Masters Thesis

Cool story, bro: Storytelling towards external stakeholders

Authors: Isac Nilsson, Axel Nordgärd, Martin Zetterberg Supervisor: Åsa Devine Examiner: Anders Pehrsson Semester: Spring 2016 Course code: 4FE15E

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Acknowledgement “The power of storytelling” is the mantra John Kratz, Instructor of Marketing at University Minnesota-

Duluth, tell his students. Storytelling do posses a certain power over the authors, and it is that power that

was the inspiration to this research. This master’s thesis was conducted as a final degree project during

the program Business Administration with specialization within Marketing at Linnaeus University in

Växjö, Sweden. First and foremost, the authors would like to extend their gratitude to the interviewees

who gave invaluable information to conduct this research. Secondly, the authors would like to extend

their gratitude to Professor Anders Pehrsson and Senior Lecturer Åsa Devine for their guidance.

Växjö, 2016-05-26

________________ ________________ ________________

Isac Nilsson Axel Nordgärd Martin Zetterberg

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Abstract Course/Level: 4FE15E/Masters Thesis Authors: Isac Nilsson, Axel Nordgärd and Martin Zetterberg Supervisor: Åsa Devine Examiner: Anders Pehrsson Title: Cool story, bro: Storytelling towards external stakeholders Keywords: Corporate Storytelling, Structure, Theme, Identity, Actors, Audience,

Engaging, Relatable, Call-to-Action, Overcoming Adversity, Conflict Background: Corporate storytelling is a recognized marketing strategy, however the usage of it

is regarded to be unclear from a theoretical perspective. Further, the internal usage

of storytelling among organizations is more common than the external use. Hence,

this research was aimed towards storytelling for external stakeholders.

Purpose: The purpose of this research is to explore the characteristics of external

storytelling

Research Question: How is storytelling characterized in an external context?

Method: A qualitative research with an exploratory approach using case studies and semi-

structured interviews

Conclusion: It can be concluded that an external story should be characterized by: theme and

identity, actors, audience, captivating, summarizing, and product

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Contents 1 Introduction ......................................................................................................................................... 1

1.1 Background ................................................................................................................................... 1 1.2 Problem Discussion ...................................................................................................................... 2 1.3 Purpose .......................................................................................................................................... 4 1.4 Research Question ........................................................................................................................ 4

2 Literature Review ............................................................................................................................... 5 2.1 Theme and identity ...................................................................................................................... 5 2.2 Actors ............................................................................................................................................ 5 2.3 Audience ........................................................................................................................................ 6 2.4 Engaging ........................................................................................................................................ 7 2.5 Relatable ........................................................................................................................................ 8 2.6 Call-to-Action ............................................................................................................................... 8 2.7 Overcoming Adversity ................................................................................................................. 9 2.8 Theoretical Summary ................................................................................................................ 10

3 Conceptual Framework .................................................................................................................... 12 3.1 Structure ..................................................................................................................................... 12

3.1.1 Beginning ............................................................................................................................... 13 3.1.2 Middle .................................................................................................................................... 14 3.1.3 End ......................................................................................................................................... 15

4 Method ............................................................................................................................................... 16 4.1 Research Approach .................................................................................................................... 16 4.2 Research Design ......................................................................................................................... 16 4.3 Data Sources ............................................................................................................................... 17 4.4 Sample ......................................................................................................................................... 17 4.5 Data Collection Method ............................................................................................................. 18

4.5.1 Multiple Case Studies ............................................................................................................ 19 4.5.2 Interviews .............................................................................................................................. 20

4.6 Operationalization ...................................................................................................................... 21 4.7 Data Analysis Method ................................................................................................................ 23 4.8 Research Quality ........................................................................................................................ 24

4.8.1 Triangulation .......................................................................................................................... 24 4.8.2 Reliability .............................................................................................................................. 24

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4.9 Ethical Approach ....................................................................................................................... 25 4.9.1 Consent .................................................................................................................................. 25 4.9.2 Deception ............................................................................................................................... 25 4.9.3 Confidentiality ....................................................................................................................... 26

5 Empirical Material ............................................................................................................................ 27 5.1 Galvin Green ............................................................................................................................... 27 5.2 Zeta .............................................................................................................................................. 29 5.3 Fjällräven .................................................................................................................................... 32

6 Analysis .............................................................................................................................................. 36 6.1 Galvin Green ............................................................................................................................... 36 6.2 Zeta .............................................................................................................................................. 40 6.3 Fjällräven .................................................................................................................................... 43 6.4 Combined Analysis ..................................................................................................................... 47

6.4.1 Structure ................................................................................................................................. 47

7 Conclusion and Contributions ......................................................................................................... 52 7.1 Conclusion ................................................................................................................................... 52 7.2 Contributions .............................................................................................................................. 53

8 Limitations and Implications ........................................................................................................... 54 8.1 Limitations .................................................................................................................................. 54 8.2 Managerial Implications ............................................................................................................ 54 8.3 Future Research ......................................................................................................................... 55

References ................................................................................................................................................ 56

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1 Introduction The introduction chapter starts with presenting the background of the chosen topic, continues with

a problematization and finally presents the research purpose and research questions.

1.1 Background The phenomenon of storytelling is a fundamental part for all nations, organizations and cultures

(Gill, 2015). It has been established for thousands of years and has been an effective strategy to

communicate messages between individuals and groups (Gill, 2015). Storytelling is the narration

that tells of particular acts, occurrences or events and is presented in the form of text or art

(Dennisdotter et al., 2008, p. 12; Dowling, 2006; Gill, 2015; Sinclair, 2005). Today, storytelling is

recognized as an efficient strategy (Andersen & Rask, 2014) and is used by management both

internally and externally in the organization (James & Minnis, 2004). Organizational storytelling is

according to Sinclair (2005) a narrative of the organization's past actions, employee interactions or

other events regarding the organization, and the term is defined similarly to corporate storytelling

(Gill, 2015). James and Minnis (2004) argue that corporate stories are a successful business strategy

that has survived due to that people live their lives through stories. They further discusses corporate

storytelling, where they state that organizations use storytelling to promote organizational culture,

selling products and come up with new ideas. Moreover, the stories used in corporate storytelling

can be used to motivate people and to create a memorable message so that people will engage with

the organization (Gill, 2015). Thus, corporate storytelling can be seen as a deliberate process of

developing and delivering the organization’s message by using the organization, its representatives,

history and visions in their narration (Gill, 2015; James and Minnis 2004; Spear & Roper, 2013).

Corporate and organizational storytelling is hereafter referred to as storytelling.

Historically, storytelling have been a sort of representation for learning and is considered one of the

oldest instruments for cultivating others (Barker & Gower, 2010). Today, storytelling is used in a

broader variety of contexts, even though the fundamental reasons for using it are similar. According

to James and Minnis (2004), researchers gained interest in storytelling in the early 1980s, and

shortly after it became recognized as a strategy for organizations. Nowadays, organizations

structure the storytelling in order to influence the perception of the organization (James & Minnis,

2004). It should be seen as a support for people to understand what the organization stands for and

believe in (James & Minnis, 2004). Furthermore, Martin et al. (1983) argue that corporate stories

are used to demonstrate uniqueness, and the stories are most often based on the founder of the

organization. For example, IKEA use their founder Ingvar Kamprad to transmit their values through

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their organizational history by the use of storytelling (Dennisdotter et al., 2008, p. 51; Fog, Budtz &

Yakaboylu, 2005, p. 140). Utilizing storytelling as a strategy to reach out and establish their brand

with external stakeholders has shown to be beneficial for organizations (Denning, 2006). However,

Gilliam and Flaherty (2015) argue that organizations work in the dark while using storytelling as a

strategy; hence, to improve the efficiency of the strategy, a model for utilizing storytelling for

organizations can improve the managerial usage.

1.2 Problem Discussion The value of using storytelling as a strategy appears to be undisputed among scholars (Andersen &

Rask, 2014; Denning, 2006; Gill, 2015). Despite its acknowledged value, there is limited research

on the area (Delgadillo & Escalas, 2004; Barker & Gower, 2010; Gill, 2015). Further, the limited

research that does exist show that there is an inconsistency in the literature (Delgadillo & Escalas,

2004; Barker & Gower, 2010; Gill, 2015). Levin (2000) suggests that the story should consist of a

narrative regarding a specific event of action, that it should be presented in a third-person

perspective, which the reader connects to the message or theme. Shaw, Brown and Bromiley (1998)

divide storytelling into three parts: The first step is setting the stage, which regards the analysis of

the organizations surroundings; the second step introduces the dramatic conflict; the third step is

when the organization reaches a resolution and overcome the adversity. Both Delgadillo and

Esacalas (2004) and Andersen and Rask (2014) argue that the two main characteristics are

chronology and causality. Chronology regards the structure and how timing of the beginning,

middle and end of the story, while causality regards the reactions to the actions and the combination

between characters and events in the story (Delgadillo & Escalas, 2004; Andersen & Rask, 2014).

Wijetune (2012) writes that storytelling is based on a series of events, similar to Delgadillo and

Escalas (2004) and Andersen and Rask (2014), and narrative and antenarrative are the two

characteristics. Janssen et al. (2012) write that style, structure, content, genre and layout are the

characteristics of storytelling, while Barker and Gower (2010) and Humle (2014) discuss the

importance of memory and identity. Marshall and Adamic (2010) argue that the first principle in an

efficient story is to create a specific reaction or behavior. To ensure a successful storytelling

strategy, Marshall and Adamic (2010) suggest organizations to use purpose, allusion, people and

appeal as characteristics. On the other hand, both Dowling (2006) and Spear and Roper (2013)

discuss that the characteristics are themes, where activities, benefits, emotional and strategic acts as

themes how storytelling is created. Denning (2006) presents six techniques, which are describing

changes that was implemented; stories about overcoming adversities; enhancing the brand so the

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audience can experience it by stories; using the organization’s values in stories; satirize untrue

rumors or bad news which can undermine the organization’s reputation; preparing the audience for

a change in the future. Evidently, there is a disagreement between researchers in the literature and

its characteristics within storytelling (Delgadillo & Escalas, 2004; Barker & Gower, 2010; Gill,

2015. Hence, it appears that the inconsistency has resulted in that organizations may not use

storytelling as efficiently to achieve its full potential.

However, even though the differences lie primarily in the characteristics, an overall design can be

detected. The story should be structured (e.g. Lee & Shin, 2015; Levin, 2000; Saylors, Boje &

Mueller, 2014) and follow a certain event or situation (e.g. Andersen & Rask, 2014; Delgadillo &

Escalas, 2004; Janssen et al., 2012; Shaw, Brown & Bromiley, 1998). For the story to be

constructed it is necessary for it to have a theme and an identity (e.g. Barker & Gower, 2010;

Coupland & Brown, 2004; Humle, 2014), to include actors (e.g. Andersen & Rask, 2014; Brennan,

Merkl-Davies & Beelitz, 2013; Delgadillo & Escalas, 2004) and know your audience (e.g. Barker &

Gower, 2010; Humle, 2014; Levin, 2000; Spear & Roper, 2013). Several researchers discuss the

importance of the story to engage the audience to take action (e.g. Denning, 2006; Levin, 2000;

Marshall & Adamic, 2010) and the story needs to be relatable (e.g. Denning, 2006; Marshall &

Adamic, 2010; Spear & Roper, 2013). To implement change the story needs to cause action (e.g.

Denning, 2006; Marshall & Adamic, 2010; Spear & Roper, 2013), and the story need to disclose

overcoming an adversity (e.g. Denning, 2006; Shaw, Brown & Bromiley, 1998; Spear & Roper,

2013).

Gill (2015) argues that organizations can benefit from using storytelling both internally and

externally, and Barker and Gower (2010) state that the story change based on if it is an internal or

external audience. Internal storytelling should be used to relate with the internal audience, such as

employees, to create engagement and commitment to the organization. External storytelling should

be used as a strategy to make the external audience, such as customers, motivated and remembering

the organization. Furthermore, Gill (2015) argues that storytelling can be used to change the

external audience perception or opinion to the better. Janssen et al. (2012) have a similar opinion

regarding the use of storytelling, where they argue that it is a helpful strategy to present uniqueness

and competence, both for the employees and people outside of the organization. With different

audiences comes different result in characteristics and stories (Janssen et al., 2012). Internal

storytelling is more commonly researched (e.g. Fog, Budtz & Yakaboylu, 2005, p. 140; Gill, 2015;

Mittins, Abratt & Christie, 2011; Sinclair, 2005); hence, this paper will focus on external

storytelling as a strategy for organizations to reach out to external stakeholders.

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1.3 Purpose

The purpose of this research is to explore the characteristics of external storytelling.

1.4 Research Question

• How is storytelling structured in an external context?

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2 Literature Review This chapter presents a literature review of the characteristics within storytelling. The

characteristics presented in this chapter are theme and identity, actors, audience, engaging,

relatable, call-to-action and overcoming adversity.

2.1 Theme and identity

According to Janssen et al. (2012) the general story is a so-called identity story. The identity story is

a story portraying the identity of an organization, incorporating for example the founders of the

organization, how it was founded, whom the organization is and how it got that way (Denning,

2006; Janssen et al., 2012; Linde, 2009, p. 110). According to Humle (2014) there is a close

relationship between identity and storytelling. The identity of an organization is founded on identity

stories, composed by the organizations stakeholders trying to convey the social conventions of the

group or organization (Humle, 2014). However, Coupland and Brown (2004) claim that an

organization is not just built up by one identity, instead it has numerous identities adapted to

different situations and audiences. Further, Humle (2014) states that the identity is like a living

organism that is constantly changing and adapting in the everyday environment, an organizational

identity is “pluralistic and polyphonic”.

A story’s identity can be connected to the story’s theme, and according to Lee and Shin (2015) the

last step in the process of creating a story is the identification of a theme related to the organization.

Further, they state that the purpose of a theme is to evoke emotion from the audience, which in turn

help the audience to remember the story or the organization. This is confirmed by Humle (2014)

who states that stories are used by organizations in order to identify and remember them. Dowling

(2006) and Spear and Roper (2013) argue that there are various themes within storytelling with

different purposes. The ultimate purpose being that the audience should remember the organization

or story. An organization should use at least one theme when creating a story (Dowling, 2006;

Spear & Roper, 2013), and without an established theme it is impossible to know how the story

should be presented (Lee & Shin, 2015). It is highly important that the theme of the story is

understandable and closely associated with the message (Levin, 2000).

2.2 Actors

The actors in the story are also closely associated with the theme, and according to Lee and Shin

(2015) the key components in a theme is actors and their actions. According to research, an actor

can be different things: It can be made up characters (Delgadillo & Escalas, 2004; Fog, Budtz &

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Yakaboylu, 2005, p. 36-42), the organization itself (e.g. Fog, Budtz & Yakaboylu, 2005, p. 36-42;

Janssen et al., 2012; Shaw, Brown & Bromiley, 1998) and the founder of the organization (e.g. Fog,

Budtz & Yakaboylu, 2005, p. 36-42; Janssen et al., 2012; Saylors, Boje & Mueller, 2014) or an

undefined actor (Levin, 2000). Several authors (e.g. Delgadillo & Escalas, 2004; Fog, Bundtz &

Yakaboylu, 2005, p. 36-42; Woodside, Sood & Miller, 2008) describe the actor as a hero who is in

the center of the story and according to Fog, Budtz and Yakaboylu (2005, p. 36-42) the story should

be built around the hero and the quest. While telling the story, the hero is often looking back into

the past to present a previous situation from the hero’s perspective (Woodside, Sood & Miller,

2008) and the audience should be able to experience the hero’s feelings, thoughts and developments

through the story (Delgadillo & Escalas, 2004).

