Coping with Loss FINAL Submission

Running head: COPING WITH LOSS

Gender Communication Styles: Coping with Loss

Leanna Arredondo

Ashley Camacho

Eliseo Cañete

Ariana Casiano

Pascale Péan

Pacific Union College

Communication 425

Dr. Tammy McGuire

March 15, 2016

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Abstract

This study examined the differences between masculine and feminine communication styles

when coping with the death of a loved one. We administered an online survey to 188 participants

by posting a link on Facebook and sending the link via text message to peers. Likert and

semantic differential scales focused on gender differences and coping mechanisms after

experiencing loss. The relationship between variables was measured using t-tests and single-

sample chi-squares. The majority of our results revealed no statistically significant differences in

the behavior of men and women when coping with loss. However, we found that women were

more willing to share their feelings to others as a first reaction to hearing news of the death of a

loved one. The study discusses how representation, behaviors, and emotional expressiveness

influenced individuals’ coping mechanisms. Expectations of traditional gender roles were not

met in spite of the greater representation of females in the study. These discoveries may shed

light on how to help individuals that are suffering a loss.

Introduction

It is nearly inevitable, in every person’s lifetime, that individuals experience the loss of a

loved one. However, not everyone has the same process of dealing with death. Undoubtedly,

people coping with loss exhibit obvious distinctions since humans are not the same in all

respects. Culture, biological and psychological makeup, gender, and other factors affect how

people cope with death (Armistead, Borge-Callaway, Clance, & Wing, 2001). In the presence of

a loss, people often share similar experiences—confusion, sadness, pain, avoidance, and other

feelings and behaviors. Grief is the behavior that explains how people cope with loss.

Gender styles play an influential role in the grieving process. Society has socially

constructed men and women into separate categories; however, masculine and feminine

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communication styles may overlap between people (Hirokawa et al., 2004). In general, gender

communication styles are distinct from one another with how they handle grief. These

dissimilarities are significant because they influence our daily interactions.

Distinctions in gender communication styles should be highlighted to depict how

individuals handle the repercussions of death. Studies have compared masculine and feminine

communication styles to understand specific characteristics within the context of grief. For

example, research conducted by Butler, Feng, and MacGeorge (2003) proposed that people with

feminine communication styles tend to “put more value on conflict management and comforting

skills” compared to men who “put more value on persuasion” (p.197). The variances in

communication styles lead to a better understanding of how to be able to accommodate to

individuals’ specific communication styles. People can utilize this information to support and

empathize with grieving loved ones by being familiar with these communication styles.

Ultimately, it is important to investigate how gender communication styles affect the

process of coping with death because, at some point, every person experiences a loss. Having a

greater understanding of gender communication styles aids people in recognizing how to

approach peers that are grieving in the presence of death. Nonetheless, this study will focus on

the differences in gender communication styles, specifically those who have dealt with loss. The

definitive goal of this study is to enlighten individuals on how they can help others cope with

loss more effectively.

Literature Review

Masculine and feminine communication styles differ in daily interactions. When one adds

the emotional impact of death, masculine and feminine communication styles must each find

their own way to cope with loss and help others cope with loss.

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Emotional Impact of Death Among Parents

A comprehensive analysis of the differences between genders in relation to coping with

the loss of a child suggests that shock, numbness, and disbelief are identified as the most

immediate responses following death (Armistead, Borge-Callaway, Clance, & Wing, 2001).

Armistead et al. also inferred that women are more likely to experience depersonalized feelings,

such as numbness, confusion, and denial of reality on a greater scale than fathers even two to

four years post-loss. These findings indicated that even though both genders suffer the loss of a

child to an extent, women tend to experience feelings of loss more intensely and longer than

men.

The last and most common emotional reaction to death is depression. Armistead et al.

