficial properties, such as its high electrical conductivity, tensile strength, ductility, creep (deformation) resistance, corrosion resistance, low thermal expansion, high thermal conductivity, solderability,

Copper 13

and ease of installation.

Electronics and related devices

Copper electrical busbars distributing power to alarge building

Integrated circuits and printed circuit boards increasingly featurecopper in place of aluminium because of its superior electricalconductivity (see Copper interconnect for main article); heat sinks andheat exchangers use copper as a result of its superior heat dissipationcapacity to aluminium. Electromagnets, vacuum tubes, cathode raytubes, and magnetrons in microwave ovens use copper, as do waveguides for microwave radiation.

Electric motors

Copper’s greater conductivity versus other metals enhances theelectrical energy efficiency of motors.[15] This is important becausemotors and motor-driven systems account for 43%-46% of all globalelectricity consumption and 69% of all electricity used by industry.[16]

Increasing the mass and cross section of copper in a coil increases theelectrical energy efficiency of the motor. Copper motor rotors, a newtechnology designed for motor applications where energy savings are

prime design objectives,[17][18] are enabling general-purpose induction motors to meet and exceed NationalElectrical Manufacturers Association (NEMA) premium efficiency standards.[19]

Architecture

Copper roof on the Minneapolis City Hall, coatedwith patina

Copper has been used since ancient times as a durable, corrosionresistant, and weatherproof architectural material.[20][21][22][23] Roofs,flashings, rain gutters, downspouts, domes, spires, vaults, and doorshave been made from copper for hundreds or thousands of years.Copper’s architectural use has been expanded in modern times toinclude interior and exterior wall cladding, building expansion joints,radio frequency shielding, and antimicrobial indoor products, such asattractive handrails, bathroom fixtures, and counter tops. Some ofcopper’s other important benefits as an architectural material include itslow thermal movement, light weight, lightning protection, and itsrecyclability.

The metal’s distinctive natural green patina has long been coveted by architects and designers. The final patina is aparticularly durable layer that is highly resistant to atmospheric corrosion, thereby protecting the underlying metalagainst further weathering.[24][25] It can be a mixture of carbonate and sulfate compounds in various amounts,depending upon environmental conditions such as sulfur-containing acid rain.[26][27][28][29] Architectural copper andits alloys can also be 'finished' to embark a particular look, feel, and/or color. Finishes include mechanical surfacetreatments, chemical coloring, and coatings.[30]

Copper 14

Old copper utensils in a Jerusalem restaurant

Copper has excellent brazing and soldering properties and can bewelded; the best results are obtained with gas metal arc welding.

Antibiofouling applications

Copper is biostatic, meaning bacteria will not grow on it. For thisreason it has long been used to line parts of ships to protect againstbarnacles and mussels. It was originally used pure, but has since beensuperseded by Muntz metal. Similarly, as discussed in copper alloys inaquaculture, copper alloys have become important netting materials inthe aquaculture industry because of the fact that they are antimicrobialand prevent biofouling, even in extreme conditions[31] and have strongstructural and corrosion-resistant[32] properties in marineenvironments.

Antimicrobial applicationsNumerous antimicrobial efficacy studies have been conducted in the past 10 years regarding copper’s efficacy todestroy a wide range of bacteria, as well as influenza A virus, adenovirus, and fungi.Copper-alloy touch surfaces have natural intrinsic properties to destroy a wide range of microorganisms (e.g., E. coliO157:H7, methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA), Staphylococcus, Clostridium difficile, influenza Avirus, adenovirus, and fungi).[] Some 355 copper alloys were proven to kill more than 99.9% of disease-causingbacteria within just two hours when cleaned regularly.[33] The United States Environmental Protection Agency(EPA) has approved the registrations of these copper alloys as “antimicrobial materials with public health benefits,"which allows manufacturers to legally make claims as to the positive public health benefits of products made withregistered antimicrobial copper alloys. In addition, the EPA has approved a long list of antimicrobial copper productsmade from these alloys, such as bedrails, handrails, over-bed tables, sinks, faucets, door knobs, toilet hardware,computer keyboards, health club equipment, shopping cart handles, etc. (for a comprehensive list of products, see:Antimicrobial copper-alloy touch surfaces#Approved products). Copper doorknobs are used by hospitals to reducethe transfer of disease, and Legionnaires' disease is suppressed by copper tubing in plumbing systems. Antimicrobialcopper alloy products are now being installed in healthcare facilities in the U.K., Ireland, Japan, Korea, France,Denmark, and Brazil[citation needed] and in the subway transit system in Santiago, Chile, where copper-zinc alloyhandrails will be installed in some 30 stations between 2011–2014.[34][35][36]

Copper 15

Folk medicineCopper is commonly used in jewelry, and folklore says that copper bracelets relieve arthritis symptoms. Inalternative medicine, some proponents speculate that excess copper absorbed through the skin can treat someailments, or that the copper somehow creates a magnetic field, treating nearby tissue.In various studies, though, no difference is found between arthritis treated with a copper bracelet, magnetic bracelet,or placebo bracelet.[37][38] As far as medical science is concerned, wearing copper has no known benefit, for anymedical condition at all. A human being can have a dietary copper deficiency, but this is very rare, because copper ispresent in many common foods, including legumes (beans), grains, and nuts. [39]