Fog, Budtz and Yakaboylu (2005, p. 36-42) has a model based on the organization’s perspective,

where the hero is the organization or its founders. That the organization or its founders should be

the actor in a story coincides with the theories of other researchers (e.g. Janssen et al, 2012; Saylors,

Boje & Mueller, 2014; Shaw, Brown & Bromiley, 1998). Janssen et al. (2012) presents the actor as

the organization itself as well as the founders, as they state that the story should give an historical

picture of the whole organization. Shaw, Brown and Bromiley (1998) is to some extent agreeing

with Janssen et al. (2012), they want the story to be historically depicted but only from the

founder’s point of view. This is on the other hand strengthened by Saylors, Boje and Mueller (2014)

who state that a story should present and establish the founder in the audience's’ minds. On the

contrary to other researchers, Levin (2000) does not present the actors as something concrete, they

are undefined actors connected to a situation and actions.

2.3 Audience

Storytelling is the conveying of a message to an audience by the use of stories (Fog, Budtz &

Yakaboylu, 2005, p. 30-35), and all stories are written for someone, it is just for whom that changes

(e.g. Barker & Gower, 2010; Dowling, 2006; Marshall & Adamic, 2010; Spear & Roper, 2013). A

story can be written for the own employees or for the customers (e.g. Dowling, 2006; Spear &

Roper, 2013). It is claimed by researchers that why and how a story is told changes with whom the

story is told to (Andersen & Rask, 2014; Barker & Gower, 2010; Carriger, 2011). A story needs to

be adapted to the audience that it is meant to target (Dowling, 2006; Spear & Roper, 2013). When

the stories instead are directed towards external stakeholders, such as customers, they are most

commonly used as a tool to either restore legitimacy (Beelitz & Merkl-Davies, 2012; Brennan,

Merkl-Davies & Beelitz, 2013), build trust and support for the organization or brand (Dowling,

2006; Fog, Budtz & Yakaboylu, 2005, p. 30-35; Spear & Roper, 2013), retaining current customers

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(Delgadillo & Escalas, 2004; Lee & Shin, 2015) or attract new customers (Delgadillo & Escalas,

2004; Dowling, 2006; Lee & Shin, 2015; Spear & Roper, 2013).

2.4 Engaging Gill (2015) states that organizations can use stories to motivate stakeholders and to create a message

that will be remembered so stakeholders will take action. According to Gilliam and Flaherty (2015),

by engaging stakeholders through storytelling, the organization has the possibility of

communicating values they share with the stakeholders. For the story to be successful it is necessary

that it logically explain other possible futures, a future that is different from the present (Denning,

2006). Denning (2006) argues that the logical explanation of different possible futures is necessary

to convince the audience how the new operations will be after a change. Gill (2015) writes that by

engaging with the stakeholders on a personal level, the organization can create a stronger loyalty

towards organization. Marshall and Adamic (2010) state that the organizations cultural and

historical background can create a relatable and engaging reaction, thus the audience remembers the

story better. To present the organization’s background, Gill (2015) writes that the stories can use

images regarding a specific behavior or symbolism that connect on a more personal level with the

stakeholder. Gilliam and Flaherty (2015) argue that when the audience becomes engaged in the

story there is less counterargument. Both Denning (2006) and Marshall and Adamic (2010) argue of

the importance of the organization’s cultural and historical background, and their background create

a unique brand where the consumer experience stories based on the identity. Denning (2006) states

that the key to successfully transmit the organization’s values is to reveal how adversity has been

overcome by their values.

Storytelling can enhance the organization’s brand when the customer is using their product or

service, thus the user experience the story, hence becoming engaged (Van Riel & Fombrun, 2007, p.

144). By using the organizations’ historical and cultural background, the story can be personal and

therefore can the story differentiate themselves from competitors (Van Riel & Fombrun, 2007, p.

144). Janssen et al. (2012) argue that a unique style, plot and words are necessary to differentiate.

Organizations strive to distinguish themselves and to create a relationship with the stakeholders

who identify themselves with the organization’s stories. For example, when a consumer drinks a

beverage from Coca-Cola, the consumer is not only consuming a product, they experience the

stories the brand tells (Denning, 2006). However, Levin (2000) states that it is crucial that the

message and theme of the story is engaging. Marshall and Adamic (2010) argue that the story can

be inhibited if the audience dislike the storyteller or if they are not responsive. To make that

audience responsive it is necessary to have a purpose according to Marshall and Adamic (2010),

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and the purpose create an engaging reaction with the audience. Hence, Marshall and Adamic (2010)

state that the storyteller needs to be dedicated to the how the story is presented to engage the

audience.

2.5 Relatable

In literature (Barker & Gower, 2010; Dowling, 2006; Marshal & Adamic, 2010; Spear & Roper,

2013) it is argued that an emotional appeal in a story can make the audience relate to the

organization. This emotional appeal can attract stakeholders and make them motivated, and at the

same time creating an emotional bond that develops trust and support (Barker & Gower, 2010;

Dowling, 2006; Marshal & Adamic, 2010; Spear & Roper, 2013). Marshall and Adamic (2010)

state that to make the story relatable, it has to be a planned process with a clear strategy. A strategy

to create a personal connection with the stakeholder is to present the organization’s mission, vision

and values (Denning, 2006; Spear & Roper, 2013). Spear and Roper (2013) discuss the importance

of mission, vision and values for the position of the organization’s brand to the stakeholders, and

how this will create a synergy effect between the organization’s strategy and brand. On the other

hand, Denning (2006) discuss the importance of transmitting how the organization’s mission, vision

and values has resolved adversity. This is similar to Marshall and Adamic (2010), who argue that

the audience has a tendency to remember stories better if they perceive a personal connection to the

organization’s history, thus the stakeholders feel part of the mission. Another strategy is, according

to Spear and Roper (2013) and Denning (2006), by revealing strengths and weaknesses, such as

conflicts, from the past, which in turn will result in a vaster personal connection to the organization.

The combination between the organization’s strengths and weaknesses and the mission, vision and

values creates a unique identity, which should be used so the stakeholders can relate with the

organization (Janssen et al., 2012). Essentially, by identifying itself with the organization the

stakeholder becomes a part of the unique community, which relate to the stakeholder (Janssen et al.,

2012). Van Riel and Fombrun (2007) state that if the story is considered recognizable, it increases

the relationship between the organization and stakeholders by presenting the uniqueness

appealingly.

2.6 Call-to-Action

Gill (2015) argues that organizations can motivate stakeholders and make them take action through

a story that is interesting and memorable. Storytelling can create a culture based on the

organization’s values and brand, and this shapes stakeholders’ behavior and creates a collective

action (Gill, 2015; Johnston & Everett, 2012). Furthermore, Barker and Gower (2010) write that

storytelling assist the organization to communicate a message that creates action. Marshall and

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Adamic (2010) argue that the organization implies responsibility when emotionally connects with

the audience and appealing to certain values. Johnston and Everett (2012) write that the

organization’s culture and values has a strong influence on actions. Barker and Gower (2010) found

that if the organization creates a relationship with its stakeholders it would cause action. To create a

relationship, the story needs to be clearly planned, organize and coordinate (Barker & Gower, 2010)

in accordance with the organization’s objectives and reaching out to the stakeholders on a personal

level through experiences and beliefs (Gill, 2015). However, if the story uses a negative tonality, it

becomes more likely to fail to spark the action (Barker & Gower, 2010; Denning, 2006).

Sparking an action with the audience closely connected to change (Barker & Gower, 2010;

Denning, 2006). By allowing the audience to envision a change may work for them, Barker and

Gower (2010) and Denning (2000; 2006) argue that the story will spark an action. Denning (2006)

writes that describing future scenarios to take the audience from where they are now to they need to

be is important to make the audience comfortable with a future change. By using a minimalistic

manner to present the story, the audience is allowed to form an individual interpretation from their

own situation and action plan (Barker & Gower, 2010; Denning, 2006). According to Denning

(2006), it is common that organizations use this kind of technique to make it possible to start a

change for the organization. Because the audience envisions new subjective stories which

unknowingly creates plans for implementing the change the organization strives towards (Denning,

2006). Levin (2000) argues, as Denning (2006), that introducing a specific scenario and what

actions that should be taken and what the consequences are for those actions are a necessity. The

scenarios reflect the uncertainty that comes with long-term implications due to change in the

organization’s key activities or in the industry (Denning, 2006).

2.7 Overcoming Adversity

Several researchers discuss that overcoming an adversity should be used as a turning point in the

story (e.g. Beelitz & Merkl-Davies, 2012; Bozollan, Cho & Micelon, 2015; Denning, 2006;

Frooman, 1999; Janssen et al., 2012; Shaw, Brown & Bromiley, 1998; Spear & Roper, 2013).

Shaw, Brown and Bromiley (1998) state that the story should be surrounding a conflict to create a

relatable and engaging reaction. By telling the audience how the organization overcame adversity,

Shaw, Brown and Bromiley (1998) argue that the audience understand how the organization address

adversity thus relate to the story. Spear and Roper (2013) also argue that overcoming adversity is a

key element in a story, however they state, as earlier mentioned, that the conflict creates an

emotional connection towards the story. When the story introduces the audience to a conflict, Shaw,

Brown and Bromiley (1998) state that the presented challenges, issues and obstacles faced is the

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anchoring in describing how they overcame the adversity. To turn the adversity to the

organization’s favor, it is crucial for the story to describe how they reached a resolution, which also

acts as the conclusion of the story (Shaw, Brown & Bromiley, 1998). However, Denning (2006)

argues that the most efficient way to overcome adversity is by satirize, for example, untrue rumors

and bad news that can undermine the organization’s reputation. By combining the organization’s

identity with a subtle and self-deprecatory humor that is applied to the adversity creates a

humoristic distance to the organization, and it shows the audience that the issue is not holding the

organization in a grip (Denning, 2006).

2.8 Theoretical Summary

The following table (Table 1) presents a summary of the above presented characters. First the

characteristic is presented followed by a summary of the characteristic based on the literature

review. Next column presents specifications that as well are based on the literature review. Lastly

the researchers who has researched each specific topic is presented in the table.

Table 1. Theoretical Summary of Characteristics (own).

Characteristic Summary Specifications Researched By

Theme and Identity Every organization has an identity, a way of transmitting an identity to stakeholders is through stories. Through the theme of the story the identity is conveyed.

- Identification - Memorable - Relationship

- Coupland & Brown, 2004 - Denning, 2006 - Humle, 2014 - Janssen et al., 2012 - Lee & Shin, 2015 - Levin, 2000 - Linde, 2009 - Spear & Roper, 2013

Actors Actors are the characters in a story, the main actor is the one the story surrounds. The actor can be portrayed in different ways, it can be people within the organization, the organization itself or it can be a fictive character.

- Character - Hero - Founder - Organization - Undefined Actor

- Delgadillo & Escalas, 2004 - Fog, Budtz & Yakaboylu, 2005 - Janssen et al., 2012 - Lee & Shin, 2015 - Levin, 2000 - Saylors, Boje & Mueller, 2014 - Shaw, Brown & Bromiley, 1998 - Woodside, Sood, & Miller, 2008

Audience Audience is whom a story is written for. A story can be written for different purposes and different audiences. The story needs to be adapted to its audience.

- Customer - Stakeholder - Loyalty

- Andersen & Rask, 2014 - Barker & Gower, 2010 - Beelitz & Merkl-Davies, 2012 - Brennan, Merkl-Davies & Beelitz, 2013 - Carriger, 2011 - Delgadillo & Escalas, 2004 - Dowling, 2006 - Fog, Budtz & Yakaboylu, 2005 - Humle, 2014 - Lee & Shin, 2015 - Levin, 2000 - Marshall & Adamic, 2010 - Spear & Roper, 2013

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Table 1. Continued

Characteristic Summary Specifications Researched By

Engaging When presenting a story to an audience it has to be engaging in order to capture the audience attention.

- Motivate - Future - Loyalty - Values - Brand - Differentiation - Uniqueness

- Denning, 2006 - Gill, 2015 - Gilliam & Flaherty, 2015 - Janssen et al., 2012 - Levin, 2000 - Marshall & Adamic, 2010 - Van Riel & Fombrun, 2007

Relatable Stories need to be relatable to the audience in order for them to be able to connect to the organization behind the story.

- Emotional appeal - Personal connection - Mission - Vision - Values - Community

- Barker & Gower, 2010 - Denning, 2006 - Dowling, 2006 - Janssen et al., 2012 - Marshall & Adamic, 2010 - Spear & Roper, 2013 - Van Riel & Fombrun, 2007

Call-to-Action

Call-to-action is the visualization of a forthcoming change in the organization by the use of a story.

- Change - Values - Memorable - Responsibility

- Barker & Gower, 2010 - Denning, 2000 - Denning, 2006 - Gill, 2015 - Johnston & Everett, 2012 - Levin, 2000 - Marshall & Adamic, 2010

Overcoming Adversity

The overcoming of an adversity is the climax of the story, where the organization can show the audience how they will overcome obstacles in the future.

- Conflict - Obstacle - Relatable - Engaging - Humor - Satire - Resolution

- Beelitz & Merkl-Davies, 2012 - Bozollan, Cho & Micelon, 2015 - Denning, 2006 - Frooman, 1999 - Janssen et al., 2012 - Shaw, Brown & Bromiley, 1998 - Spear & Roper, 2013

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3 Conceptual Framework The authors have made a review of the literature on storytelling. The conceptual model is based

upon the literature review and is a conclusion based on existing theories regarding storytelling,

corporate storytelling, organizational storytelling as well as internal and external storytelling.

3.1 Structure

The structure of how a story should be presented has been discussed by a number of different

researchers (e.g. Delgadillo & Escalas, 2004; Janssen et al., 2012; Levin, 2000; Saylors, Boje &

Mueller, 2014; Shaw, Brown & Bromiley, 1998; Woodside, Sood, & Miller, 2008). According to

Levin (2000), the story should be displayed as a narrative, however not as an ordinary story with a

particular situation with involved actors, actions and consequences due to the actions. Instead Levin

(2000) argues that it should be more graphic in order to clarify the message. Several authors

describe structure in another manner, they argue that the structure of the story is based on two

different elements, chronology and causality (e.g. Delgadillo & Escalas, 2004; Shaw, Brown &

Bromiley, 1998; Woodside, Sood & Miller, 2008). Causality regards the features of the relationship

between actors and actions (Delgadillo and Escalas, 2004). Lee and Shin (2015) argue that the

organization establish the story’s base, thus creating a relationship between audience and actor. The

organization’s values (Janssen et al., 2012; Lee & Shin, 2015) and the founder in combination with,

for example, core activities, characteristics and positioning should be mentioned (Janssen et al.,

2012). To create a relationship, Lee and Shin (2015) discuss the importance of a relevant topic to

deliver a specific message and to stimulate the audience in order to help them understand the story. Temporal dimensions are used in order to explain chronology, which refers to the chronological

occurrence of events in a story (Delgadillo & Escalas, 2004). Shaw, Brown and Bromiley (1998)

mean that a story is based a number of different events, which is characterized by a series of events,

together with relationships and reactions among the different characters is the key to create a story.