(2001) propose that gender differences in relation to feelings of depression are evident in the first

few years following loss. However, this apparent difference between genders and their feelings

of depression tend to even out over time. Mothers are more likely to experience higher levels of

depressions than fathers following a perinatal or SIDS (sudden infant death syndrome)

occurrence. Armistead et al. also inferred that 65% to 95% of women and 51% to 85% of men

experienced visual and auditory hallucinations following the death of a child. Aside from

hallucinations, common somatic symptoms as responses to infant death include: sleep

disturbances, appetite problems, fatigue, gastrointestinal problems, headaches, dizziness, and

chest pain. Armistead et al. reveal that mothers have higher somatic symptoms that may extend

to 32 months after the child’s passing, while men experience high levels of somatic symptoms

for about 6 months post-loss. Armistead et al. proposed five possible theories that are identified

as possible explanations for gender differences in bereavement behavior:

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(a) The differences may be due to differences between mothers and fathers in the bond or

attachment they form with the developing infant

(b) The differences may be due to gender differences in reaction to stress

(c) The differences may be due to differences in gender-role socialization involving

emotional expressiveness and willingness to acknowledge and report emotions

(d) The differences may be due to different methods of coping among women and men

(e) The differences may be due to the different identity configurations and different social

environments that women and men experience following the loss.

These apparent differences in communication show that masculine and feminine communication

styles continue to exist while dealing with grieving and loss.

Masculine Communication Style

The process of assessing which style of communication effectively copes better with loss

is highly dependent on the knowledge of discrepancies within communication styles. Research

by Inman and Wood (2003) suggest that family psychodynamics are very influential in the

development of communication styles. Essentially, the relationships that mothers cultivate with

their children, biological and cultural stimuli, and gendered-differentiated socialization can help

define an individual’s specific gender communicative style. While gender communicative styles

have the potential of overlapping between sexes, men have typically been associated with having

a masculine style of communication and vice versa. However, Hirokawa, Yagi, and Miyata

(2004) conclude that masculine and feminine communication styles do not accurately depict

stereotypical gender behaviors, ideologies, and gender-role flexibility.

Two main categories exist within every set of communicative style: intimacy and

disclosure. When it comes to disclosure, a masculine communicative style seeks to report less

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information, use less emotional language and avoids disclosing feelings (Inman et al., 2003).

Masculine communication generates intimacy and closeness through activities, nonverbal

bonding and by offering assistance when needed. More so, the masculine style tends to exhibit

more assertive, dominating behavior, yet “no sex or gender type interaction was found”

(Hirokawa, Miyata, & Yagi, 2004). Having a foundational understanding of what a masculine

communication style embodies assists in the process of surveying how masculine

communication deals with loss.

Impact of Death and Masculine Communication Coping Skills

The way an individual perceives the implications of death is largely associated with their

specific gender communication styles. Everyone experiences the grieving process in response to

loss since death symbolizes the end of intimate relationships (German, 1981). Some individuals

are more capable of accepting death as a part of life, while others remain in denial and

depression for extensive periods. Furthermore, research suggests that when a loved one passes

away, one of the most difficult parts to mend is the reconstruction of self in presence of

separation (German, 1981). Given the fact that women are more prone to use self-disclosure and

emotional language, they are more disposed to being sensitive and seeking support from others

when coping with a loss (Booth-Butterfield, Krezmian, Wanzer, & Weil, 2014). However,

Booth-Butterfield et al. mentioned that masculine communication tends to take a systematic

approach to loss. Interestingly enough, while some studies lean toward women coping with loss

better, because they tend to be more in touch with their emotions and self-disclosure, other

research suggests that men may undergo fewer long-term negative affects in the aftermath of

death due to their problem-solving attitude (Booth-Butterfield et al., 2014).

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Aside from the way individuals perceive implications of death, ego boundaries also

influence the way men and women deal with loss. Men tend to have thick ego boundaries since

they do not rely as much on self-disclosure to create bonds or a sense of identity with others

(Booth-Butterfield et al., 2014). However, women usually do the opposite as men and engage in

more self-disclosure and emotional communication to seek relationships and support. In the

presence of death, women with thinner boundaries would experience a loss of identity as well as

a loss of a friend (Booth-Butterfield et al., 2014). Booth-Butterfield et al. suggest that men tend

to cope better with loss because they tend to separate their identity from others better than

women.