There is no evidence that copper even can be absorbed through the skin. But if it were, this could actually lead tocopper poisoning, which may actually be more likely than beneficial effects.[40]

More recently, some compression clothing has been sold with copper woven into it, with the same folk medicineclaims being made. While compression clothing is a real treatment for some ailments, therefore the clothing mayappear to work, the added copper may very well have no benefit beyond a placebo effect.[41]

Other usesCopper compounds in liquid form are used as a wood preservative, particularly in treating original portion ofstructures during restoration of damage due to dry rot. Together with zinc, copper wires may be placed overnon-conductive roofing materials to discourage the growth of moss.[citation needed] Textile fibers use copper to createantimicrobial protective fabrics,[42] as do ceramic glazes, stained glass and musical instruments. Electroplatingcommonly uses copper as a base for other metals such as nickel.Copper is one of three metals, along with lead and silver, used in a museum materials testing procedure called theOddy test. In this procedure, copper is used to detect chlorides, oxides, and sulfur compounds.Copper is used as the printing plate in etching, engraving and other forms of intaglio (printmaking) printmaking.Copper oxide and carbonate is used in glassmaking and in ceramic glazes to impart green and brown colors.Copper is the principal alloying metal in some sterling silver and gold alloys. It may also be used on its own, or as aconstituent of brass, bronze, gilding metal and many other base metal alloys.

DegradationChromobacterium violaceum and Pseudomonas fluorescens can both mobilize solid copper, as a cyanide compound.The Ericoid Mycorrhizal Fungi Calluna, Erica and Vaccinium can grow in copper metalliferous soils. Theectomycorrhizal fungi Suillus luteus protects young pine trees from copper toxicity.

Biological role

Copper 16

Rich sources of copper include oysters, beef andlamb liver, Brazil nuts, blackstrap molasses,

cocoa, and black pepper. Good sources includelobster, nuts and sunflower seeds, green olives,

avocados, and wheat bran.

Copper proteins have diverse roles in biological electron transport andoxygen transportation, processes that exploit the easy interconversionof Cu(I) and Cu(II).[43][44][45] The biological role for coppercommenced with the appearance of oxygen in earth's atmosphere. Theprotein hemocyanin is the oxygen carrier in most mollusks and somearthropods such as the horseshoe crab (Limulus polyphemus). Becausehemocyanin is blue, these organisms have blue blood, not the red bloodfound in organisms that rely on hemoglobin for this purpose.Structurally related to hemocyanin are the laccases and tyrosinases.Instead of reversibly binding oxygen, these proteins hydroxylatesubstrates, illustrated by their role in the formation of lacquers.

Copper is also a component of other proteins associated with theprocessing of oxygen. In cytochrome c oxidase, which is required foraerobic respiration, copper and iron cooperate in the reduction of oxygen. Copper is also found in many superoxidedismutases, proteins that catalyze the decomposition of superoxides, by converting it (by disproportionation) tooxygen and hydrogen peroxide:

2 HO2 → H2O2 + O2Several copper proteins, such as the "blue copper proteins", do not interact directly with substrates, hence they arenot enzymes. These proteins relay electrons by the process called electron transfer.

Photosynthesis functions by an elaborate electron transport chain within the thylakoidmembrane. A central "link" in this chain is plastocyanin, a blue copper protein.

Dietary needs

Copper is an essential trace element inplants and animals, but not somemicroorganisms. The human bodycontains copper at a level of about 1.4to 2.1 mg per kg of body mass. Stateddifferently, the RDA for copper innormal healthy adults is quoted as0.97 mg/day and as 3.0 mg/day.Copper is absorbed in the gut, thentransported to the liver bound toalbumin. After processing in the liver,copper is distributed to other tissues ina second phase. Copper transport hereinvolves the protein ceruloplasmin, which carries the majority of copper in blood. Ceruloplasmin also carries copperthat is excreted in milk, and is particularly well-absorbed as a copper source. Copper in the body normally undergoesenterohepatic circulation (about 5 mg a day, vs. about 1 mg per day absorbed in the diet and excreted from the body),and the body is able to excrete some excess copper, if needed, via bile, which carries some copper out of the liverthat is not then reabsorbed by the intestine.

Copper 17

Copper-based disordersBecause of its role in facilitating iron uptake, copper deficiency can produce anemia-like symptoms, neutropenia,bone abnormalities, hypopigmentation, impaired growth, increased incidence of infections, osteoporosis,hyperthyroidism, and abnormalities in glucose and cholesterol metabolism. Conversely, Wilson's disease causes anaccumulation of copper in body tissues.Severe deficiency can be found by testing for low plasma or serum copper levels, low ceruloplasmin, and low redblood cell superoxide dismutase levels; these are not sensitive to marginal copper status. The "cytochrome c oxidaseactivity of leucocytes and platelets" has been stated as another factor in deficiency, but the results have not beenconfirmed by replication.