Woodside, Sood and Miller (2015) put emphasis on that events can also be invisible. For example,

the thoughts of the actor can give the audience a view inside the actor’s head (Woodside, Sood &

Miller, 2015). Fog, Bundtz and Yakaboulu (2005, p. 30-44) state that timing is important for the

story to proceed in understandable pace the following events need to be carefully considered,

otherwise there is a risk that the audience loses its interest in the story. The different authors shows

a lot of various guidelines in how to structure a story, however, one part that they all agree on is that

it should include a beginning, middle and end. The beginning introduces the story and set the stage

for the audience, the middle part most often creates some sort of conflict, which exaggerates during

13

the phase, the final part, the end, is where the conflict is resolved (Barker & Gower, 2010; Boje,

2012; Delgadillo & Escalas, 2004; Fog, Budtz & Yakaboylu, 2005, p. 32-36; Janssen et al., 2012;

Levin, 2000; Saylors, Boje & Mueller, 2014; Shaw, Brown & Bromiley, 1998; Woodside, Sood, &

Miller, 2008).

Figure 1. The Beginning, Middle and End (BME) model of Storytelling (own).

3.1.1 Beginning

The foundation of the story is its identity, which is portraying the organization’s identity that can be

based on the founder of the organization, how it was founded, whom the organization is and how it

became like it is (Denning, 2006; Janssen et al., 2012; Linde, 2009, p. 110). The identity is closely

connected to the story’s theme, and the purpose of the theme is to evoke an emotion that is

connected to the organization (Lee & Shin, 2015). Without an identity and theme, the story

becomes hard to present, hence the theme is closely connected to the message (Lee & Shin, 2015;

Levin, 2000). The key components to a successful theme are actors and their actions (Lee & Shin,

2015). The actor can be made up characters (Delgadillo & Escalas, 2004; Fog, Budtz & Yakaboylu,

2005, p. 36-42), the organization itself (e.g. Fog, Budtz & Yakaboylu, 2005, p. 36-42; Janssen et

14

al., 2012; Shaw, Brown & Bromiley, 1998) and the founder of the organization (e.g. Fog, Budtz &

Yakaboylu, 2005, p. 36-42; Janssen et al., 2012; Saylors, Boje & Mueller, 2014) or an undefined

actor (Levin, 2000). The actor is by several researchers (e.g. Delgadillo & Escalas, 2004; Fog,

Bundtz & Yakaboylu, 2005, 36-42; Woodside, Sood & Miller, 2008) portrayed as a hero whom the

story is built around. Usually, the story is presented from the hero’s perspective so the audience can

be able to experience the hero’s feelings, thoughts and developments through the story (Delgadillo

& Escalas, 2004). The stories and actors, however, are flexible in its nature since the audience

change and the story is adapted to the unique audience (e.g. Barker & Gower, 2010; Dowling, 2006;

Marshall & Adamic, 2010; Spear & Roper, 2013). The audience can be the organization’s

employees or customers (e.g. Dowling, 2006; Spear & Roper, 2013). However, since the audience

change, the story needs to adapt to the target audience (Andersen & Rask, 2014; Barker & Gower,

2010; Carriger, 2011; Dowling, 2006; Spear & Roper, 2013). When the story is targeting external

stakeholders, the story can help the organization to, for example, restore legitimacy (Beelitz &

Merkl-Davies, 2012; Brennan, Merkl-Davies & Beelitz, 2013), built trust and support (Dowling,

2006; Fog, Budtz & Yakaboylu, 2005, 30-44; Spear & Roper, 2013), retaining current customers

(Delgadillo & Escalas, 2004; Lee & Shin, 2015) or attract new customers (Delgadillo & Escalas,

2004; Dowling, 2006; Lee & Shin, 2015; Spear & Roper, 2013).

3.1.2 Middle

The message in the story should motivate the audience through the organization’s values, which in

turn will result that the audience remembers the organization (Gill, 2015; Gilliam & Flaherty,

2015). To convince the audience how operations will be after a change, it is important to explain

possible futures that differ from the present (Denning, 2006). By reaching out to the audience on a

personal level, the organization can create a stronger loyalty (Gill, 2015). This loyalty and personal

connection can be enhanced based upon the organization’s cultural and historical background,

which creates the organization’s unique brand (Denning, 2006; Gill, 2015; Marshall & Adamic,

2010). The historical and cultural background is unique for the organization, hence by using this

uniqueness the story differentiates the brand from its competitors and it becomes personal for the

audience (Janssen et al., 2012; Van Riel & Fombrun, 2007, p. 144). The key to getting the audience

engaged in the story is the purpose, which will make the audience responsive (Marshall & Adamic,

2010). When connecting on a personal level, it becomes easier for the organization to emotionally

appeal to the audience with the goal to relate to them (Barker & Gower, 2010; Dowling, 2006;

Marshal & Adamic, 2010; Spear & Roper, 2013). The emotional appeal can make the audience

motivated and thereby develop trust and support (Barker & Gower, 2010; Dowling, 2006; Marshal

& Adamic, 2010; Spear & Roper, 2013). Several researchers (e.g. Denning, 2006; Marshall &

15

Adamic, 2010; Spear & Roper, 2013) state that by presenting the organization’s mission, vision and

values increase the likelihood for the audience to relate, since they are given the opportunity to

identify themselves with the organization. When the audience identify themselves the organization,

they become a part of the unique community surrounding the organization, which increase the

relationship and the organization become more memorable (Janssen et al., 2012; Van Riel &

Fombrun, 2007).

3.1.3 End

The story can create a culture around the organization based on its values and thereby motivate the

audience to take action (Gill, 2015; Johnston & Everett, 2012). The organization’s values have a

strong influence on actions (Johnston & Everett, 2012), and this message advocates responsibility,

which emotionally connects with the audience, hence creating a relationship between the audiences

that will cause action (Barker & Gower, 2010; Marshall & Adamic, 2010). Sparking an action is

closely connected to change, and by allowing the audience to envision how the change will work

for them can spark an action (Barker & Gower, 2010; Denning, 2000; 2006). By describing the

uncertainty that comes with long-term implications due to change in the organization’s key

activities or in the industry in a minimalistic manner, the audience is allowed to embrace the future

so the audience will be a part of the future change (Barker & Gower, 2010; Denning, 2006; Levin,

2000). To convert the call-to-action by the audience to move forward, the organization should

present an obstacle or conflict as a turning point in the story (e.g. Beelitz & Merkl-Davies, 2012;

Bozollan, Cho & Micelon, 2015; Denning, 2006; Frooman, 1999; Janssen et al., 2012; Shaw,

Brown & Bromiley, 1998; Spear & Roper, 2013). The story should surround an adversity so the

audience understand how organization address issues and reaching a resolution, thereby creating an

emotional connection that creates a relatable and engaging reaction (Shaw, Brown & Bromiley,

1998).

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4 Method The methodological chapter presents the authors’ approach of the study and a justification for each

of the choices.

4.1 Research Approach

This study has been conducted by firstly examine existing theories regarding storytelling, which

resulted in that the authors found a theoretical gap. Due to this, a deductive approach was taken for

this research since deduction is based upon existing theories (Hyde, 2000). Based on these findings,

the authors formulated a purpose and a research question. The authors made a conceptual model

based on their literature review of previous research. The authors have been open to everything that

emerged from the data gathering. The empirical information was gathered in order to refine the

conceptual model. The purpose with this research was not to generalize the findings, it intends to

explore and gain a deeper understanding of the characteristics of external storytelling.

Closely connected to the deductive approach is qualitative research. The qualitative research put an

emphasis on what is said, instead of quantitative data when it comes to gathering and analysis of the

data. This in order to obtain a deeper understanding of the subject (Creswell, 2007, p. 37), which

was the purpose with this research. This is a strategy that allows the authors to study the

information in-depth and the data collection is not limited to predetermined concepts, as well as the

authors can at any point in time go backwards in the process and obtain more information from their

respondents (Hyde, 2000). A qualitative approach was considered most suitable for this research

due to the inconsistency in literature and its characteristics, hence the purpose of the research. This

research will serve as an introduction for future research within the field of storytelling towards

external stakeholders.

4.2 Research Design

According to Creswell (2007, pp. 39-41), the exploratory research is done by researchers who want

to provide deeper insight into an area where little to no research has been done earlier. This

research's purpose was to explore the characteristics of external storytelling, hence, it has an

exploratory direction. The purpose with the exploratory research is to provide the research field

with new insights and a greater understanding of the topic (Creswell, 2007, pp. 39-41; Patton, 2002,

p. 193). The exploratory research purpose is according to Creswell (2007, pp. 39-41) used when the

research problem is diffuse, as with this research. An exploratory purpose is beneficial to utilize

when discovering what is happening, searching for new insights or assessing a phenomenon from a

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new perspective (Patton, 2002, p. 193). Such a purpose is usually conducted according to

Appannaiah, Reddy and Ramanath (2010, p. 51) in various ways, usually by searching literature,

conduct focus groups or interviews with experts on the subject or case studies. According to Lee,

Collier and Cullen (2007), case studies with an exploratory purpose are likely to be used when the

researcher's intention is to gain deeper and wider understanding of a subject. Therefore, in this

study, it was decided to partly conduct multiple exploratory case studies in order to form a stable

foundation for the research, in form of stories and interviewed people at companies connected to

those stories in relation to existing theories, this has generated a deeper insight into the

characteristics of external storytelling (Appannaiah, Reddy & Ramanath, 2010, pp. 32-33).

4.3 Data Sources

Data sources within a qualitative research can be divided as either primary data or secondary data.

For this research, both primary data and secondary data have been used. Primary data can be

explained as data that have been gathered directly by the researchers according to Nicholson and

Bennett (2009), whilst secondary data is collected from previous research (Nicholson & Bennett,

2009). Primary data in form of in depth-interviews and secondary data in form of multiple case

studies. There are advantages with both processes and it is related to what kind of research is being

conducted (Nicholson & Bennett, 2009). The advantage with primary data is the fact that the data is

specifically collected for the research’s purpose, hence it is easier to receive more exclusive

information (Nicholson & Bennett, 2009). For secondary data, the advantage lies in the fact that the

data is already collected, which means that this approach is less time consuming and one can focus

on analyzing the data directly (Nicholson & Bennett, 2009).

For this study, interviews were conducted in order to be able to collect primary data, which was

needed to meet the purpose. Primary data was gathered due to the unexplored gap in research.

Further, secondary data was used as well in form of different cases. This enabled the authors to both

analyze cases and interview the people responsible for them, to explore the characteristics of

external storytelling. Additionally, the secondary data was helpful for the preparation of the

interviews. This since the authors could analyze the secondary data, and based on that, pick out

certain areas where more information was needed.

4.4 Sample

The first step in a sampling procedure is to decide a relevant target group, this in order to be able to

gather as reliable and appropriate data as possible (Creswell, 2007 p.128). Regarding case studies,

Stake (1994, p. 243) distinguishes between two different approaches, the intrinsic casework, where

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the cases that are being used are pre-specified due to a specific research question. The contrasting

approach is the instrumental or collective casework, where one or several cases are chosen to

explore a research theme (Stake, 1994, p. 243). It is further argued by Stake (1994, p. 243) that in a

qualitative research, the selection of cases is of outmost importance to be able to conduct a valid

and reliable research. For this research, three cases have been examined in order to meet the

purpose and to be able to answer the research question, which argues for the intrinsic casework

approach. The quantity of cases are based on saturation where Creswell, (2003 p. 251) argues that

collecting new data no longer brings new insights into the research, hence the authors decided that

three cases was sufficient enough to be able to meet the purpose and to answer the research

question.

The reason that only one interview have been conducted for each case is due to the fact that the

most critical respondent have been interviewed. Because of the knowledge from the person

interviewed, it was considered redundant to conduct additional interviews for the different cases.

This can be connected to empirical saturation, where Lewis-Beck, Bryman and Liao (2007) argue

that no further data is needed, since it is doubtful that additional collected data would contribute to

the research. The three interviewees were carefully selected by the researchers, hence a convenience

sampling process was used. Brewis (2014) argues that the convenience sampling process should be

used when the research purpose regards exploring a certain research gap. Moreover, since it was

important to interview a respondent with knowledge about the specific case, it also worked as a

justification for why the convenience sampling process was used in this research.

4.5 Data Collection Method

Depending on what type of research is conducted, there are different approaches for how to gather

relevant data. This is related to both whether it is a qualitative or quantitative research and what

type of research design is used. By using a qualitative data collection method instead of a

quantitative, a researcher has more choices in how to establish their data collection (Creswell, 2013,

p. 147). According to Ranney et al. (2015), a qualitative data collection should be based on three

different components: a well-defined collection strategy, a sample of interest for the research, and a

gathering of data in a detailed approach, regardless of collection method. Qualitative research

commonly include some sort of interview guide with topics and open ended questions, which

should be created for each individual research to make it suitable for the specific interview (Ranney

et al., 2015).

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According to Creswell (2013, p. 49) and Dasgupta (2015) in a case study research, the investigator

uses one or several cases and with help of for example observations or interviews to be able to

describe a case description and a case theme (Creswell, 2007, p. 73). It is a strategy that target to

understand the characteristics within a single setting (Eisenhardt, 1989). If more than one case is

investigated at once, it is called a multiple case study, which can be analyzed on different levels.

This approach is suitable for when circumstances regarding theory is the intention with the research,

which enable the investigators to get a broader representation of the problem (Eisenhardt, 1989).

The approach further enabled the authors to gather as much data as possible to make sure that the

results of the research should be as reliable as possible.

4.5.1 Multiple Case Studies

For this research, multiple case studies have worked as a data collection method. According to

Jafari, Nyberg and Hilletofth (2016), case studies have been accepted as an effective data collection

method to answer “why” or “how” research questions. This allows the researchers to get an

improved understanding of an unexplored phenomenon (Jafari, Nyberg & Hilletofth, 2016), or as in

this case, an inconsistency in literature. Further it is argued that even though the research has an

exploratory purpose, descriptive information from empirical case studies are helpful to identify

descriptions, which have been analyzed earlier (Jafari, Nyberg & Hilletofth, 2016). Lee, Collier and

Cullen (2007) also argue that case studies often are used as preliminary research for qualitative

studies with exploratory purposes. Moreover, this approach are argued to be easier to gather

research regarding a specific theme, compared to for example a survey, due to the fact that the

investigators can supervise the discussion (Lee, Collier & Cullen, 2007). Yin (2014, p. 64) argues

that multiple case studies are a favorable approach to use when trying to explore a relatively

unexplored subject, furthermore it makes it easier to see different contrasts between different

cases.