In relation to boundaries, the fields of experience can also contribute to the way in which

individuals cope with death, especially the length of time since the death and the relationship ties

to the deceased (Booth-Butterfield et al., 2014). Booth-Butterfield et al. have shown that within a

dyadic marital relationship, mothers are more likely to suffer more from anxiety, atypical

behavior, depression, and physiological symptom. More so, men are more likely to manage the

loss of a miscarriage more efficiently than women. According to researchers, it may not be

surprising that women are less likely to cope more effectively with a miscarriage since they

generate a special relationship with the fetus from early embryologic development.

Another aspect that may indicate the variances in gender communication is the

application of humor to cope with loss. Booth-Butterfield et al. (2014) reveals that people who

implement humor appropriately into their daily lives are more susceptible to gaining positive

benefits in their interpersonal and intrapersonal connections. Since grieving the loss of a loved

one is a difficult task to undergo, the implementation of humor may shed some light on grief.

Bonanno (2004) and other researchers (Almeida, Bonnano, Fuller-Rowell, & Ong, 2011)

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suggested that laughter and positive reflection on life help induce lowered stress levels and

negative mindsets. On a spectrum of low to high humor orientation, which is the ability to apply

humor daily, men were revealed to score higher than women (Booth-Butterfield et al., 2014).

Men also coped with the loss of a loved one more successfully than women who scored

lower due to psychological and physiological setbacks (Booth-Butterfield et al., 2014). This

research is consistent with other findings (Beutel et al., 1996; Schwab, 1996), indicating that men

ideally cope more effectively with death than women given women’s deconstructive emotions.

According to research conducted by Booth-Butterfield et al. (2014), men have been reported to

use humor more often in stressful situations than females; this may be a reason why men report

to have less negative experiences with loss because they use humor to generate a sense of

optimism.

In the case of gender communication styles, it is important to note that even though

women are associated with feminine styles and men with masculine styles, these gender styles

may overlap between sexes. More so, individuals that exhibit androgyny within communication

styles are known to display the most competent communicative skills and coping mechanisms

(Hirokawa et al., 2004). Little research exists on masculine and feminine communication styles

independently from the associated male and female genders.

Feminine Communication Style

It is evident that women and men have different communication styles. Because women

are found to be more nurturing than men, they tend to seek emotional support form others during

stressful situations. (Stillion & Noviello, 2001; Versalle & McDowell, 2005; Zinner, 2000).

Research demonstrates some of the differences in men and women while coping with grief.

Studies suggest that women show sympathy and display their emotions more than men so they

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can avoid being called “cold” (Chen et al., 1999; Kendler, Myers, & Prescott, 2005). Since

people with masculine communication styles tend to hold back their feelings and use humor

during a time of grieving, they do not get the opportunity to properly restore to normality

(Versalle & McDowell, 2005). Men tend to pull themselves away from loved ones, unlike

women who tend to become emotionally vulnerable (Versalle & McDowell, 2005). Because of

this fact, this article concluded that people with feminine communication styles tend to heal

faster from grief.

Additional studies illustrate how different genders and individuals interacted with their

friends who were going through a difficult period. Researchers assumed that men and those with

masculine communication styles would respond to a troubled friend by reducing the

interpersonal intimacy, while women and those with feminine communication styles would

enhance interpersonal intimacy (Basow & Rubenfield, 2003). The researchers then found that

women and those with feminine communication styles were more likely to be responsive to a

friend during “trouble talk” and less likely to change the subject compared to men (Michaud &

Warner, 1997). In the presences of the distinctions between gender communication styles,

further research is needed to connect how these communication differences influence the way a

person handles loss.

Overall Research Themes

Research suggests that society and culture help determine how masculine and feminine

communication styles handle hardship. These factors also impact which members of society

possess certain communication styles. Men are more likely to have masculine communication

styles as are women with feminine styles, but both cultural and societal pressures have a role in

these groupings. It is possible for men to have feminine styles of communication, as well as

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masculine styles being present in women. We have found, nonetheless, that masculine and

feminine communication styles interact differently. This difference with communication styles

may continue to exist when dealing with loss, or helping others deal with loss. Though ample

research exists on masculine and feminine communication styles and habits, limited research

exists on how these communication styles deal with loss differently. This information gives rise

to two research questions:

RQ1: How do different gendered communication styles cope with loss differently?