NFPA 704

Fire diamond for copper metal

Gram quantities of various copper salts have been taken in suicide attempts and produced acute copper toxicity inhumans, possibly due to redox cycling and the generation of reactive oxygen species that damage DNA.Corresponding amounts of copper salts (30 mg/kg) are toxic in animals. A minimum dietary value for healthygrowth in rabbits has been reported to be at least 3 ppm in the diet. However, higher concentrations of copper (100ppm, 200 ppm, or 500 ppm) in the diet of rabbits may favorably influence feed conversion efficiency, growth rates,and carcass dressing percentages.Chronic copper toxicity does not normally occur in humans because of transport systems that regulate absorption andexcretion. Autosomal recessive mutations in copper transport proteins can disable these systems, leading to Wilson'sdisease with copper accumulation and cirrhosis of the liver in persons who have inherited two defective genes.

References[1] Magnetic susceptibility of the elements and inorganic compounds (http:/ / www-d0. fnal. gov/ hardware/ cal/ lvps_info/ engineering/

elementmagn. pdf) in[2] http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ w/ index. php?title=Template:Infobox_copper& action=edit[3] http:/ / www. azcentral. com/ arizonarepublic/ business/ articles/ 2011/ 06/ 19/ 20110619copper-new-method-fight. html[4] "Overview of Recycled Copper" Copper.org (http:/ / www. copper. org/ publications/ newsletters/ innovations/ 1998/ 06/ recycle_overview.

html). Copper.org (2010-08-25). Retrieved on 2011-11-08.[5] Balver Zinn Solder Sn97Cu3 (http:/ / www. balverzinn. com/ downloads/ Solder_Sn97Cu3. pdf). (PDF) . balverzinn.com. Retrieved on

2011-11-08.[6][6] Ralph L. Shriner, Christine K. F. Hermann, Terence C. Morrill, David Y. Curtin, Reynold C. Fuson "The Systematic Identification of Organic

Compounds" 8th edition, J. Wiley, Hoboken. ISBN 0-471-21503-1[7] Kay Saalwächter, Walther Burchard, Peter Klüfers, G. Kettenbach, and Peter Mayer, Dieter Klemm, Saran Dugarmaa "Cellulose Solutions in

Water Containing Metal Complexes" Macromolecules 2000, 33, 4094–4107.[8][8] "Modern Organocopper Chemistry" Norbert Krause, Ed., Wiley-VCH, Weinheim, 2002. ISBN 978-3-527-29773-3.[9] Pleger, Thomas C. "A Brief Introduction to the Old Copper Complex of the Western Great Lakes: 4000–1000 BC", Proceedings of the

Twenty-seventh Annual Meeting of the Forest History Association of Wisconsin (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=6NUQNQAACAAJ),Oconto, Wisconsin, October 5, 2002, pp. 10–18.

[10] Emerson, Thomas E. and McElrath, Dale L. Archaic Societies: Diversity and Complexity Across the Midcontinent (http:/ / books. google.com/ books?id=awsA08oYoskC& pg=PA709), SUNY Press, 2009 ISBN 1-4384-2701-8.

[11] Pops, Horace, 2008, Processing of wire from antiquity to the future, Wire Journal International, June, pp 58–66[12] The Metallurgy of Copper Wire, http:/ / www. litz-wire. com/ pdf%20files/ Metallurgy_Copper_Wire. pdf[13] Joseph, Günter, 1999, Copper: Its Trade, Manufacture, Use, and Environmental Status, edited by Kundig, Konrad J.A., ASM International,

pps. 141–192 and pps. 331–375.

Copper 18

[14][14] Joseph, Günter, 1999, Copper: Its Trade, Manufacture, Use, and Environmental Status, edited by Kundig, Konrad J.A., ASM International,p.348

[15] IE3 energy-saving motors, Engineer Live, http:/ / www. engineerlive. com/ Design-Engineer/ Motors_and_Drives/IE3_energy-saving_motors/ 22687/

[16] Energy‐efficiency policy opportunities for electric motor‐driven systems, International Energy Agency, 2011 Working Paper in the EnergyEfficiency Series, by Paul Waide and Conrad U. Brunner, OECD/IEA 2011

[17] Fuchsloch, J. and E.F. Brush, (2007), “Systematic Design Approach for a New Series of Ultra‐NEMA Premium Copper Rotor Motors”, inEEMODS 2007 Conference Proceedings, 10‐15 June,Beijing.