The chosen cases were The Galvin Green Story (1998), The Zeta Story (2016) and The Fjällräven

Story (2008). The reason for choosing these three cases were due to the fact that they fulfill the

predetermined criteria that the story have somehow been used towards external stakeholders. This is

in line with the purpose, which enabled the authors to create their own depiction regarding the

subject. Another aspect that was taken into consideration was that the case had to be written, in

other words, stories that have been used through different media channels like for example

television have not been taken into consideration. This since the authors did not want one story to

be given an unfair advantage to the other and ease the analysis process with an as fair picture

between the cases as possible. Finally, the reason these specific stories were used was since the

20

authors wanted moderately known stories, as well as with two authentic stories and one fictional,

which added an extra dimension to the analysis.

4.5.2 Interviews

Semi-structured interviews were conducted to enable the respondents to answer in a detailed way

without pressure from the authors. This was in line with Ranney et al. (2015), who argue that an

interview should feel like a conversation for the respondent, but at the same time as the researcher

follows an interview guide and discuss different topics. Even though an interview guide exists, the

interviewer is able to ask follow-up questions if the discussion should touch an interesting subject.

Further, semi-structured interviews can create a greater understanding for both respondent and

interviewer regarding different factors that are discussed (Ponterotto & Rivera, 2000). According to

Yazid (2015), it is also an advantageous approach to use if the researchers will interview different

organizations, which enables them to make the interview suitable for each respondent. Moreover, it

is also motivated to be beneficial for multiple case studies (Yazid, 2015). This makes it suitable for

this research since it is an exploratory qualitative research, where it is important that the

respondents have an opportunity to develop their answers as much as possible. In order for the

interviews to be conducted with a proper approach and that all the questions were perceived correct

and considered relevant, a pre-test with two experts were conducted. These two experts were chosen

because of their expertise, one marketing expert and one in narratology and storytelling. They were

asked to examine and evaluate the operationalization and the interview guide prior to conducting

the interviews. The feedback helped the authors to further improve the questions and to gain insight

in different areas that could have been interpreted in an incorrect way.

One interview for each story was conducted and the interviewees were chosen since they were

considered respondent’s that could contribute to the research. All respondents had in one way or

another been involved in the making of the stories. This means that some of the interviews have

been conducted with employees at the specific organization, whilst other has been conducted with

respondents responsible for the story, for example an advertising agency. An e-mail correspondence

took place between the interviewees and the authors, during this correspondence the interviewees

were given an introduction to the study and the subject. Later the interview guide (see Appendix 1)

was sent to the respondent before conducting the interviews, this in order to enable for the

respondent to be prepared. Due to this, the interviews became more efficient, simultaneously, the

interviewers got all questions answered. The interviews lasted between 25-45 minutes and were

conducted both face to face, over Skype and telephone, whatever was most convenient for the

respondent. The researchers also made sure that only two interviewers conducted the interview at

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each time, in order to create a calmer environment. Further, all interviews were recorded by audio

and transcribed by text, this to ensure that nothing of the content would be missed or misinterpreted.

Presented below is a summarizing table (Table 2) of the interview objects for the empirical

investigation. It starts with presenting which story the interviewee was involved with, following,

their role and whether or not the interviewee where working at the company or an external resource.

Further, how the interview was conducted and the approximate duration of the interview is

presented.

Table 2. Interviewee summary (own).

Story Interviewees Role Relationship to the story Interview type Time

The Galvin Green Story Co-creator of the Story External Face-to-Face 35 minutes

The Zeta Story Responsible for Marketing Internal Telephone 25 minutes

The Fjällräven Story Co-creator of the Story External Skype 45 minutes

Total Interview Time: 105 minutes

4.6 Operationalization

In the table below (Table 3), the operationalization of the characteristics of external storytelling is

presented. Where firstly the structure from the conceptual framework (Chapter 3) is presented under

characteristics and followed by the sub-characteristics gathered from the literature review (Chapter

2). Followed is the operational definition of each (sub-) characteristic. Next the (sub-)

characteristics are broken down to item level and then each items reference is presented.

Subsequently in the last column each item is connected to a question for the interviews, the

questions in their full context are presented in the appendix (Appendix 1, Table 4).

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Table 3. Operationalization (own).

Characteristics Operational Definition Item Reference Question

Structure Used in order to explore how the stories were structured.

- Beginning -Barker & Gower, 2010. -Boje, 2012. -Delgadillo & Escalas, 2004.

Q1

- Middle -Fog, Budtz & Yakaboylu, 2005. -Janssen et al., 2012. -Levin, 2000.

Q2

- End -Saylors, Boje & Mueller, 2014. -Shaw, Brown & Bromiley, 1998. -Woodside, Sood, & Miller, 2008.

Q3

Sub- Characteristics

Theme and Identity Used in order to explore if and how an organization try to transmit their identity through stories with a specific theme.

- Identification -Denning, 2006. -Humle, 2014. -Janssen et al. 2012. -Linde, 2009.

Q4

- Memorable -Humle, 2014. -Lee & Shin 2015.

Q5

- Relationship -Dowling, 2006; -Spear & Roper, 2013.

Q6

Actor Used in order to explore who the story is based on.

- Hero -Delgadillo & Escalas, 2004. -Fog, Bundtz & Yakaboylu, 2005. -Woodside, Sood & Miller, 2008.

Q7

- Founder -Janssen et al, 2012. -Saylors, Boje & Mueller, 2014. -Shaw, Brown & Bromiley, 1998.

Q8

- Organization - Fog, Budtz & Yakaboylu, 2005. - Janssen et al., 2012. - Shaw, Brown & Bromiley, 1998.

Q9

Audience Used in order to explore for whom the story is written.

- Customer

-Dowling, 2006. -Spear & Roper, 2013.

Q10

- Stakeholder -Beelitz & Merkl-Davies, 2012. -Brennan, Merkl-Davies & Beelitz, 2013.

Q11

Engaging Used in order to explore how the story engages the considered audience.

- Motivate -Gill, 2015. Q12

- Future -Denning, 2006. Q13

- Loyalty -Gill, 2015. Q14

- Brand -Denning, 2006. Q15

- Differentiation -Van Riel & Fombrun, 2007. -Janssen et al. 2012.

Q16

- Uniqueness -Marshall & Adamic, 2010. Q17

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Table 3. Continued

Characteristics Operational Definition Item Reference Question

Relatable Used in order to explore how the story connects to the organization behind it.

- Emotional appeal -Barker & Gower, 2010. -Dowling, 2006. -Marshal & Adamic, 2010. -Spear & Roper, 2013

Q18

- Personal connection -Denning, 2006. -Marshall & Adamic, 2010. -Spear & Roper, 2013.

Q19

- Mission -Denning, 2006. -Spear & Roper, 2013.

Q20

- Vision -Denning, 2006. -Marshall & Adamic, 2010.

Q21

- Values -Denning, 2006. -Marshall & Adamic, 2010.

Q22

- Community -Janssen et al., 2012. -Van Riel & Fombrun 2007.

Q23

Call-to-Action Used in order to explore if and how the story cause a call-to-action.

- Change -Barker & Gower, 2010. -Denning, 2006.

Q24

- Responsibility -Gill, 2015. -Johnston & Everett, 2012.

Q25

Overcoming Adversity Used in order to explore if and how an organization with help of a story shows the audience how to overcome obstacles in the future.

- Conflict -Shaw, Brown & Bromiley, 1998. Q26

- Resolution -Shaw, Brown & Bromiley, 1998 Q27

4.7 Data Analysis Method

When discussing data analysis method for a qualitative study, Creswell (2013, p. 148) presents a

typical process used by researchers, which include organizing data, coding of data and presenting

data in figures, tables, et cetera. Since the amount of data in a qualitative study most often reach

large proportions, it is important to organize the data to be able to code it later (Creswell, 2013, p.

148). Yin (2014) also argues for organization of data, which can be done both by hand, and by a

computer analysis software program, whatever one is most comfortable with. Moreover, field notes

from case studies are a common element of the data organization, mostly used to further strengthen

the analysis (Yin, 2014). In this research, the researchers analyzed the data by hand, since it was

considered a more suitable process. After the data had been organized it was coded, this in order to

be able to convert the data. According to Romand Jr. et al. (2003), coding is the progression of

categorizing the observations into different classes, depending on specific codes derived from

24

theory and chosen keywords. Yearworth and White (2013) further explain this process and argue

that axial coding is a suitable process for interviews and case studies. When conducting an axial

coding, the data is divided into categories with related subcategories, which enables the researchers

to discover different patterns and relationships (Yearworth & White, 2013). Since both primary and

secondary data sources were used as empirical information, it is important to break down the

categories within the different sources and rebuild new ones with all data included (Creswell, 2007,

p. 153). Finally, the data are presented in forms of figures, in order to clarify what has been

concluded for the research (Creswell, 2007, p. 154). The model is presented in the final part of the

analysis.

4.8 Research Quality

The credibility in this research is justified and explained under the two sub-headings triangulation

and reliability. Triangulation has been used with multiple perspectives upon the gathered data to

ensure that the intended meanings have been perceived correctly, hence strengthening the

reliability. The interviewees were given anonymity and their participation was voluntarily based

upon they were not deceived. This has ensured the quality of this research.

4.8.1 Triangulation This research used multiple perspectives around storytelling to interpret the meaning of the case

studies (Creswell, 2003, p. 23; Denzin & Lincoln, 2008; Patton, 2002; Stake, 2008). Eisenhardt

(1989) argues that at least two cases classifies as multiple. Hence, with the usage of primary and

secondary sources, as well as the interpretation by the authors, an in-depth understanding of the

stories used in the data collection is given to understand the phenomenon of external storytelling

and to ensure the repeatability (Denzin & Lincoln, 2008; Stake, 2008). Stake (2008) argues that

accuracy is constructed and to decrease the possibility to misinterpret the information; the data has

been collected from both existing cases and by interviews (Creswell, 2007; Stake, 2008). The

intended meaning of the collected data may be biased since the interpretation of the meaning is

subjective in the perspective of the reader (Denzin & Lincoln, 2008; Stake, 2008). Since no

observation or interpretation can be identically repeated, the usage of different perspectives on the

data brings clarification to the meaning of it (Denzin & Lincoln, 2008; Stake, 2008).

4.8.2 Reliability

Since this research’s purpose was to explore the characteristics of external storytelling, the data

collection methods have aided to explore the data (Creswell, 2003, p. 23). Reliability indicates the

consistency in the measurements during the data collection to ensure that the data collection has

25

gathered the intended data (Creswell, 2003, p. 251). Furthermore, the reliability is strengthened by

using triangulation to interpret the data (Creswell, 2003, p. 23). Triangulation strengthen the

reliability due to the usage of different data sources as justification of themes and this gives

multiple perspectives on the data, which adds validity (Creswell, 2003, p. 251). Since this research

use both primary and secondary data, the multiple perspectives upon the cases increase the

possibility of understanding the intended meaning in the cases. While conducting the interviews, the

information the respondents disclosed was documented by detailed notes as well by sound

recording (Creswell, 2007; Silverman, 2004). The sound recording was transcribed with the purpose

to detect pauses in the discussion and overlaps of information, which is necessary to complete the

notes (Creswell, 2007; Silverman, 2004). Hence, by using these measurements, the reliability in the

collected data has been enhanced (Creswell, 2007; Silverman, 2004).

4.9 Ethical Approach

Several researchers (e.g. Creswell, 2007; Creswell, 2013; Christians, 2008; Stake, 2008) argue that

the researcher will face ethical issues during the data collection and they emphasize that these

ethical issues needs to be dealt with immediately. Transparency regarding the research’s nature and

its consequences of it is fundamental in research ethics (Christians, 2008). Stake (2008) argues that

case studies are generally based on a public interest, however it might not be in the public nor the

researchers right to know, hence this research has conducted a code of ethics. This research

approached these ethical issues by discussing and informing the respondents of consent, deception

and confidentiality (Creswell, 2007; Creswell, 2013; Christians, 2008; Stake, 2008).

4.9.1 Consent

Researchers (e.g. Creswell, 2007; Creswell, 2013; Christians, 2008; Stake, 2008) state that a

fundamental part of the research is the voluntary participation by the respondent. The respondents’

commitment to this research was based on their awareness of the research’s purpose and the result

of their knowledge (Christians, 2008). Furthermore, the respondents’ freedom to end their

participation if any issue occurred was assured, hence their participation was based upon mutual

consent (Christians, 2008; Stake, 2008).

4.9.2 Deception

According to Creswell (2007, p. 141; 2013, p. 60), the respondents should not be deceived

regarding the purpose of the research and how it will be conducted. The respondents were informed

in advance regarding the purpose of the research and how it will be conducted to eliminate a power

imbalance between the researchers and respondents (Creswell, 2007, p. 141; Creswell, 2013, p. 60).

26

The elimination of the potential power imbalance in advance is necessary to create trust and to

avoid leading questions (Creswell, 2013, p. 60).

4.9.3 Confidentiality Christians (2008) discuss the importance of protecting the respondent’s identity, since the

respondent may experience undesired exposure. The respondents in this study were assured of their

anonymity, and the personal knowledge has only been made public behind anonymity (Christians,

2008; Creswell, 2013, p. 60). The respondents in this research were given names connected to the

story they represent (Creswell, 2007, p. 141). By assuring anonymity, the respondent can reveal

personal knowledge, hence the respondent will not become harmed or embarrassed if the

knowledge is considered damaging (Christians, 2008; Creswell, 2013, p. 60; Stake, 2008).

27

5 Empirical Material In this chapter, the empirical material is presented story by story, with the actual story investigated

and answers from the interviewed respondent.

5.1 Galvin Green

Galvin Green is a clothing company that specializes in functional golf clothes. It was founded in

Växjö, 1990, by Tomas Nilsson and has since then created high-performance functional clothing for

golf with advanced materials and a cutting-edge design (Dahlqvist, 2016). Presented below is the

story that was created by Galvin Green in collaboration with Smålands Reklambyrå for their

stakeholders in order to increase their market share, predominantly in Europe (Galvin Green

interviewee, 2016). The Galvin Green Story presented below can be found in its original appearance

in Appendix 2 and will hereafter be referred to as The Galvin Green Story (1998).

Meet William Alister Galvin Green!

The place was Rossan Point at Sligo Bay in north-west Ireland. It is the end of the 19th century. Rossan

Point was a military camp and the officers there used to amuse themselves during their free time by

playing golf: they had laid out some makeshift holes around the camp grounds.

William Alister Galvin Green was born 1861. He was a major in the Irish army and was stationed at

Rossan Point at end of the 19th century. He was simply called Galvin by his fellow officers, and he is said

to have distinguished himself by having a highly individual and personal style of dress.

An Eccentric Golf Player

In the eyes of most people he was regarded as both original and a trifle eccentric. When his fellow officers

appeared on the greens in tight-fitting, formal military uniforms, Galvin was attired in leisurely, loose-

fitting garments which, in his opinion, never hampered his golf playing. It is said to have gone so far that

he had had extra loose and roomy articles of clothing tailor-made for different sporting events. He was also

a dedicated sailor.

Bearing in mind that it rains 225 days of the year in these parts, and that the annual rainfall is around 1300

millimeters (1.3 metres), it's natural that Galvin Green couldn't avoid creating garments which withstood

the wind and rain and permitted play even during extreme weather conditions. Nothing was allowed to

hinder him practicing his game.