RQ2: How do different gendered communication styles help others cope with loss?

Methods

Participants and Subjects

In order to collect information regarding specific gender communication styles, the

survey will ask both males and females to participate in the study. Our participants are students

at Pacific Union College, as well as Facebook friends. The students at Pacific Union College

allow us to sample the communication styles presented by both males and females. The data

collected from the participants will determine how masculine and feminine communication

styles handle death differently. The majority of participants in this study are people who have

undergone a loss and have suffered alongside a friend who has lost someone.

Sampling

The sampling procedures we will use for this study will be: purposive, snowball, and

convenience sampling. This study will involve convenience sampling because of easy access to

students at Pacific Union College and participants that are readily available to us on Facebook.

We will also use purposive sampling because our study involves a certain target audience: people

who have experienced a loss. Individuals who believe that they have not been affected by a loss

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do not pertain to this study. We will also utilize snowball sampling by asking participants to

share our Survey Monkey post with their Facebook friends.

Collect Data

This research study uses Survey Monkey as a tool to draw information from various

individuals that fit the criteria of this study. We will post the survey link on our Facebook page

and ask people to participate and repost. Since Facebook presents a wide variety of audiences,

using this social media outlet will help us draw information from a greater pool of individuals

and provide direct access to online users.

This survey will not require the identity of our participants. The data gathered will be

anonymous. Before taking the survey, all students will be asked for permission to use the

responses on the survey. Each student will receive an informed consent page before proceeding.

Each participant must give us consent to use his or her information by checking “yes” before

proceeding. The informed consent will explain the purpose of the study, the risks and benefits,

the estimate time the survey should take, contact information, etc. We will also notify the

participants that they are welcome to stop the survey at any given moment. Since the data will be

kept anonymous, no information will be leaked or distributed.

Instrument

The authors of the study created the survey questions. These questions attempt to identify

an individual’s communication style (e.g., “Are you comfortable crying openly to your friends

after experiencing a loss?”), how they cope with loss (e.g., “When coping with a loss, do you use

to humor to ease tension in conversations?”), and their tendency to engage in grieving behaviors

(e.g., When coping with a loss, do you use humor to ease tension in conversations?”). The survey

consists of 22 questions total.

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Results

Gender and Consolation

Our study focuses on underlining the differences in genders and their coping mechanisms

in the presence of loss. One of the first factors our study was interested in observing was whether

gender played a role in how individuals received consolation through comfort. To do so, we

asked participants to respond to several questions, including their evaluation of comfort level on

a 5-point Likert scale (1 = Never; 5 = Always). A two-tailed t-test indicated no statistically

significant differences between genders and levels of consolation t (68) = 1.99, p = .40. The

overall findings concluded that women were less likely to receive consolation (M = 3.41, SD

= .96), while men were more likely to receive consolation (M = 3.26, SD = 1.12).

Gender and Emotional Expression

Another aspect worth observing was the possibility of differences between genders and

their levels of emotional expressiveness. Participants were instructed to respond to numerous

questions on a 7-point Likert scale (1 = Emotionally expressive; 7 = Private) to determine the

emotional expressiveness among participants. A two-tailed t-test indicated statistically

significant differences among genders and emotional expressiveness t (78)= 1.99, p<.05. The

results highlighted that women (M= 4.08, SD =2 .03) were expected to emotionally express

themselves more than men (M=4.78, SD = 1.98).

Aside from measuring levels of emotional expression, our study wanted to dig deeper to

observe variances in genders and their levels of comfort crying in front of strangers. Participants

were asked “How comfortable do you feel crying in front of strangers when you are going

through a hard time (loss of a loved one, emotional pain, etc.)?” and given a 5-point Likert scale

to choose from (1 = Very Uncomfortable; 5= Very Comfortable). A two-tailed t-test indicated no

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statistically significant differences among genders and their level of comfort when crying in front

of strangers t (73)= 1.99, p=.14. Women reported to be more comfortable crying in front of

strangers (M = 2.38, SD =1.32), while men reported be less emotionally expressive (M = 2.04,

SD = 1.38).