[18] Copper motor rotor project; Copper Development Association; http:/ / www. copper. org/ applications/ electrical/ motor-rotor[19] NEMA Premium Motors, The Association of Electrical Equipment and Medical Imaging Manufacturers; http:/ / www. nema. org/ gov/

energy/ efficiency/ premium/[20] Seale, Wayne (2007). The role of copper, brass, and bronze in architecture and design; Metal Architecture, May 2007[21][21] Copper roofing in detail; Copper in Architecture; Copper Development Association, U.K., www.cda.org.uk/arch[22] Architecture, European Copper Institute; http:/ / eurocopper. org/ copper/ copper-architecture. html[23] Kronborg completed; Agency for Palaces and Cultural Properties, København, http:/ / www. slke. dk/ en/ slotteoghaver/ slotte/ kronborg/

kronborgshistorie/ kronborgfaerdigbygget. aspx?highlight=copper[24] Architectural considerations; Copper in Architecture Design Handbook, http:/ / www. copper. org/ applications/ architecture/ arch_dhb/

fundamentals/ arch_considerations. htm[25] Peters, Larry E. (2004). Preventing corrosion on copper roofing systems; Professional Roofing, October 2004, http:/ / www.

professionalroofing. net[26] Oxidation Reaction: Why is the Statue of Liberty Blue-Green? Engage Students in Engineering; www.EngageEngineering.org; Chun Wu,

Ph.D., Mount Marty College; Funded by the National Science Foundation (NSF) under Grant No. 083306. http:/ / www.wepanknowledgecenter. org/ c/ document_library/ get_file?folderId=517& name=DLFE-2454. pdf

[27] Yahoo! Answers – What is the patina of an oxidised copper coin made of? http:/ / sg. answers. yahoo. com/ question/index?qid=20090726064632AAiDf2k

[28] Application Areas: Architecture – Finishes – patina; http:/ / www. copper. org/ applications/ architecture/ finishes. html[29] Glossary of copper terms, Copper Development Association (UK): http:/ / www. copperinfo. co. uk/ resources/ glossary. shtml[30] Finishes – natural weathering; Copper in Architecture Design Handbook, Copper Development Association Inc., http:/ / www. copper. org/

applications/ architecture/ arch_dhb/ finishes/ finishes. html[31][31] Edding, Mario E., Flores, Hector, and Miranda, Claudio, (1995), Experimental Usage of Copper-Nickel Alloy Mesh in Mariculture. Part 1:

Feasibility of usage in a temperate zone; Part 2: Demonstration of usage in a cold zone; Final report to the International Copper AssociationLtd.

[32] Corrosion Behaviour of Copper Alloys used in Marine Aquaculture (http:/ / www. copper. org/ applications/ cuni/ pdf/ marine_aquaculture.pdf). (PDF) . copper.org. Retrieved on 2011-11-08.

[33] EPA registers copper-containing alloy products (http:/ / www. epa. gov/ pesticides/ factsheets/ copper-alloy-products. htm), May 2008[34] Chilean subway protected with Antimicrobial Copper – Rail News from (http:/ / www. rail. co/ 2011/ 07/ 22/

chilean-subway-protected-with-antimicrobial-copper). rail.co. Retrieved on 2011-11-08.[35] Codelco to provide antimicrobial copper for new metro lines (Chile) (http:/ / construpages. com. ve/ nl/ noticia_nl. php?id_noticia=3032&

language=en). Construpages.com.ve. Retrieved on 2011-11-08.[36] PR 811 Chilean Subway Installs Antimicrobial Copper (http:/ / www. antimicrobialcopper. com/ media/ 149689/

pr811-chilean-subway-installs-antimicrobial-copper. pdf). (PDF). antimicrobialcopper.com. Retrieved on 2011-11-08.[37] The Daily Mail:

Copper bracelet arthritis cure is a myth, say scientists (http:/ / www. dailymail. co. uk/ health/ article-1221015/Copper-bracelet-arthritis-cure-myth-say-scientists-casting-doubt-multi-million-pound-alternative-healthcare-industry. html)

[38] National Institutes of Health (NIH):No difference was observed between devices in terms of their effects on pain as measured by the primary outcome measure (WOMAC A), thePRI and the VAS. Similar results were obtained for stiffness (WOMAC B), physical function (WOMAC C), and medication use. Furtheranalyses of the PRI subscales revealed a statistically significant difference between devices (P=0.025), which favoured the experimentaldevice. Participants reported lower sensory pain after wearing the standard magnetic wrist strap, than when wearing control devices.However, no adjustment was made for multiple testing.

[39] University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences:Can wearing a copper bracelet cure arthritis? (http:/ / www. uamshealth. com/ ?id=882& sid=1)According to the Center for Hand and Upper Extremity Surgery at UAMS, copper deficiency is extremely rare and most regular diets provideenough copper to meet the daily requirements. Copper is a component of some of the normal cellular enzymes in most mineral rich foods,such as vegetables, potatoes, legumes (beans and peas), nuts (peanuts and pecans), grains (wheat and rye) and fruits. Supplementation is onlyneeded in patients with serious medical conditions that affect their gastrointestinal tract and impair their ability to absorb nutrients.