We don't know if Galvin was a skillful or mediocre golfer. In fact, we know very little about his later fate

in life other than that he died in 1938.

But if you ask in one of the local pubs around Rossan Point it may well happen that some older gentleman

28

could tell you a story or two about the eccentric golfer. Maybe he'll tell you about Galvin's foremost

characteristic: the large, loose-fitting, yellow sweater. An un-common sight on golf courses at that time.

There are no surviving photographs of Galvin. However, his old golf bag can be seen at a local village

museum in the area.

A Homage to William Alister Galvin Green!

We have named our collection of golfing clothes after William Alister Galvin Green. Not just because he

was an interesting golfing profile, but because our ideas about the function of golfing clothes agree with

Galvin's.

The functional clothing in the Galvin Green collection is designed to be worn when playing golf in all

types of weather. No part of the garment is allowed to get in the way of the game. Our motto is: "Never

Compromise", and that applies both to our functional clothing and to our leisurewear.

We believe that William Alister Galvin Green would have backed that motto.

(The Galvin Green Story, 1998)

The story about William Alister Galvin Green is a fictional story, created to avoid using marketing

product features such as high quality or technical functionality, which the competitors marketed.

The story was constructed with help from a copywriter who collaborated with Smålands

Reklambyrå, who wrote the story in the same manner as the classic tale, written with a catching

introduction and an emotional end (Galvin Green Interviewee, 2016). The copywriter's purpose

with the story was to be descriptive and informative, but still connect with the audience both

personally and emotionally (Galvin Green Interviewee, 2016). The story presents Galvin Green’s

core values and tries to distinguish themselves from their competitors (Dennisdotter et al., 2008;

Heijbel, 2009; Klefsjö, 2009). The core values where developed with the help of an identity prism

(Galvin Green Interviewee, 2016). The story is an accumulation of the brand even though it is

fictional (Galvin Green Interviewee, 2016). The part of the story that is true is that there was a man

named William Alister Galvin Green who was a major in the Irish Army stationed at Rossan Point

in Ireland during the later half of the 1800s (Dennisdotter et al., 2008; Heijbel, 2009).

The story is aimed towards Galvin Green’s stakeholders in retailers and agents since they needed

something unique to sell to their stakeholders (Dennisdotter et al., 2008; Heijbel, 2009). Even

though The Galvin Green story was not aimed towards the end consumer, the essence of the story

still needed to appeal to them and reflect the brand (Galvin Green Interviewee, 2016). Moreover, it

could just as well have been communicated to the end consumers, but due to that there were

existing campaigns, it was chosen not to. Hence, the story was not used as a differentiation tool

29

against competitors, rather as a strategy to convince stakeholders to choose the brand (Galvin Green

Interviewee, 2016). They created an identity in order to communicate a certain profile externally,

and there had to be a consensus among the representatives of the brand on what to communicate

(Galvin Green Interviewee, 2016). According to the Galvin Green Interviewee (2016), William

Alister Galvin Green was supposed to personify the company and its products, for example the

slogan, “Never Compromise” or the less outspoken “By Golfers for Golfers”. Further, he was as

well supposed to match with the users of the Galvin Green products, an ambitious amateur golfer

that does not want to compromise with their results (Galvin Green Interviewee, 2016). It was also

mentioned that the story worked as a reminder for the stakeholders what Galvin Green as a brand

and organization stands for as well as the slogan (Galvin Green Interviewee, 2016).

5.2 Zeta

Zeta is a brand from the Swedish food company Di Luca & Di Luca that was founded in the 1970s

by Fernando Di Luca. They sell a number of different Mediterranean food products, such as oils,

pesto and pasta. Their first product was their corn oil that was introduced to the market in 1971

(Zeta, 2016). Following is the story about Fernando Di Luca and how he moved from Fano in Italy

to Sweden.

Fernando Di Luca and his family are passionate about giving Sweden the taste of Italy.

The year is 1961. It is an early spring morning in Fano, a small fisherman’s village on the Italian east

coast, when Fernando Di Luca gets on his Lambretta. Instead of taking a job as an accountant, Fernando

decided to seek for an adventure, and it is waiting for him in Sweden. The sound of the engine swirling

between the houses, his mother gaze on her son who has begun the journey of his life. Hotel Malmen are

in need of reinforcements. In the reception sits the beautiful Louise and flickering her eyes. Love occurs.

Fernando stays and still is.

Out of love came a family who engage in Fernando’s self-absorbed missions to bring the best flavors from

the Italian kitchen to Sweden. Today, the children Gabriella, Christian and Paula works in the company.

During time Fernando learned to love meatballs and fried herring, but he never forgot the flavors he

experienced during his childhood in Fano. A specific distinction from the Italian flavors and scents was

missing in Sweden, in particular olive oil. At his mother in Italy, a bottle of olive oil was always on the

table, for flavor to most dishes. The smell of new cut grass, the taste of fresh, green olives and the pleasant

pepperish aftertaste did not exist in Sweden. Instead was the olive oil that existed in Sweden on the shelf’s

of Apoteket, it was something that you took for your stomach. This was the origin of Zeta. After the first

olive oil came the entire row of vegetable oils, then new olive oils because when it comes to olive oil it is

like with wine that the taste is different and some oils are better suited for different food. Then vinegars,

from white to red to balsamic, fruit balsam and crema di balsamico.

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Then the important Italian antipasto: pesto, tapenade marinated sundried tomatoes, grilled peppers,

artichoke. Then olives: big, small, black, green and without stones. Then beans: big white, small white,

red, black, artichokes because beans for an Italian is what potatoes is to us.

Soon after came the bread in the form of crostini and filoncini, perfect together with the antipasti. Roasted

small, thin pieces of Italian bread flavored with olive oil and tapenade. Bread sticks of sourdough, good as

snacks or appetizers wrapped with a thin slice of Prosciutto di Parma.

And then the pasta, the central dish of the Italian cuisine. Pasta baked on durum with the highest quality. It

did not take long before the pasta was accompanied with pasta sauces made on Italian tomatoes, fresh

spices and tasty sea salt from Sicily.

Fernando knows his Italy. Even though he moved to Sweden, the scents and flavors from the dishes his

mother cooked still acts as a mark. At the same time he is more than delighted to try new dishes, as long

as it is cooked on good supplies. Fresh supplies do exist outside of Italy. For example, in Greece and

Cyprus, where Fernando could not resist the creamy, characteristic tangy feta cheese and the squeaky

halloumi with its nice salty and touch of mint.

Italy is a country with many small food districts created by climate and environmental differences, which

has given different traditions and habits. The food is as the wine. The earth, the sun, the wind, the ocean,

the hillside creates the condition. Fernando tastes the difference between homemade pasta from Bari and

from Bologna, he knows how “the same kind of cheese” taste just south and just north of Po, he

understands why an air-dried ham from San Daniele tastes a little bit different from a ham from Parma.

Fernando knows and he wants to share his knowledge. He wants that Swedish food lovers will understand

why they should look at the Mediterranean cuisine. Not just for its chefs, restaurateurs, food journalists,

cookbook authors and nutritionists say so. But because themselves discovers the good, healthy and price

worthy food from Italy and the Mediterranean countries.

(The Zeta Story, 2016)

“From a family where food is love” is the tagline for the story about Fernando Di Luca and Zeta

that was launched in 2014 (Zeta, 2016). The purpose is to tell the family’s story and to transform

from being a liked product to a loved brand (Larsson, 2015; Dagens Media, 2014). Zeta’s idea is

built upon their Italian tradition, their passion for what they do and simplicity (Gruppo Di Luca,

2016). Zeta’s storytelling is based on the story of how a young and poor Fernando Di Luca takes

farewell to his family and travels to Sweden on his Lambretta with a bottle of olive oil in 1961

(Beaconomist, 2015; Falk, 2013; Svensson, 2014; Larsson, 2014; Zeta, 2016). The story tells how

Fernando Di Luca by himself created the foundation of Zeta (Beaconomist, 2015) with very little

31

luggage, but with memories of Italian pasta and olive oil, hence, started to import products from the

Italian cuisine to Sweden (Svensson, 2014). The story is a chronological story of Fernando Di

Lucas life and how he started his business, by moving away from Fano in Italy to Sweden (Zeta

Interviewee, 2016). It is not just a personal story, it is the corporate and brand story of Zeta as well.

This is an historical depiction of his travels that as well has been the foundation for future TV-

commercials (Zeta Interviewee, 2016). The story begins when Fernando Di Luca decides to leave

Italy and is told until present day. The story shows his business idea, the company and its culture

(Zeta Interviewee, 2016). Over time it depicts how he lives in Sweden today and how he tries to

connect the Swedish and the Italian kitchen. However, it is also an illustration of what he brought

with him to Sweden from his childhood and from Fano (Zeta Interviewee, 2016). According to the

Zeta Interviewee (2016), the authenticity of the story and the fact that he is a real person is what

makes the recipients remember the story about Fernando Di Luca. There is no need for Zeta to

come up with something new, they just tell the story how it happened, this increased the

authenticity and credibility of the story (Zeta Interviewee, 2016).

The story is written in a way that was supposed to capture and keep the audience read the story,

therefore it was written in a describing manner. It describes the smells and flavors of the products

and makes it possible for the reader to visualize and feel the taste from just reading the story (Zeta

Interviewee, 2016). According to the Zeta Interviewee (2016), by describing Fernando Di Lucas

passion for food and its taste, and emphasize the importance of high quality commodities, the story

is meant to increase the loyalty among the customers. The customers are meant to feel like a part of

the Zeta family, they want to convey the feeling of credibility, the dream of Italy and show the

reader that this is a family that know about and care for food. There are not a lot of other people

who can talk about Italy like Fernando Di Luca (Zeta Interviewee, 2016). These are as well

differentiating factors from other large companies with products from many different places, the

products from Zeta has a background and the story increases the credibility that they know what

they are talking about (Zeta Interviewee, 2016). The story about Fernando Di Luca is unique, it is

his story, where he shows his passion and commitment for his products and what he does (Zeta

Interviewee, 2016). In detail it is a unique story, however, according to the Zeta Interviewee (2016),

if looking at the bigger picture, a story about a person coming from nothing and in the end creates a

successful company is something that has been told before.

Zeta wants to give everyone the opportunity to eat the Italian Mediterranean food every day and this

is something that should not be complicated for any consumer to attain (Zeta Interviewee, 2016).

With the story, they want to convey how easy and uncomplicated it is to cook, one does not need

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that many ingredients when having good products to work with (Zeta Interviewee, 2016). They also

want to show the importance of family, community and being together. Zeta’s message is much

about the lifestyle: how to eat, the togetherness around a table, the conversation, simply the Italian

lifestyle (Zeta Interviewee, 2016). This is as well according to the Zeta Interviewee (2016) what the

customers is supposed to take with them from the story, the togetherness and the community of

Zeta. The tagline “From a family where food is love” is what embraces the customers, they strive

for the emotional connection between the brand and the customer. The values they want to

communicate are the feeling that you live to eat and not eat to live (Zeta Interviewee, 2016). The

story is built much based on evoking a feeling from the reader, however it is not just the story that is

built based on this, it is the whole company (Zeta Interviewee, 2016).

5.3 Fjällräven Fjällräven is a Swedish company founded in Örnsköldsvik in 1960 by Åke Nordin. They sell a

variety of outdoor clothes and equipment for various outdoor activities. Presented below is a story

about the backpack Kånken, which has been a bestseller since the 1970’s (Fjällräven, 2016).

In the seventies were all kids a bit left leaning. But we put an end to that.

New statistics showed that in the end of the seventies, 80 percent of the Swedish population sometime had

problems with their backs. The most severe problem was probably that it had a tendency to affect people in

a younger age. School doctors and youth workers, among others, raised the largest concern for the school

children’s backs. At this time it was popular with shoulder bags. Something that was literally going skewed.

A Carrying Idea

A person who followed the debate with great interest was our founder Åke Nordin. He immediately

sketched an affordable and functional backpack, custom for school children’s need of binder space, in

cooperation with Svenska Scoutförbundet. The backpack Kånken was launched in August 1978. The

argument for the school backpack was already firmly rooted with experts. Around forty Swedish

newspapers even raised the back issues with the new product Kånken as a starting point.

Positive Results

The launching campaign aimed not only to parents and school children. One of the backpacks many benefits

were that your hands were free. This made Kånken useful even for older people who had to support

themselves with canes, handrails and handles. But would the kids embrace the idea? The schools did several

attempts to popularize backpacks among kids in Närke and Värmland. The attempts gave positive results.

When the load was distributed from one should to the both sides of the body the back problems was

perceived less. The backpack also resulted in a better and straighter posture, according to them.

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Dear Child

The new product would also evoke unexpected emotions. Kånken was branded by some groups as

something of a left-wing symbol and was sometimes called – communist hump. Åke took the whole thing

calmly. He calculated to sell 200 Kånken the first year. It became 400. The year after 30 000 was sold and

the success was a fact.

30-year Anniversary

Over thirty years has now gone since the launch. The idea with carrying the backpack has propagated

significantly, and so has Kånken. More than 200 000 copies every year are produced today. But we would

rather pay attention to all the three million backs that has benefited from it. The product itself has not really

changed. The only thing we have added is more colors, and a couple of model variants, for example Kånken

Laptop. One of the favorites is Minikånken. It is only 29 cm tall and is made for the youngest children in the

family. Because a good habit can never begin too early.

(The Fjällräven Story, 2008)

The story was created in 2008 when the backpack Kånken had its 30-year anniversary (Lindesvärd,

2016). There is no outspoken nor goal with how the story should be structured, however, there is an

unspoken structure in the terms of experiences and intuitions where using narrative has been a

central part in presenting Fjällräven’s outdoor culture (Fjällräven Interviewee, 2016). According to

the Fjällräven Interviewee (2016), the usage of narrative is a fundamental part in storytelling, as

well as in this story. The narrative gives an understanding of the story, where a situation is

presented gradually and leads to an end (Fjällräven Interviewee, 2016). Then will drama, change in

emotions and development be added to the story (Fjällräven Interviewee, 2016). The classical

structure is when good meets bad, where the good actor meets an adversity during the way and the

aim is for the good actor to overcome the adversity (Fjällräven Interviewee, 2016). This structure

can then be developed and refined by dynamic actions, such as positive and negative happenings,

for example when the good actor overcome an adversity but immediately meet a new adversity

(Fjällräven Interviewee, 2016). This is what makes a story thrilling, hence the foundation of

storytelling (Fjällräven Interviewee, 2016).

There is a strong entrepreneur at Fjällräven in Åke Nordin (Fjällräven Interviewee, 2016). Nordin

was an owner that was not at work all the time, but he was considered to be a person people listens

to and participated in the board and ran it as he desired (Fjällräven Interviewee, 2016). Those

characters can be hard to handle since they are successful because they have made fast decisions

based on their intuitions’, which results in that people will get in the way (Fjällräven Interviewee,

2016). Nordin had a mixed reputation, which was something that was discovered during the

34

creation of the story (Fjällräven Interviewee, 2016). Nordin was interviewed for the creation and he

had several stories about the company and its products (Fjällräven Interviewee, 2016). This was the

foundation of the story about Kånken and the final story was analyzed and created afterwards to

bring the story to life (Fjällräven Interviewee, 2016). What speaks to the audience with the story is

that is about the dynamics of life, and it is possible for the audience to relate to this (Fjällräven

Interviewee, 2016). This is because everybody has sometime faced adversities and life is not solely

happy (Fjällräven Interviewee, 2016). This story tells us about how Nordin overcame adversity with

Kåken regarding the political movements and its nickname “Communist hump”, hence the audience

relates to the story since it is not solely bragging, it also shows the company’s ups and downs

(Fjällräven Interviewee, 2016).