In addition to evaluating the variances in genders and their level of comfort with

emotional expression, consolation and crying in front of strangers, we were interested in whether

the preference of the amount of physical space given by close friends during an emotionally

difficult time differed between genders. We asked participants to choose whether they preferred

comfort or physical space from close friends during an emotionally difficult period (1 = Comfort;

7 = Space). A two-tailed t-test indicated that men and women had statistically significant

differences in preferences and the amount of physical space desired t (71) = 1.99, p<.05. Women

were more likely to prefer comfort from friends (M = 3.48, SD = 1.74) as opposed to men who

preferred physical space (M = 4.34, SD = 1.89).

Self-Blame and Self-Reflection

Upon looking at various forms of emotional expressions publicly and among close

friends, we wanted to identify if one gender was more inclined to engage in self-blame behavior

in the presence of death (e.g., “If only I were there” or “It’s all my fault”). We assessed each

participant’s tendency to engage in self-blame behavior using a 6-point Likert scale (1 = Never, 6

= Always). A two-tailed t-test indicated a statistically significant difference between men and

women’s self-blame behaviors t (79) = 1.99, p<.01. Women exhibited more self-blame behavior

(M = 2.98, SD = 1.28), while men were less prone to participate in self-blame upon coping with

loss (M = 2.32, SD = 1.23).

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Since genders presented statistically significant differences in their demonstration of self-

blame, we wanted to inquire potential correlations between participants’ tendencies to adopt self-

reflection (e.g., “It’s going to be alright” or “They are not suffering anymore”) and their

tendencies to share feelings upon initial reaction to death. A 6-point Likert scale determined

participants’ engagement in self-reflective behavior following the death of a loved one (1 =

Never; 6 = Always). Another 5-point Likert scale response set determined how often people

talked about their feelings at an initial reaction to a loved one’s passing (1 = Never, 5 = Always).

Regression analysis showed no statistically significant differences. Results revealed a weak,

negative correlation between a person’s inclination to engage in self-reflection and their

propensity to share their feelings, F (1,189) = 1.26 p = 0.26, (r = .08, r2 = .001).

Easing Tension: Disclosing Information and Humor

The majority of our study looks at the different mechanisms in which individuals express

themselves when coping with a loss. However, we wanted to research possible links between

people who were comfortable disclosing information with friends to ease tension and their use of

humor. A Simple Pearson correlation test was utilized to assess this question. Individuals were

requested to recall if they had ever used humor to ease tension when disclosing information to a

friend about the loss of a loved one. A 10-point Likert scale was administered to determine how

individuals disclosed their emotions (1 = Always; 10 = Never). Results indicated a weak positive

correlation between self-disclosure and use of humor. (r = 0.05, r2 = 0.002). Participants who

were willing to disclose news about a loss to their friends were less likely to use humor to ease

tension in the conversation.

Our results revealed a weak positive correlation in individuals who use self-disclosure

and humor, so we pursued to further our research and determine the possibility of a connection

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between people who cry openly and individuals who are willing to share their experiences of

handling a loss. We asked students to recall a personal experience when they had to cope with

loss. A 5-point Likert scale was used to determine the level of willingness to share personal

experiences (5 = Always; 1 = Never). Students were requested to rate how comfortable they

were crying openly in front of close friends after experiencing the passing of someone important

(5 = Always; 1 = Never). Results indicated a moderately positive correlation between crying

openly in front of close friends, while sharing personal experiences after the death of a loved one

(r = .41, r2 = .17).

Gender and Coping Mechanisms

The ultimate goal of this study is to underline the differences in genders among various

coping mechanisms following the death of someone special. We were curious to observe if one

gender is more inclined to disclose their feelings at first reaction to the passing of a loved one.