[40] University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences: Find the Truth Behind Medical Myths (http:/ / www. uams. edu/ update/ absolutenm/ templates/ medical. asp?articleid=3454) While it’s never been proven that copper can copper be absorbed through the skin by wearing a bracelet, research has shown that excessive

Copper 19

copper can result in poisoning, causing vomiting and, in severe cases, liver damage.[41] Truth in Advertising

Tommie Copper (https:/ / www. truthinadvertising. org/ tommie-copper/ )So it seems possible that copper-infused compression clothing could help you recover from a tough workout, and it’s also possible it couldhave some anti-bacterial properties in clothes. But as for the claims in the infomercial about relieving joint pain and helping with everydayaches — any relief from copper-compression seems more likely to be a placebo effect than anything else. Think carefully before shelling outfor Tommie Copper.

[42] Ergowear (https:/ / www. ergowear. com/ incopper-specifications/ ), Copper antimicrobial yarn technology used in male underwear[43][43] electronic-book ISBN 978-94-007-5561-1 electronic-[44][44] electronic-book ISBN 978-94-007-5561-1 electronic-[45][45] S. J. Lippard, J. M. Berg "Principles of bioinorganic chemistry" University Science Books: Mill Valley, CA; 1994. ISBN 0-935702-73-3.

Notes

Pourbaix diagrams for copper

in pure water, or acidic or alkaliconditions. Copper in neutral water is

more noble than hydrogen.

in water containing sulfide in 10 M ammonia solution in a chloride solution

Further reading• Massaro, Edward J., ed. (2002). Handbook of Copper Pharmacology and Toxicology. Humana Press.

ISBN 0-89603-943-9.• "Copper: Technology & Competitiveness (Summary) Chapter 6: Copper Production Technology" (http:/ / www.

princeton. edu/ ~ota/ disk2/ 1988/ 8808/ 880808. PDF). Office of Technology Assessment. 2005.• Current Medicinal Chemistry, Volume 12, Number 10, May 2005, pp. 1161–1208(48) Metals, Toxicity and

Oxidative Stress• William D. Callister (2003). Materials Science and Engineering: an Introduction, 6th Ed. Table 6.1, p. 137:

Wiley, New York. ISBN 0-471-73696-1.• Material: Copper (Cu), bulk (http:/ / www. memsnet. org/ material/ coppercubulk/ ), MEMS and Nanotechnology

Clearinghouse.• Kim BE, Nevitt T, Thiele DJ (2008). "Mechanisms for copper acquisition, distribution and regulation" (http:/ /

www. nature. com/ nchembio/ journal/ v4/ n3/ abs/ nchembio. 72. html). Nat. Chem. Biol. 4 (3): 176–85. doi:10.1038/nchembio.72 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1038/ nchembio. 72). PMID  18277979 (http:/ / www. ncbi. nlm.nih. gov/ pubmed/ 18277979).

• Copper transport disorders (http:/ / www. rsc. org/ Publishing/ Journals/ cb/ Volume/ 2009/ 1/ Copper. asp): anInstant insight from the Royal Society of Chemistry

Copper 20

External links• Copper (http:/ / www. periodicvideos. com/ videos/ 029. htm) at The Periodic Table of Videos (University of

Nottingham)• National Pollutant Inventory – Copper and compounds fact sheet (http:/ / www. npi. gov. au/ substances/ copper/

index. html)• Copper Resource Page. (http:/ / www. weldaloy. com/ resource_center. php) Includes 12 PDF files detailing the

material properties of various kinds of copper, as well as various guides and tools for the copper industry.• CDC – NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards – Copper (dusts and mists) (http:/ / www. cdc. gov/ niosh/

npg/ npgd0150. html)• CDC – NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards – Copper fume (http:/ / www. cdc. gov/ niosh/ npg/

npgd0151. html)• The Copper Development Association (http:/ / www. copper. org) has an extensive site of properties and uses of

copper; it also maintains a web site dedicated to [[brass (http:/ / www. brass. org)], a copper alloy.• The Third Millennium Online page on Copper (http:/ / www. 3rd1000. com/ elements/ Copper. htm)• Price history of copper, according to the IMF (http:/ / www. indexmundi. com/ commodities/

?commodity=copper& months=300)