Since there still is prejudice towards the backpack, based upon the seventies political environment,

there was a natural and interesting starting point for Fjällrävens own story about how the backpack

was created (Lindesvärd, 2016). According to the Fjällräven Interviewee (2016), the identity of the

brand starts by returning to the product Kånken and its roots. The story is created to explain the

origin of Kånken, what happened and what it looked like in order to create a backpack that was

unique and stood out compared to competitors products (Fjällräven Interviewee, 2016). The story

pushes on the audience spontaneous association towards their prejudice with connotations and

denotation, and the word left leaning has political associations (Lindesvärd, 2016). Fjällräven are

connected to the left-winged movement and it does exist a lot of myths around it, which makes it

possible to make fun of the myths and prejudices. The story should regard the back but since the

backpack Kånken was launched in 1978 when the left-wing movement was strong and a movement

to go back to nature, which made the brand Fjällräven gain in popularity among those people

(Fjällräven Interviewee, 2016). However, since the campaign is focusing on a physical distortion,

which gives a medical association, there are two relevant associations regarding both political and

medical (Lindesvärd, 2016). The story focus on the tension between the negative and positive

connotations, which makes the story applicable for the individuals in the audience, hence becomes

more convincing (Lindesvärd, 2016). Since the story consists of people calling Kånken a

communist hump, the story becomes a story about how Åke Nordin overcome adversities, thus

making the story trustworthy and true, since the audience has experienced similar situations

(Lindesvärd, 2016). The personal aspect in the story is Fjällrävens history and heritage, in what way

Kånken was created and the functionality of the backpack. Kånken solves a problem and therefore

consumers should purchase the product. The brand Fjällräven have not been particularly active in

their previous marketing, and when Fjällräven used the story, former consumers were able to

recognize the brand, which could result in recurring consumers (Fjällräven Interviewee, 2016).

35

Fjällrävens goals and visions are present throughout the story. Functionality is the core value of

Fjällräven and that is highlighted in the story (Fjällräven Interviewee, 2016). Further, Fjällräven has

two goals with their products: people should not freeze nor become wet and prepare them for

spending time in nature. Moreover, it should also inspire people to get out in the nature and activate

themselves (Fjällräven Interviewee, 2016). Whilst competitors of Fjällräven have focused their

commercials on conquering the nature and climb mountains, Fjällräven instead chose to profile

them as a brand where consumers experience and discovers what exists in the nature (Fjällräven

Interviewee, 2016). The brand Fjällräven does not want to become a fashion accessory since trends

are shifting, hence, they do not want to become trendy. Kånken are famous as the first backpack and

through that, a trustworthy legacy regarding Kånken exists. Furthermore, Fjällräven have never had

any form of sale, which also strengthens the premium feeling (Fjällräven Interviewee, 2016). The

campaign was presented in daily press, magazines and stores in Sweden and several other countries

in Europe (Lindesvärd, 2016).

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6 Analysis

The analysis chapter starts of with an analysis of the three chosen stories, connected to the

theoretical literature and the gathered empirical material regarding characteristics of storytelling.

Finally, a combined analysis is presented together with a new developed conceptual model.

6.1 Galvin Green

There is a clear structure in The Galvin Green Story (1998), it has a beginning that introduces the

audience to a specific context and presents the main character. This is in line with Barker and

Gower (2010), Boje (2012) and Delgadillo and Escalas (2004) who state that the beginning of a

story should present a foundation of the story so that the audience can follow and get introduced to

the story and its characters. In The Galvin Green Story (1998), William Alister Galvin Green is

presented and gives the audience the necessities of who he is and an outline of the environment and

of what the rest of the story will be about. The middle-section of the story could be seen as

transportation from the beginning to the end, The Galvin Green Story follows the classical tale

concept presented by Dennisdotter et al. (2008). In the middle, the story intensifies until it reach the

end (Fog, Budtz & Yakaboylu, 2005, p. 32-36; Janssen et al., 2012; Levin, 2000), which in this case

starts when William Alister Galvin Green opposes the norm of having tight-fitting, formal military

uniforms when playing golf. In a classic tale, the conflict generally is resolved in the end (Saylors,

Boje & Mueller, 2014; Shaw, Brown & Bromiley, 1998; Woodside, Sood, & Miller, 2008),

however in the The Galvin Green Story, it can be argued that the end is rather about the brand

Galvin Green than the actual conflict. Even though the resolution of the conflict is Galvin Green’s

products, that are according to the story based upon William Alister Galvin Green’s garments and

way of thinking about golf. This is what the end of the story mainly is about, that just like William

Alister Galvin Green, the brand Galvin Green never compromise and do not let neither functionality

nor design get in the way of his game (Galvin Green Interviewee, 2016; The Galvin Green Story,

1998).

In the beginning of The Galvin Green Story (1998), William Alister Galvin Green is introduced to

the audience. This is in line with Denning (2006), Janssen et al. (2012) and Linde (2009, p. 110)

who state that the beginning of the story should present the organization, who it is and what it

stands for. On the contrary, in The Galvin Green Story the main character, William Alister Galvin

Green, is presented in the beginning of the story as well as who he is and what he stands for.

According to the Galvin Green Interviewee (2016), William Alister Galvin Green is a

personification of the brand Galvin Green, hence, it shows similarities with previous research by

37

Denning (2006) and Janssen et al. (2012). When it comes to how the organizational identity is

portrayed, it is not just through William Alister Galvin Green, it is as well portrayed through their

products. For example, in the story Galvin Green’s products are connected with William Alister

Galvin Green's way of thinking about golf and clothing when playing, where functionality and not

compromising is central. According to Humle (2014), the identity of an organization is built upon

identity stories, however this is not the case of The Galvin Green Story (1998), where they worked

with a complete opposite approach. The Galvin Green Story (1998) is built upon an identity that

Galvin Green wanted to convey to their stakeholders (Galvin Green Interviewee, 2016). Neither is

The Galvin Green Story (1998) applicable to how Coupland and Brown (2004) argue that an

identity differ from story to story and audience to audience. This is a story that could be used not

only towards retailers, it could have been used towards consumers as well, even though Galvin

Green chose not to (Galvin Green Interviewee, 2016).

The Galvin Green Story (1998) presents a context to the audience that will say the theme of the

story is presented. According to Lee and Shin (2015), the theme should resemble the identity of the

organization, which is something that Galvin Green did when constructing the story (Galvin Green

Interviewee, 2016; The Galvin Green Story, 1998). Where the goal with the story was to convey the

identity of the brand (Galvin Green Interviewee, 2016; The Galvin Green Story, 1998). “Never

Compromise” is the slogan that Galvin Green want the audience to remember from the story

(Galvin Green Interviewee, 2016), however, it can be argued that the character William Alister

Galvin Green is used as a tool to remember the brand Galvin Green. Similarly to Humle (2014) who

argues that stories are used to remember the organization, which one could connect to The Galvin

Green Story as for the identity and brand.

According to Lee and Shin (2015), one of the most important components in a story is the actor and

their actions. In the case of The Galvin Green Story (1998) it is a clear main actor that the story is

built around. As stated by the Galvin Green Interviewee (2016) the main actor is actually the brand,

Galvin Green, personified. In accordance to for example Delgadillo and Escalas (2004), Fog,

Bundtz and Yakaboylu (2005, p. 36-42) and Woodside, Sood and Miller (2008), a story is built

around a main actor often described as the hero. If comparing to The Galvin Green Story, he is the

character the story surrounds, hence William Alister Galvin Green resembles the hero several

researchers describe (Delgadillo & Escalas, 2004; Fog, Bundtz & Yakaboylu, 2005, p. 36-42;

Woodside, Sood & Miller, 2008). The story is similar to the views of Janssen et al. (2012) and

Shaw, Brown and Bromiley (1998) who state that the main actor could be the organization itself.

Because William Alister Galvin Green is, as stated earlier, the brand or organization personified

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(Galvin Green Interviewee, 2016). This could also be connected to Janssen et al. (2012) who argue

that the story should present an historical picture of the organization. Even though The Galvin

Green Story is fictional, it could however be described as a historical depiction of what lies behind

the ambiance of what Galvin Green is derived from. This in contrast to Shaw, Brown and Bromiley

(1998) who state that the historically depicted story should be from the founders point of view,

which is difficult when the story is fictional.

As mentioned earlier, The Galvin Green Story is a fictional story created for Galvin Green’s

stakeholders and in order to gain market shares in Europe (Dennisdotter et al., 2008; Galvin Green

Interviewee, 2016; Heijbel, 2009). According to several researchers (e.g. Barker & Gower, 2010;

Dowling, 2006; Marshall & Adamic, 2010; Spear & Roper, 2013), a story always has an audience,

though the audience can change depending on the story. According to Andersen and Rask (2014),

Barker and Gower (2010) and Carriger (2011) among others, a story needs to be adapted to its

audience. This is not the case with The Galvin Green Story (1998), which according to the Galvin

Green Interviewee (2016) could as well have been communicated to the end user in its original

design, however, chosen not to be used in that sense. According to the Galvin Green Interviewee

(2016), the main motive with the story was to communicate the slogan “Never Compromise” to

potential markets. By communicating the slogan through the story it was meant to motivate the

stakeholders to stock this new brand and to remember and associate the brand with William Alister

Galvin Green and the slogan “Never Compromise” (Galvin Green Interviewee, 2016). This is in

accordance with the theories of Gill (2015) and Gilliam and Flaherty (2015), that the story should

convey a message that stick onto the audience minds and engage, in this case, the stakeholders.

In The Galvin Green Story (1998), there is no connection to the theories of Denning (2006) that a

story needs to display possible future changes to the organization in order to create a successful

story. Instead, according to the Galvin Green Interviewee (2016), the story was supposed to show

whom Galvin Green was, their identity. As well as that Galvin Green did not want to demonstrate a

change in the organization, which is one of the presented theories of Denning (2006), that a story is

created in order to convince the audience that a change in the organization does not have to be

negative. The Galvin Green Story is more intended to create loyalty between both stakeholders, and

through them the final users (Galvin Green Interviewee, 2016). The Galvin Green Interviewee

(2016) stated that the story was meant to show William Alister Galvin Green as an ambitious golfer

even though he was not a professional. This could also be connected to that William Alister Galvin

Green should reflect their largest customer segment, the ambitious amateur golfer. The slogan

“Never Compromise” is what the users of the product should think of when purchasing their

39

products, that they are buying them for themselves in order to improve their own game. Gill (2015)

argues that by engaging on a personal level with the stakeholders it enables the organization to

create a more genuine loyalty towards the brand, which can be argued is done in The Galvin Green

Story.

Due to that The Galvin Green Story was not directed towards the end user, it was not used as a tool

to differentiate the brand from competitors according to the Galvin Green Interviewee (2016). This

contradicts the statements from Van Riel and Fombrun (2007, p. 144) that a personal, historical

story is used to differentiate one organization from another. However, according to Jansen et al.

(2012), in order to differentiate the organization through a story, the story has to be unique. Even

though the story is not meant to differentiate itself from competitors, the story could still be

considered unique. If not to differentiate its uniqueness, it might work as a way for the stakeholders

to remember the story and in the end the brand. Which according to Janssen et al. (2012) could help

establish a relationship between stakeholder and brand through the story.

Researchers (Denning, 2006; Jansen, et al., 2012; Spear & Roper, 2013) argue that a story should

include the mission, vision and values in order position the brand on the market and to the

stakeholders. However, as mentioned earlier, Galvin Green utilized The Brand Identity Prism in

their process of creating the story (Galvin Green Interviewee, 2016). Within the adapted prism for

the earlier mentioned process the only component included out of the three was the core-values.

This in order to clarify the slogan “Never Compromise” to the stakeholders and make them relate to

the brand (Galvin Green Interviewee, 2016). Since only the core value was a part of their story

process, it further strengthens the idea that a story could be created differently and used for a

different purpose, even though it uses the same characteristics.

As discussed by several researchers (Beelitz & Merkl-Davies, 2012; Bozollan, Cho & Micelon,

2015; Frooman, 1999), a story should surround a conflict and in the end of the story, the conflict

should be resolved. This cannot outright be found in The Galvin Green Story, however there is a

resemblance to the conflict in literature, in terms of fighting the weather conditions and the way of

dressing at a golf course at the time. The resolution to the conflict is according to Spear and Roper

(2013) a key element of the story. If applying this to the story, the resolution of the conflict is when

William Alister Galvin Green creates his own clothes that defy the weather conditions without

compromising his game.

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6.2 Zeta

Several researchers (e.g. Delgadillo & Escalas, 2004; Shaw, Brown & Bromiley, 1998; Woodside,

Sood & Miller, 2008) state that the structure of a story should be based on a chronological

presentation. The story of Fernando Di Luca and Zeta tells the audience of how Fernando Di Luca

travels to Sweden in 1961 to present day (Beaconomist, 2015; Falk, 2013; Svensson, 2014; Larsson,

2014; Zeta, 2016), hence it is a chronological story about Fernando Di Luca’s life and how he

moves from Italy to Sweden and the origin of Zeta (Zeta Interviewee, 2016). By combining the

founder with and the organization’s values, the story increase the likelihood of the story’s message

to have a larger impact on the audience (Janssen et al., 2012; Lee & Shin, 2015). Fernando Di

Luca’s story present the organization’s business idea, the organization itself and its culture, thus it is

not solely a story about Fernando Di Luca, it is the story about the organization and the brand (Zeta

Interviewee, 2016). Even though Zeta’s story follows a chronological structure in presenting

Fernando Di Luca, it can be seen that it has a beginning where the story presents a theme and

identity in Fernando Di Luca’s background and thus presenting the actors in both him and Zeta and

the audience in their external stakeholders. Furthermore, a middle part can be detected in that the

story attempts to engage the audience through Fernando Di Lucas background and thus making the

audience relate to the organization’s mission, vision and values that are portrayed through Fernando

Di Luca story. However, since it is a chronological story regarding a person and an organization

that exists, thus the structure indicate that it does not have an end that has been portrayed in theory

regarding a call-to-action and overcoming an adversity.

Several researchers (Denning, 2006; Janssen et al., 2012; Linde, 2009, p. 110) state that by

portraying the founder of the organization, how it was founded and who the organization is, creates

an identity for the organization. Since the organization is family based, it is important that the story

presents the importance of family, community and being together (Zeta Interviewee, 2016). These

features can be seen as Zetas identity that they are communicating through their story. Humle

(2014) states that the organization’s identity is based upon identity stories, which is the story about

Fernando Di Luca and how Zeta wants to convey how easy and uncomplicated it is to cook (Zeta

Interviewee, 2016). The story’s identity and theme is closely connected and the theme should be

related to the organization (Lee & Shin, 2015). The story about Zeta is both a story about Fernando

Di Luca’s journey to Sweden and the origin of the organization (Beaconomist, 2015; Falk, 2013;

Svensson, 2014; Larsson, 2014; Zeta, 2016). It can be seen as the identity and theme is almost the

same thing since they affect each other. The identity of the story is the importance of family,

community and bringing people together and it is portrayed through Fernando Di Luca’s history and

family, hence it is evident that the story’s theme and identity is closely connected.