Participants were asked to expose how frequently they disclose feelings to others upon first

reaction of death using a 5-point Likert scale (1 = Never; 5 = Always). A two-tailed t-test

indicated a statistically significant difference between men and women’s self-disclosure upon

first reaction to death t (78) = 1.99, p<.01. The results revealed that women were more willing to

share their feelings readily to others (M = 3.58, SD = 1.14), while men were more resistant to

reveal their feelings (M = 2.95, SD = 1.16).

After observing genders tendencies and self-disclosure upon receiving news about the

loss of someone important, we examined gender tendencies and self-reflection when coping with

death. We measured each participant’s predisposition to use self-reflection as a coping

mechanism by operating a 6-point Likert scale (1= Never; 6 = Always). A two-tailed t-test

indicated no statistically significant differences between men and women’s self-reflection

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behaviors t (63) = 1.99, p = 0.28. The results revealed that women were more inclined to self-

reflect (M = 4.1, SD = 1.12), while men were not as likely to self-reflect (M = 3.84, SD = 1.47).

Although some individuals choose to deal with death directly, certain personalities find it

easier to cope with a loss through distractions. We tested whether one gender was more inclined

to engage in self-distracting behavior by using a 5-point Likert scale (1 = Never; 5 = Always).

Participants were asked to classify their gender from one of two categories (1 = Woman; 2 =

Man). A two-tailed t-test indicated no statistically significant differences between genders in

self-distracting behaviors t (59) = 2, p = 0.78. Results revealed women were engaged in self-

distracting behaviors more than men (M = 3.55, SD = 0.72), (M = 3.51, SD = 1.02).

Most questions in this study were targeted to individuals that have lost someone;

however, we also asked questions directed toward friends of grieving individuals. Our group was

interested to recognize if one gender was more likely to take the role of an advice giver versus

the listener when a person is dealing with a loss. Using a 7-point Likert scale (1 = Listener; 5 =

Advice-giver), we assessed each participant’s preference as a listener or advice-giver. A two-

tailed t-test indicated no statistically significant differences between gender role preferences t

(73) = 1.99, p = 0.82. Females were more inclined to listen (M = 3.46, SD = 1.70), while men

were not as likely to listen (M = 3.53, SD = 1.86)

We aimed to take a step further by observing whether gender role stereotypes, associated

with masculine and feminine styles of communication, influenced how people cope with a loss.

Individuals were requested to circle one of seven items on a continuum that they identified with

on a 7-point Likert scale (1 = Compassionate; 7 = Task-oriented). A two-tailed t-test indicated no

statistically significant differences between women and men on the continuum t (86) = 1.98, p =

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0.3. Women fell more on the compassionate end of the continuum (M = 3.28, SD = 1.89), while

men fell more toward the task-oriented end (M = 3.58, SD = 1.66)

We ran a final test to determine which gender dominated this study. A single-sample chi-

square test indicated statistically significant differences between the number of men and women

who took the survey, X2(1, N = 188) = 35.99, p<.05. The number of women who participated in

this study outnumbered the men by far.

Discussion

The goal of this study was to observe differences in gender communication styles when

coping with loss. Our results indicated no statistically significant differences or correlations

between genders and their levels of consolation, crying in front of others, emotional

expressiveness, self-disclosure, and more. Our study suggests that assumptions on gender

communication stereotypes may not be as influential in the process of coping with loss as

expected.

Emotional Expressiveness

Our results indicated that women were more likely to engage in self-disclosure and

emotional expressiveness than men. Our research reflected aspects of previous studies, such as

women being subject to engage in self-disclosure and emotional language when dealing with loss

(Booth-Butterfield, Krezmian, Wanzer, & Weil, 2014). In contrast, we found a weak, positive

correlation between self-disclosure and humor among genders, while existing research specified

that men scored higher on a spectrum of low to high in humor orientation (Booth-Butterfield et

al., 2014). Our results parallel existing literature on how masculine and feminine communication

styles do not accurately depict stereotypical gender behaviors, ideologies, and gender-role

flexibility (Hirokawa, Yagi, and Miyata 2004). However, the majority of previously mentioned

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studies revealed no overlap of coping mechanisms between genders—our results stated the

opposite. Consequently, these results were contradicting because we exclusively looked at

gender communication differences in the context of loss. The studies aforementioned observed

communication styles in a more general context, very few dealing with the death of a loved one.