Article Sources and Contributors 21

Article Sources and ContributorsCopper  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=586598067  Contributors: 007ketan, 07ireland07, 100110100, 12dstring, 15236hb, 1Martin33, 28421u2232nfenfcenc, 28bytes, 2D,2tuntony, 30, 4timmy2turner0, 524, 786ace, 7severn7, A. B., A123542, A2Kafir, A314268, A876, Abcdefghijklmnao, Abrech, Academic Challenger, Acalamari, Achim1999, Adam Johnston,Adam850, Adambro, Adamlala, Adashiel, Addshore, Adjusting, Ae-a, Agaudin, Ahering@cogeco.ca, Ahoerstemeier, Aitias, Ajaxkroon, Akamad, Aksi great, Alan Liefting, Alanl, Alansohn,AlbertEinstein1939, Alchemist-hp, AlejandroLinaresGarcia, Alex '05, Alex.muller, Alex.tan, Alexandria, AlexiusHoratius, Alexnye, Allstarecho, Ameliorate!, Ams80, Anam Gumnam, AnandKaria, Anaraug, Anarchic Fox, Anastasios, Andonic, Andre Engels, Andres, Andrew Barriskell, AndrewHowse, Andy Marchbanks, Ann Stouter, Anonymous Dissident, Anrnusna, Antandrus,Antonio Lopez, Anwar saadat, Anypodetos, Apedia, Arakunem, Arcadian, Archaeodontosaurus, Archimerged, ArchonMagnus, Arekrishna, Armbrust, Arnon Chaffin, Arronsj, Arundel39,Asdwqwe123, Ashnard, Asterion, Astral, Atlan, Atlant, Aussie Alchemist, Avant Guard, Average Earthman, Avromi, Axel-Berger, BBUCommander, Babayaga11235813, Bahudhara,Ballaqt123, Barneca, BarretB, Bbi5291, Bcai388, Bcorr, Beetstra, Beland, Bellapenmanowens, BenFrantzDale, Benbest, Bender235, Benjah-bmm27, Bezapt, Bgwhite, Bhadani, Biebergirl3, BigBird, BillFlis, Biochemnick, Bissinger, Bkell, Blanchette, BlastOButter42, Blood Red Sandman, Blue Kitsune, Bluezy, Bob Burkhardt, Bobet, Bobo192, Bogey97, Bokuwa, Bonadea,Bongwarrior, BorisFromStockdale, Borislav.dopudja, Bork, Bosco-cac, Bovineone, Brainfreeze, Brandon, Breakyunit, Brenont, Brian0918, BrokenSegue, Bryan Derksen, Bryancpark,Bsadowski1, Buck Leupitsthlaw, Bufflo, Bugfood, C0nanPayne, CBDunkerson, CDN99, CWY2190, CYD, Cadmium, Cadwaladr, Calbff, Caltas, CambridgeBayWeather, Camw, Can't sleep,clown will eat me, CanadianLinuxUser, CanisRufus, Canthusus, Canton Viaduct, Cantus, Capecodeph, Capricorn42, CardinalDan, Carnildo, Carterly, Cbdorsett, CecilWard, Cedars, CeliaRSC,CensoredScribe, Centallith, Centrx, Ceranthor, Cflm001, Cfsporn, Charles Gaudette, CharlesHBennett, CharlotteWebb, Chasingsol, Chem-awb, ChemNerd, Chemicalinterest, Chemist82,Chengkl88, Chickyfuzz14, Choess, ChongDae, Chris 73, Chris Capoccia, Chris.urs-o, Chrisch, Christian75, Christophenstein, Christopher Kraus, Chronolith, Cj1340, Ck lostsword, CliffC,Clintlight27, Cls14, Codetiger, Coinmanj, Comatose51, Conversion script, Copperfan, Coppergirl, Coppertwig, Coreanwannub, Courcelles, Cparker1, Crazy pineapple5, Crodda,Crusadeonilliteracy, Cryptic C62, Ctbolt, Cuprum17, Cybercobra, Cynical, CzarB, DARTH SIDIOUS 2, DHollerman, DJSupreme23, DMacks, DaGizza, DabMachine, Daedalus969, DarkShikari, DarkAudit, Darkchun, Darrendeng, Darrien, Darry2385, Darth Panda, Darwin's Bulldog, David Alan Sherwood, David Latapie, David R. Ingham, David Richtman, Dawn Bard, Dcclark,Dcirovic, DePiep, DeadEyeArrow, Deflective, Deli nk, DerHexer, Derek Ross, Derek.cashman, Destroyer000, Detabudash, Detroit3k, Dfrg.msc, Didsrocks, Digon3, Dilaudid, Dinak, Dino,Dirac66, Dirkbb, Discospinster, Diwas, Djdrake, Dlrohrer2003, DocWatson42, Dombkowski, Donarreiskoffer, Doodle77, Double sharp, DoubleBlue, Douglas Wilhelm Harder, Dougofborg,Doulos Christos, Dpv, Dr. Blofeld, Dr. Dunglison, Dragon of the Rust, Drilnoth, Drjohntoconnorpe, Dvc214, Dwmyers, Dysepsion, Dzubint, E Wing, EJF, ESkog, EarthPerson, Eclipsenow,EdChem, Edgar181, Edwy, Ejosse1, Ejtolley, El C, Elassint, Eldin raigmore, Elementdc, Eliaseshete, Elite6809, Ellywa, Elvey, Emperorbma, Enlightenedment, Enviroboy, Enviromet, Epbr123,Eperotao, Epicgenius, Equilibrium007, Eric-Wester, Erimir, Esanchez7587, EugeneZelenko, Everyking, Evolutionyu, Ewen, Ewlyahoocom, Exert, FF2010, Faizhaider, Falcon8765, FastLizard4,FastMarkets, Fbergo, Feinoha, Feldspaar, Femto, FengRail, Florescent, Florian Blaschke, Fnarf999, Fo63, Francescharman, Franspinale, Frau flan, Frmatt, Frmorrison, Fruit.Smoothie, Func,FutureTrillionaire, Fuzzform, G147, G4qb, Gaelen S., Gail, GalFisk, Gauravjuvekar, Gazimoff, Gbr3, Gdoak, Gene Nygaard, Gfoley4, Ghossein, Giftlite, Gigs, Gil-Galad, Gilabrand, Gilgamesh,Gilliam, Gillyweed, Gimmetrow, Gitface, Glane23, Glenn, GlobeGores, Gman124, Gob Lofa, Gogo Dodo, Goldplacer, Gonzonator, Gorank4, GorillaWarfare, GraemeL, Grafen, Graham87,GreenRoot, GregAsche, Grendelkhan, Grunkhead, Gtstricky, Gulbenk, Gun