41

Lee and Shin (2015) argue that the actor in a story is closely connected to the theme, and several

authors state that the organization itself (e.g. Fog, Budtz & Yakaboylu, 2005, p. 36-42; Janssen et

al., 2012; Shaw, Brown & Bromiley, 1998) and the founder of the organization (e.g. Fog, Budtz &

Yakaboylu, 2005, p. 36-42; Janssen et al., 2012; Saylors, Boje & Mueller, 2014) can be the actors

in the story. As earlier stated, the story about Fernando Di Luca is both a personal story about his

background and the origin of Zeta as an organization (Zeta Interviewee, 2016). Therefore, both

Fernando Di Luca and Zeta can be seen as the actors of the story. Furthermore, several researchers

(e.g. Delgadillo & Escalas, 2004; Fog, Bundtz & Yakaboylu, 2005, p. 36-42; Woodside, Sood &

Miller, 2008) place the actor as a hero in the center of the story, which is done in the story about

Fernando Di Luca. The audience will understand the organization, the story should, according to

Woodside, Sood and Miller (2015), look back into the past to present the history from the hero’s

perspective. Zeta’s history is based upon Fernando Di Luca and that the story is presented from

Fernando Di Luca’s point-of-view, to present the hero’s thoughts and feelings, which is in line with

Janssen et al. (2012) discussion about how the founder should be presented in the story. In the story,

Fernando Di Luca is telling the audience about his journey, therefore his thoughts and feelings

along that journey are reflected through the story.

The story is adapted to capture and keep the audience reading the story, hence Zeta are describing

smells and flavors of their products, to make it possible to visualize and feel the taste of their

products (Zeta Interviewee, 2016). Dowling (2006) and Spear and Roper (2013) state that the story

need to adapt towards the audience it is targeting, which is done in the story about Fernando Di

Luca. The story focus on strengthening Zeta’s brand by using Fernando Di Luca as the face of the

organization (Zeta Interviewee, 2016), which is in accordance to the discussion by several

researchers (e.g. Delgadillo & Escalas, 2004; Dowling, 2006; Lee & Shin, 2015; Spear & Roper,

2013) that it improves the brand when targeting an external audience.

Throughout the story, Zeta emphasizes Fernando Di Luca’s passion for food and taste, and that food

is more than just eating to live (Zeta Interviewee, 2016). The story communicates Zeta’s values that

the consumers should live to eat and the story attempts to evoke emotions from the audience.

Gilliam and Flaherty (2015) state that the story can engage the audience by communicating the

organization’s values, which has been done in The Zeta Story. Zeta communicate their values by

historically present the organization’s background which starts when Fernando Di Luca leaves Italy

for Sweden. Van Riel and Fombrun (2007, p. 144) argue that the organization can use its

background to differentiate themselves from their competitors to engage the audience. By using his

background as the story of Zeta, it creates credibility with the external stakeholders (Zeta

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Interviewee, 2016), since the story is true and that Zeta focus on Italy, which differentiates

themselves from competitors that has products from several countries. Janssen et al. (2012) further

state that the story should consist of a unique plot, thus differentiate them, which is done regarding

Fernando Di Luca’s background that is the origin of Zeta. It is evidently similar to both Denning

(2006) and Marshall and Adamic (2010) who argue that the organization’s background creates a

unique brand and that the audience experience the brand based upon the organization’s identity.

Furthermore, Marshall and Adamic (2010) state that by presenting the organization’s background it

can create a relatable and engaging reaction. By presenting an authentic story about the origin of

Zeta through presenting Fernando Di Luca’s background (Zeta Interviewee, 2016) creates an

engaging and relatable reaction that makes it easier for the audience to remember the story, which

can be connected to the ideas of Marshall and Adamic (2010). Gill (2015) state that the organization

creates loyalty towards them if the story connects with the audience and engage with them on a

personal level by presenting the organization’s background. The story does emphasize Zeta’s

passion for food and high quality commodities through Fernando Di Luca’s background, which is

meant to increase the loyalty.

Several authors (Denning, 2006; Marshall & Adamic, 2010; Spear & Roper, 2013) argue that the

story becomes relatable for the audience if the story reflects the organization’s mission, visions and

values. Zeta’s story does present for the audience, through the story, their mission, vision and

values. The story present how Zeta offer their external stakeholders Italian Mediterranean food

products, how their products are uncomplicated, but also the importance of family, community and

togetherness. Furthermore, the story communicates their values in that the audience should live to

eat and not eat to live (Zeta Interviewee, 2016) and this creates a feeling that the whole company is

about that value. Spear and Roper (2013) do argue that by presenting this in a story improve the

organization’s brand. Since their mission, vision and values attempts to create a community and a

feeling of togetherness, it is in accordance with Janssen et al. (2012) argument that the audience

relate to the organization if they become a part of a unique community. Zeta wants that the audience

should take the community and togetherness with them after being presented the story, and the story

strives towards an emotional connection between the brand and consumer since their tagline is

“From a family where food is love” (Zeta Interviewee, 2016). Zeta presents their uniqueness as a

brand and organization in an appealing and evident manner, which, according to Van Riel and

Fombrun (2007), could create a relationship with their external stakeholders.

Gill (2015) argues that the organization can motivate their audience to take action, which in the

story about Fernando Di Luca can be seen through how he leaves Italy for Sweden, since Fernando

43

Di Luca did not wanted to take a job as an accountant. However, this can be seen as a personal call-

to-action for Fernando Di Luca rather than a call-to-action for Zeta’s stakeholders, which is argued

by Gill (2015).

6.3 Fjällräven

The story about Fjällräven has no outspoken structure or construction, however experiences and

intuitions through narratives have been a central part of the story regarding Fjällräven and their

outdoors culture (Fjällräven Interviewee, 2016). The outdoor culture is the base of the story,

following the functionality, which is their core value, of their product Kånken. Fjällräven has

positioned them on the market as an outdoor organization focusing on functionality, which is in line

with Janssen et al (2012) and Lee and Shin (2015). Lee and Shin (2015) state that the story should

portray a specific message, which Fjällräven does regarding that Kånken would solve back issues

(The Fjällräven Story, 2008; Fjällräven Interviewee, 2016; Lindesvärd, 2016). The structure of the

story can also be connected to Levin (2000), who argues that a story should be displayed in the

form of a narrative, and should also be more graphic to clarify the message of the story; which has

been done with Fjällräven since the story was presented in an image (Lindesvärd, 2016). The story

begins with introducing the historical background of Kånken and the issues surrounding the

emergence of the product (The Fjällräven Story, 2008). Then Åke Nordin, the founder and actor, is

introduced to the story as a problem solver to the back issues and his invention Kånken was a

success. However, the product did not solely meet positive reactions, it was also ridiculed due to the

political movements during the time, which is portrayed as the conflict in the story (The Fjällräven

Story, 2008; Fjällräven Interviewee, 2016). In the end, the story present how Kånken and Nordin

overcame the conflict by delivering a product that satisfied the consumers’ need (Barker & Gower,

2010; Boje, 2012; Delgadillo & Escalas, 2004; The Fjällräven Story, 2008; Fjällräven Interviewee,

2016; Fog, Budtz & Yakaboylu, 2005, p. 32-36; Janssen et al., 2012; Levin, 2000; Lindesvärd,

2016; Saylors, Boje & Mueller, 2014; Shaw, Brown & Bromiley, 1998; Woodside, Sood, & Miller,

2008). It can be seen as the story follows the general theoretical structure regarding how the story is

presented, even though there is no outspoken structure of the story. The story has similar

characteristics in its structure when compared to existing theories.

A beginning, middle and end, as presented in the conceptual framework, this can be detected in the

story regarding Fjällräven and Kånken. The story has a clear introduction where it presents the

theme and identity of the story in being a functional product, whilst the actor in Åke Nordin and

hero in Kånken. It has a middle where the story engages the audience in presenting political and

medical connotations, and at the same time it does present the organization’s mission, vision and

44

values which makes it both engaging and relatable for the audience. The end has no call-to-action,

though it has a clear adversity in being called a communist hump and then presenting that the

organization overcame the adversity.

The theme of this story is the origin of Kånken, what happened during the emergence of the product

and how the product was created in its unique manner. This is similar to Lee and Shin (2015) and

Humle (2014) who both argue that the theme should evoke emotions in order to be remembered by

the audience. The story does evoke, to some extent, nostalgic emotions regarding the background of

Kånken and its place in the seventies (Fjällräven Interviewee, 2016). Since the theme of the story is

the origin of Kånken, the theme is closely connected to the identity, which is that Fjällräven is an

outdoor organization that focuses on functionality. This is according Levin’s (2000) argument that

the theme is closely associated with the message. Hence, the message of the story can be seen as

functionality since it is what Fjällräven want to communicate to their audience. In the case of

Fjällräven, the identity is portrayed through how Åke Nordin created the backpack Kånken in order

to solve people's back issues and what made it unique compared to its competitors (The Fjällräven

Story, 2008), the identity of the organization’s brand (Fjällräven Interviewee, 2016). According to

Denning (2006), Janssen et al. (2012) and Linde (2009, p 110) the identity of a story is portrayed

through the organization, how it was founded and how they got to where they are. A central part of

this story is the founder of Fjällräven, Åke Nordin, and his part in the creation of Kånken. It is told

that he observed the debate regarding both the back issues, but also the political discussion and

through this came up with the idea of a new backpack: Kånken (Fjällräven Interviewee, 2016).

Furthermore, Åke Nordin was considered to be a person that followed his own path, he made fast

decisions based on his intuition (Fjällräven Interviewee, 2016). This is reflected in the origin of

Kånken and how it is adapted to solve back issues and Fjällräven’s own identity as a non-trendy

outdoor company focusing on functionality (Fjällräven Interviewee, 2016). The combination

between Nordin and Kånken in the story creates the identity of the story, where Åke Nordin is

portrayed as a pioneer and Kånken is the tangible result of this. This creates an identity of the story

which is similar to the identity discussion Denning (2006), Janssen et al. (2012) and Linde (2009, p

110) have.

The story has two actors in Åke Nordin and Kånken, whereas Åke Nordin is portrayed as the

founder and Kånken can be seen as a hero, this even though Kånken is as well the theme. The main

focus of the story is on Kånken since it is the theme of the story. However, Åke Nordin is portrayed

as somewhat of a pioneer rather than a hero since Nordin invent Kånken and it is the product that

are portrayed as the item that solves the problem. Hence, it is possible to see Kånken as the hero in

45

this story since the hero is in the center of the story and it should center the hero and the quest. This

makes it evident, based upon the story, that Kånken is in the center of the story and the story entails

Kånken’s quest on solving back issues. Beside the hero of the story, Åke Nordin is portrayed as a

clear actor in the story as the founder of Fjällräven and inventor of Kånken (The Fjällräven Story,

2008). A number of researchers (e.g. Janssen et al, 2012; Saylors, Boje & Mueller, 2014; Shaw,

Brown & Bromiley, 1998) argue that the founder should be portrayed as an actor in the story since

it presents the historical background of the organization. The story entail how Nordin started

working on Kånken while following the debate regarding the back issues in Sweden and it follows a

historical review of Kånken and Nordin and their place in society (The Fjällräven Story, 2008).

Hence, the historical aspects that theorists claim to be necessary for a successful story are fulfilled

in The Fjällräven Story. Furthermore, Shaw, Brown and Bromiley (1998) argue that the story

should be presented from the founder’s point-of-view, and the story do, to some extent, present the

historical background of both the organization and Kånken from Nordin’s perspective since he was

interviewed in the creation of the story (Fjällräven Interviewee, 2016). However, the story is not

written with Åke Nordin as the narrator of the story, and not incorporating his thoughts and

feelings, in contrast to what Shaw, Brown and Bromiley (1998) state is essential for a successful

story.

The reason Fjällräven started to work with storytelling was to increase and support their brand

awareness (Fjällräven Interviewee, 2016). Thus making this story adaptable towards an external

audience with the purpose of retain current and attract new customers to Kånken and the

organization as a whole according to several authors (e.g. Delgadillo & Escalas, 2004; Dowling,

2006; Fog, Budtz & Yakaboylu, 2005 p. 30-35; Lee & Shin, 2015; Spear & Roper, 2013). It can be

seen when reading the story that it is adapted for their customers, based on the way it is written,

where the customers’ problem is displayed and a solution to their problem is presented.

To initially engage the audience in the story, Gilliam and Flaherty (2015) state that the values the

organization share with the audience is engaging, and the story present the functionality of Kånken,

which is Fjällrävens core value (Fjällräven Interviewee, 2016). When presenting the functionality of

Kånken, Fjällräven connects with their audience and engage them in their product and story. Gill

(2015) argues that the audience become engaged if the story connects to them on a personal level,

and Marshall and Adamic (2010) state that the organization’s background can make the story

engaging. To engage the audience in the story about Kånken, the story present the background of

the founder, how Kånken was created and its functionality (Fjällräven Interviewee, 2016). This

connects with the audience on a personal level since Kånken solves a problem for the consumer.

46

Furthermore, Van Riel and Fombrun (2007, p. 144) and Gill (2015) discuss how the organization's

background engage the audience and differentiate themselves from competitors. The story focus on

the origin of Kånken and the new innovation that came with it (The Fjällräven Story, 2008), thus

differentiate themselves from their competitors by being innovative and focusing on functionality

(Fjällräven Interviewee, 2016). The story therefore differentiates both the product and the company

from their competitors. Gill (2015) states that imagery and symbolism can create a connection with

the audience, and the story about Kånken does focus heavily upon the imagery and symbolism of

the product and company. Since the title implies to the seventies political movement, the image of a

spine gives different connotations that it is not about politics, instead it is focusing upon the back

issues, it is a Swedish word play, hence engaging. Since the campaign regards a physical distortion,

which gives a medical association, the story focus on positive and negative connotations to become

more convincing (Lindesvärd, 2016). However, the headline of the story gives political associations

and the image of a spine gives medical associations, it becomes engaging in that the audience wants

to have fun. This symbolism is what Gill (2015) argues is important to use to make the story

engaging.

Fjällräven’s goals and visions are presented throughout the story (Fjällräven Interviewee, 2016),

and this is in line with Denning (2006) and Spear and Ropers (2013) discussion about the

importance of including the organization’s mission, vision and values to create a personal

connection. Fjällräven’s core value is functionality and they have two goals: a good product and to

engage them to get out in nature (Fjällräven Interviewee, 2016). The core value and goals is

presented to improve and differentiate the brand from its competitors, and Fjällräven have

distinguished themselves from their competitors by being an outdoor brand that focus on experience

and discovery. Marshall and Adamic (2010) state that the audience remember the story better, and

create a vaster personal connection, if the organization’s history and adversities from the past is

presented (Denning, 2006; Spear and Roper, 2013). There is an evident personal aspect in the story

about Kånken since it is told how it was created, issues leading up to the creation of Kånken and

adversities that followed the launch of the product. The story focusing on solving the back problems

that existed, and then had adversities based upon the political movements during the seventies,

hence creating a unique identity, which makes the audience remember the brand easier. It is in

accordance with Janssen et al. (2012) who argue that an organization's unique identity should be

utilized in order to help the customers relate to the organization.