While humor and gender ideologies may influence how individuals cope with loss, limited

research exists on this topic, given these specific circumstances. The contradictions in coping

mechanisms imply that further research on gender-based emotional expressiveness, within the

context of a loss, is needed for clarification.

Behavioral Distinctions

We conducted further research to observe possible discrepancies in gender behavior. We

observed behavioral differences in the following factors: emotional expressiveness, comfort

levels when crying in front of others, comforting behaviors, self-blame, self-reflection, self-

distraction, listening, advice-giving, and the use of humor. Surprisingly, we found that although

women may be expected to be more emotional than men, especially when coping with a loss, our

results discovered that both men and women behaved relatively the same. Because of the

uncomfortable nature of death, we now recognize that death breaks the confines of stereotypical

gender communication styles and exposes individual reactions. While existing studies found that

men and women conformed to socially constructed gender roles (i.e., women tend to disclose

information more openly and frequently, while men reserve their feelings more often), our

research revealed that genders communicated similarly when handling a loss (Booth-Butterfield

et al., 2014). For example, women were not excluded from being more emotionally expressive

than men, whereas men were fully capable of being just as emotionally expressive as women,

specifically within the context of a loss. Ultimately, most individuals experience the death of a

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loved one first-, second- or third-hand. While studies point out broad distinctions between gender

communication styles, our discoveries lead to a greater understanding of how men and women

communicate exclusively when handling a loss (Booth-Butterfield et al., 2014; Zinner, 2000;

Basow & Rubenfield, 2003). These results enable individuals to better comprehend how to help

or validate people that are suffering a loss.

Limitations and Suggestions for Further Study

Limitations in this research study were affected by the sampling methods. We used

convenience, snowball, and purposive sampling. We used convenience sampling to establish a

large pool of participants. Although numerous people participated, several individuals failed to

complete the questionnaire. Given the recruitment process of snowball sampling, the results were

not generated by strictly random methods. The selective nature of purposive sampling implies a

lack of random testing. This lack of random testing was evident in our raw data, which revealed

that more women than men completed the survey. A lack of diversity from our imbalanced

population made it difficult to generalize results since the sampling frame is not representative of

both men and women.

Social desirability may have influenced how participants answered questions. For

example, our survey asked individuals to recollect memories of death of a loved one and how

they handled that loss. We were aware that some individuals potentially chose not to answer

truthfully because of socially constructed implications of being “weak”. We also took into

consideration that our questionnaire could have sparked traumatic memories or feelings that may

have caused apprehension and sway the way a participant responded. For example, one of our

questions asked if individuals ever participated in self-blame behavior (i.e., “I should have done

more,” “It’s all my fault,” etc.) following the death of a loved one. It is possible that participants

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experienced anxiety that their answers could imply that they could have prevented the loss of a

loved one.

Situational circumstances also played a role in our limitations. We are aware that some

participants have not dealt with a loss recently or ever. Some people have never experienced

what it is like to grieve over a person, while others may not remember the emotions they endured

during a period of grief. Therefore, our findings may not accurately reflect how individuals cope

with loss. We have also taken into account that someone dealing with a recent loss might have

not answered the questionnaire candidly as a result of denial. Since participants experienced the

death of a loved one at various times, a more accurate time frame to capture the true essence of

managing the loss of a loved one would have been ideal for this study.

Conclusion

Finally, our study originally sought to highlight differences in feminine and masculine

communication styles, regardless of sex, when coping with a loss. We soon realized that partial

research exists on these communication styles and circumstances. However, substantial research

supports information regarding variances in communication between males and females

(Versalle & McDowell, 2005; Inman et al., 2003). Consequently, our survey focused on

observing communication styles between males and females as opposed to masculine and

feminine communication styles. Future research might explore the possibilities of other factors—

outside of gender—that could influence how a person manages loss. For example, psychological

disorders, past experiences, belief systems, etc. have the potential to affect the way a person

manages the death of a loved one. Overall, our results inform individuals of the narrow scope of

differences that do exist in gender coping mechanisms during a loss.

20


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