Powder Ma, Gurch, Gökhan, HK51, Hailleeedot, Haleiwahi, Hallows AG, Hankwang, HappyM, Harish2k1vet,Haydonnoel, Hdt83, Headbomb, Hebert Peró, Hellbus, Henrik, Hephaestos, Herbee, Heron, HexaChord, Hiberniantears, Hispalois, Hitherto, Hmains, Hobartimus, Howcheng, Hu12, Huggle,Hugorj42, Husond, Hut 8.5, Hydrogen Iodide, I love you shasha, IRP, Iac74205, IanMSpencer, Icairns, IceUnshattered, Ifish4cats, Igodard, ImperatorExercitus, ImperfectlyInformed, Inferno,Lord of Penguins, Inter16, Invertzoo, Inwind, Ioeth, Iridescent, Ironholds, Isaac08, Itinerant1, IvanLanin, J.delanoy, J295, JCSantos, JForget, JHunterJ, JJ Harrison, JMilty, JPINFV, JZNIOSH,JaGa, Jacklee, Jadtnr1, Jakew, Jakohn, Jamessugrono, Jane Bennet, Janke, Jaraalbe, Jared, Jason Quinn, Jauerback, JavierMC, Jebba, Jeff G., Jeffrd10, Jerry, Jerry picker, Jerryseinfeld, Jespinos,Jguk 2, Jiddisch, Jim.henderson, Jimp, Jleedev, Jmac2k6, Jmajeremy, Jnargus, JoanneB, Joe1913, John, John Mortimore, John254, JohnSRoberts99, Johnhardcastl, Johnhardcastle, Jontypearce,Jorgbrown, Jorge Stolfi, Jose77, Josh Parris, Josh0093, Jrtayloriv, Julesd, Julia-The-Little-Lady, Junglecat, KDS4444, KVDP, Kajerm, Kaphotics, Karl-Henner, Karlhahn, Katieh5584, Kaverin,Kazvorpal, Kbh3rd, Keegan, Keenan Pepper, Keilana, Keith D, Kgrr, King of Hearts, Kingpin13, Kjmarino, Knuto, Krawi, Ktsquare, Kukini, Kurt Shaped Box, Kuru, Kurykh, Kwamikagami,Kyle1278, Kyoko, L Kensington, L1A1 FAL, LA2, LMB, LTLOICE, La Pianista, LaMenta3, Lanthanum-138, Larimes, LarryMorseDCOhio, Ld100, LeadSongDog, Leadarrow, Leafyplant, LeeM, Leonard G., Lethalgeek, Leyo, Lightmouse, Lissa-loves-the-springtime, LittleHow, LittleOldMe, LittleRoughRhinestone, Locazreal, Lone Skeptic, LouScheffer, Louisajb, Lsdan,LuigiManiac, Lukie1217, Luna Santin, Lurlock, M11101, MC10, MER-C, MKoltnow, MNAdam, MONGO, MZMcBride, Mac, Mac Davis, Maddie!, Madmarigold, Maelnuneb, MagisterMathematicae, MajikalX, Makecat, Makeemlighter, Makscf, Malcolm Farmer, Malo, Mani1, Many Minerals, MaraNeo127, Marnanel, Martin Hogbin, Master of Puppets, Materialscientist,Mathilda37, Matt Deres, Matt Gies, Mav, McSly, Mdd4696, Medeis, Meekywiki, Meg0730, Meisterkoch, Mejor Los Indios, Melmann, Melsec, Meltedbutter, Mendaliv, Mentifisto, Metafury,Metagraph, Metallica6969, Mgimpel, Micheal321, Midgrid, Miguel3000, Mihai, Mikael Häggström, Mikaey, Mikr18, Mimzy89, MindZiper, Minesweeper, Mirrorblade, MisterSheik, Mj2689,Mjroots, Mkoyle, Mmanto, Mmccrae, Mmm, Mmxx, Modern Primate, Modernist, Monsoon Waves, Montrealais, Moon Ranger, Moppet65535, MottyGlix, Moucle, Moumine, MrBell,Mrholybrain, Musashiaharon, Mxn, My Flatley, Mygerardromance, N5iln, NPrice, NTox, Naddy, Naraht, NawlinWiki, Ndaren, Nealcardwell, Nedim Ardoğa, Nehrams2020, Nergaal, Neurolysis,Neverquick, NewEnglandYankee, Nick Y., Nick0597n, NickMartin, Nickisfat, Nickshanks, Nihiltres, Nimur, Nitrobutane, Nlu, No Guru, Noah Salzman, Nonagonal Spider, Nono64, NordicFire,Novangelis, Ntse, Nubiatech, Nv8200p, Nwbeeson, ObfuscatePenguin, Occamisation, OceanOgre4, Oda Mari, Ohconfucius, Ohmesohorny4u, OlEnglish, Oldwest, Opelio, Orpheus82, Oshwah,Ottawa4ever, OxMat, Oxymoron83, P.B. 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Image Sources, Licenses and ContributorsFile:Transparent.gif  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Transparent.gif  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Edokterfile:NatCopper.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:NatCopper.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.5  Contributors:Native_Copper_Macro_Digon3.jpg: “Jonathan Zander (Digon3)" derivative work: Materialscientist (talk)File:Cubic-face-centered.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Cubic-face-centered.svg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: Original PNGs byDaniel Mayer and DrBob, traced in Inkscape by User:StanneredFile:Cu-Scheibe.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Cu-Scheibe.JPG  License: Free Art License  Contributors: Alchemist-hp ( pse-mendelejew.de). Original uploaderwas Alchemist-hp at de.wikipediaFile:Copper just above its melting point.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Copper_just_above_its_melting_point.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors:SkatebikerFile:Copper wire comparison.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Copper_wire_comparison.JPG  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Chemicalinterest (talk)

Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors 22

File:Royal Observatory Edinburgh East Tower 2010 cropped.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Royal_Observatory_Edinburgh_East_Tower_2010_cropped.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors: Royal_Observatory_Edinburgh_East_Tower_2010.jpg: Chi And H derivative work: SpinningsparkFile:Native Copper from the Keweenaw Peninsula Michigan.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Native_Copper_from_the_Keweenaw_Peninsula_Michigan.jpg License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: John MortimoreFile:Chuquicamata-002.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Chuquicamata-002.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.0  Contributors:User:nanosmileFile:Copper - world production trend.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Copper_-_world_production_trend.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: LeyoFile:2005copper (mined).PNG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:2005copper_(mined).PNG  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Original uploader was Anwar saadat aten.wikipediaFile:Copper Price History USD.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Copper_Price_History_USD.png  License: Public domain  Contributors: User:SreeBotFile:CopperIoxide.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:CopperIoxide.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: Benjah-bmm27, Dorgan, Jynto, 1anonymous editsFile:Tetramminkupfer(II)-sulfat-Monohydrat Kristalle.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Tetramminkupfer(II)-sulfat-Monohydrat_Kristalle.png  License: Publicdomain  Contributors: rainbowfish. Original uploader was Rainbowfish at de.wikipediaFile:Tetraamminediaquacopper(II)-3D-balls.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Tetraamminediaquacopper(II)-3D-balls.png  License: Public Domain  Contributors:Ben Mills and JyntoFile:Copper Ingot Crete.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Copper_Ingot_Crete.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: User:Chris 73File:Chrysocolla Timna 070613.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Chrysocolla_Timna_070613.jpg  License: Creative Commons Zero  Contributors: User:Wilson44691File:Venus symbol.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Venus_symbol.svg  License: unknown  Contributors: Kyle the hackerFile:TimnaChalcolithicMine.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:TimnaChalcolithicMine.JPG  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Wilson44691File:AngleseyCopperStream.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:AngleseyCopperStream.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors:Cls14File:Kupferfittings 4062.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Kupferfittings_4062.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: Torsten BätgeFile:Busbars.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Busbars.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: Ali@gwc.org.ukFile:Minneapolis City Hall.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Minneapolis_City_Hall.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution 2.5  Contributors: Appraiser,Denniss, EyOne, FlickreviewR, Jomo, Matthiasb, Mjrmtg, Mzlla, Steinsplitter, SusanLesch, Vaya, 1 anonymous editsFile:Copper utensils Jerusalem.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Copper_utensils_Jerusalem.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution 2.5  Contributors: GilaBrand, aka Gilabrand at en.wikipediaFile:ARS copper rich foods.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:ARS_copper_rich_foods.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Keith Weller, USDA ARSFile:Thylakoid membrane.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Thylakoid_membrane.png  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Original uploader was Tameeria aten.wikipediaFile:Copper in water pourbiax diagram.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Copper_in_water_pourbiax_diagram.png  License: Public Domain  Contributors:Cadmium, Materialscientist, Zerodamage, 2 anonymous editsFile:Copper in sulphide media pourbiax diagram.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Copper_in_sulphide_media_pourbiax_diagram.png  License: Public Domain Contributors: Cadmium, Materialscientist, Zerodamage, 1 anonymous editsFile:Copper in 10M ammonia pourbiax diagram.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Copper_in_10M_ammonia_pourbiax_diagram.png  License: Public Domain Contributors: Cadmium, Materialscientist, Zerodamage, 1 anonymous editsFile:Copper in chloride media more copper pourbiax.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Copper_in_chloride_media_more_copper_pourbiax.png  License: PublicDomain  Contributors: Cadmium, Materialscientist, Zerodamage, 1 anonymous edits

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