The story about Kånken becomes relatable and engaging since the audience is told about the

adversity Kånken faces while being called a communist hump. Shaw, Brown and Bromiley (1998)

47

argue that the audience relate to the story if they are told how they overcame an adversity, which is

the situation with the story about Kånken. The story consists of that Kånken was called a

communist hump, hence it became a story about how Åke Nordin overcame adversities, thus

making the story trustworthy and relatable. Spear and Roper (2013) state that overcoming an

adversity is a key element that generates an emotional connection between the audience and story.

In this story, the seventies political movements can be seen as what results in the adversity

(Fjällräven Interviewee, 2016). Due to that the adversity surrounds the political movements during

the seventies, it creates an emotional connection to the story as some consumers lived during that

time.

Denning (2006) writes that the organization should overcome their adversity by satirizing it. By

combining the organization’s identity and humor, thus create a humoristic distance to the

organization and adversity, which show the audience that the adversity is not holding the

organization in a grip (Denning, 2006). The story about Kånken has a central focus on it being

called communist hump due to the political movements during the seventies (Lindesvärd, 2016).

However, since the prejudice still exists, the focuses on the political connotations in the headline do

satirize the political movements during the seventies that were connected to the brand in a

humoristic manner for the audience. Hence, the story shift focus from the political connotations to

the brand and focus on Kånken instead, thus using the strategy Denning (2006) argues for.

6.4 Combined Analysis

In The Combined Analysis presented below, the three stories are combined together and are

discussed and compared to the theories. Finally, a new developed conceptual model is presented.

6.4.1 Structure

Based on the structure of the reviewed stories, it is evident that a story's structure should include a

beginning, middle and an end. Several researchers (e.g. Delgadillo & Escalas, 2004; Janssen et al.,

2012; Levin, 2000; Saylors, Boje & Mueller, 2014; Shaw, Brown & Bromiley, 1998; Woodside,

Sood, & Miller, 2008) argue for a resembling structure as with the structure of the reviewed stories.

However, the different parts should consist of alternative characteristics compared to what previous

research has presented. Even though previous researchers discuss the concepts of chronology and

causality, it can be reflected in the reviewed stories that this is something that is only evident on the

surface. Behind chronology and causality a basic structure can be detected. It is possible to see this

as an updated version of the classical beginning, middle, end structure, which is adapted for external

storytelling.

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6.4.1.1 Beginning

It is evident that the stories consist of a theme, actor and identity, and it can be seen that theme,

actor and identity has a connection and affect each other. Lee and Shin (2015) argue that the key to

a successful theme is the actors and their actions, which is present in the reviewed stories. The

themes in The Galvin Green Story (1998), The Zeta Story (2016) and The Fjällräven Story (2008)

have themes that focus on presenting the organization’s identity. For example, The Fjällräven Story

about the origin of Kånken which present their value, The Zeta Story about Fernando Di Luca who

present the organization’s values and The Galvin Green Story who present William Alistair Galvin

Green who in turn present Galvin Green’s values. These stories have a clear actor who acts as the

stories themes, but the actor also personify the organization’s identity. The foundation of a

successful story is according to several researchers (Denning, 2006; Janssen et al., 2012; Linde,

2009, p. 110) through introducing a theme that represent the organization’s identity.

Furthermore, Lee and Shin (2015) argue that the theme and identity is closely connected, which is

evident in the reviewed stories. Several authors (Denning, 2006; Janssen et al., 2012; Linde, 2009,

p. 110) state that the identity should be based upon the organization’s identity, which in turn can be

portrayed through, for example, the founder or who the organization is. The reviewed stories either

use their founder or whom the organization is to portray its identity for the audience. Lee and Shin

(2015) and Levin (2000) state that it is difficult to present the story without an identity and theme,

and in the reviewed stories it can be seen that the theme and identity is based upon each other, thus

making them closely connected and relying on each other.

The theme and identity is connected to each other through the actors in the stories. It is the actors

who personifies the organization’s identity and sets the theme of the stories. Several researchers

(e.g. Delgadillo & Escalas, 2004; Fog, Bundtz & Yakaboylu, 2005 p. 36-42; Woodside, Sood &

Miller, 2008) state that the actor is portrayed as a hero, whom the story surrounds and the story is

presented from the hero’s perspective. Hence, it can be seen as the actors in the reviewed stories are

the connection between the themes and organizations’ identities. For example, Kånken personifies

Fjällräven’s functionality, William Alistair Galvin Green personifies Galvin Green’s slogan “Never

Compromise” in his eccentric manner and Fernando Di Luca personifies Zeta’s values of family,

community and togetherness. The stories are presented in a manner so the audience experiences the

actors’ feelings, thoughts and developments, which are in line with Delgadillo and Escalas’ (2004)

arguments.

49

It can be seen that theme, identity and actor are not three separate parts that are created individually.

Since the identity of the story is based upon the organization, it can be regarded as the identity is a

reflection of the organization itself and its brand, and since the theme can be considered to some

extent be based upon the identity, the actor becomes the what personifies the organization and the

brand, hence becoming the link between theme and identity. However, the actors are not what make

the stories theme and identity; the actors are a result of the organization and its brand. Hence, it

makes it possible to see that theme, identity and actor rely upon each other since none of the parts

can be presented in a successful manner without the other. This is because the actors are the

storyteller and the connection between audience and the story itself, the theme decide what the

stories are suppose to tell the audience, the identity decide the themes message and the actors

personify the identity through the organization and the brand.

This makes it evident that the beginning of the story can be regarded as a process rather than three

separate parts that are put together since they affect each other. It is possible to see that the story

should create the theme, identity and actor based as a unity rather than individually to successfully

present a story that truly represent the message the organization what to convey. When introducing

the story as a unity with a theme, identity and actor in the beginning, the story will begin with, what

can be considered, a successful fundament for a story, since it will help to make it possible for the

audience to become engaged and relate to both the story and the organization. The beginning is the

foundation in making the story successful, since it sets the premise and without a successful

beginning it is more likely that the audience will not engage and relate to the story and organization,

hence decrease the likelihood of becoming a loyal customer to the organization.

6.4.1.2 Middle

Looking back in history has shown to be an important part when creating a story, meaning that the

story is a retrospective of the organization or brand. For example, in the fictive story about William

Alister Galvin Green, the historical and cultural aspect is a fundamental part to build a background

of the organization. He is portraying their organizational spirit and communicating it to the

audience. This way of utilizing an historical aspect is demonstrated consistently in all the reviewed

stories and even more obvious in the non-fictive stories like Zeta and Fjällräven. The historical

aspect can be regarded as a tool for conveying the mission, vision and values of the organization,

similar to the discussions of Denning (2006), Marshall and Adamic (2010) and Spear and Roper

(2013). There is a lack of discussion regarding how the mission, vision and values are

communicated, however, based on the empirical material gathered, it can be seen that the practical

approach of communicating them is through a retrospective of the organization or brand. There is a

50

consensus among previous researchers (e.g. Gill, 2015; Gilliam & Flaherty, 2015; Marshall &

Adamic, 2010; Spear & Roper, 2013) and the authors of this research that the mission, vision and

values need to be communicated. It is detected in all stories that there is a consistent approach to

present one’s core value through the story, which is the historical approach. Therefore, this could be

argued to be a characteristic in external storytelling for organizations. Based on both previous

research and empirical information, it can be argued that the mission, vision and values should be

presented in the story, and they should be presented in a retrospective.

Even though the mission, vision and values needs to be communicated to the audience in order for

them to connect to the organization, it is also important to have a connection between the story and

the audience (Barker & Gower, 2010; Dowling, 2006; Marshal & Adamic, 2010; Spear & Roper,

2013). The connection with the story is in the reviewed stories done, in accordance with previous

research (Marshall & Adamic, 2010), by making the story engaging and relatable to the audience.

On a deeper level this is done in different manners, by creating a personal or emotional connection.

There is no clear answer as to which should be preferred to the other, it is something that can differ

from story to story. However, either a collaboration of the two, or at least, one or the other should

be utilized in the story. According to previous research engaging and relatable are close but two

different characteristics in storytelling (Barker & Gower, 2010; Dowling, 2006; Marshal & Adamic,

2010; Spear & Roper, 2013). Based on previous research and the reviewed stories, it can be argued

that these characteristics should be unified under a joint concept, with personal and emotional

connection on an item level. Due to the view that engaging and relatable should be unified under a

joint characteristic, the authors suggest that it should be unified under “Captivating”.

6.4.1.3 End

A difference can be detected between theory and the reviewed stories regarding how the stories

should end. Several authors (e.g. Beelitz & Merkl-Davies, 2012; Bozollan, Cho & Micelon, 2015;

Denning, 2006; Frooman, 1999; Janssen et al., 2012; Shaw, Brown & Bromiley, 1998; Spear &

Roper, 2013) argue that the end of a story should consist of a call-to-action and how the

organization overcomes an adversity. However, in the reviewed stories the endings differ from the

theories. The reviewed stories focus rather on summarizing the story and enhancing the

organization’s mission, vision and values presented through the stories themes, identity and actors,

while through this present the organizations’ product. A reason for the difference can be seen as

theory regarding storytelling has historically been focusing internally to improve, for example, the

organizational culture. If this perspective has affected the theory, it can indicate that theory

regarding storytelling has characteristics that are adapted towards an internal context without taking

51

into consideration of an external context. It appears that the reviewed stories have been adapted

towards an external context, without an internal context affecting the characteristics.

Since this research focus on bringing clarity into the characteristics in the external context, it

becomes relevant to focus on the characteristics in the reviewed stories rather than the theory. The

reviewed stories end by summarizing the stories regarding the organization’s mission, vision and

values. However, this has been presented in a slightly different manner than the middle part in the

stories. When, during the middle part, presenting the organization’s background and through that

present the organization’s mission, vision and values, it is discussing it rather than distinctly

summarizing them, which can be seen in the end part of the reviewed stories. Hence, it can be seen

as being more relevant to summarize the organizations’ mission, vision and values presented in the

story to launch the product that is intended to be promoted through the story. The reviewed stories

end in presenting what they intend to sell to their external stakeholders. A reason that the reviewed

stories have used a different approach on storytelling in relation to theory may be since the

reviewed stories intend to sell a product. This indicates that external storytelling focus more on

selling a product, rather than improving the culture surrounding the organization, as with internal

storytelling. What the organization want to sell to their external stakeholders will become the

outcome of the story, hence it becomes important that the summarization is inline with what they

want to sell. Therefore, it is possible to see that the end of the story should present the focus

whereas the summarizing of the organization’s mission, vision and values act as the organization’s

unique selling point. Since there is a lack of consensus in the literature regarding how the story

should end in the usage of call-to-action and displaying how the organization overcome an

adversity, it becomes more relevant to rely upon the empirical information gathered from the

reviewed stories in how the story should end since they appear to have a more distinct consensus.

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7 Conclusion and Contributions

This chapter presents the conclusion of the research, The External Storyselling Model and the

research’s contributions.

7.1 Conclusion Based on this research, it can be concluded that external storytelling for an organization should be

structured with a beginning, middle and an end. The beginning part consists of the characteristics

theme, that introduce the topic of the story; identity, that represent the organization’s identity; actor,

that personifies the theme and identity. The middle part consists of the characteristic captivating,

that portray the organization’s mission, vision and values through a historical retrospective. The end

part consists of the characteristics summarizing, which regards summarizing the organization’s

mission, vision and values, which will introduce the characteristic product. Therefore, The External

Storyselling Model is created based upon these characteristics and the model can be seen in

Figure 2.

Figure 2. The External Storyselling Model (own).

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7.2 Contributions

There is an evident disagreement between researchers regarding storytelling and its characteristics,

which arguably have resulted in that organizations may not use storytelling as efficiently as possible

and to achieve its full potential. Due to this, The External Storyselling Model brings several

contributions to theory. Firstly, the model brings clarity into the inconsistent literature regarding

external storytelling for organizations. Since there is an inconsistency in the literature regarding

storytelling, this research has brought clarity into the characteristics. Secondly, the characteristics

contribute with knowledge regarding storytelling. The research present the characteristics and gives

insight into how to create a story for external storytelling. Thirdly, the characteristics create the

structure for the foundation of The External Storyselling Model. The characteristics of external

storytelling and the structure it creates brings both clarity into the inconsistent literature, as well as a

possibility for organization’s to use storytelling more efficiently to achieve its full potential. Due to

this, the existing research gap within external storytelling has been reduced.

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8 Limitations and Implications

This chapter presents the limitations of the research, managerial implications and future research.

The authors discuss potential weaknesses of the study, practical advices and suggestions for future

research.

8.1 Limitations This research can be limited due to the amount of cases used as empirical data; more cases could

have brought more clarity into the practice of storytelling. The intention was to explore five cases

for this study, however, due to issues with interviewing the responsible for additional stories, a

decision was made to stay at three cases. More cases may have changed the outcome of the study;

nevertheless, the authors’ felt that three cases with full empirical saturation was better than two

additional cases with insufficient empirical material. Furthermore, the stories used in this research

are based upon organizations from Sweden, which can affect the international usability. However, a

majority of the researchers in this study are international, hence it increases the international

usability of the research since the empirical data and a majority of the theories are similar. There

might be differences in how to create stories in various cultures, with cases only based on Swedish

organizations, the outcome of the study might have been biased. Another aspect that may have

affected the study was the type of medium that the story was presented through. The stories in this

study were all written stories, if the stories would have been, for example, communicated through a

video, the conclusion might have been different.

8.2 Managerial Implications The External Storyselling Model gives managers the possibility to use storytelling more efficiently,

which can be done by using the characteristics and the model. First, a theme, identity and actor for

the story will create a beginning that introduces the story to the external stakeholders. Second, by

presenting the organization’s mission, vision and values through the organization’s background will

make the story captivating. Third, by summarizing the earlier presented mission, vision and values

creates the possibility to present the product the organization intends to launch. These

characteristics create the structure for creating a story that is adapted towards external stakeholders.

Hence, The External Storyselling Model should be used as a tool for managers to create stories for

marketing strategies to external stakeholders.

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8.3 Future Research Future research within the field of external storyselling should focus upon extending the

understanding of the characteristics. Firstly, quantitative research should be conducted to measure

and determine a more precise relationship between the different characteristics, additionally to

answer how the relationship affects the characteristics. A more precise determination on the

relationship between the characteristics will bring clarity into their impact on each other. Secondly,

quantitative research should be conducted to extend the understanding for the characteristics of The

External Storyselling Model in how it is perceived by external stakeholders. A quantitative research

including more international cases testing The External Storyselling Model could increase the

generalizability. Thirdly, due to the difference between theory and practice regarding the ending,

research should be conducted to extend the understanding of how a story should end. Research

regarding how a story should end can bring clarity into the characteristics, hence the possibility to

develop The External Storyselling Model.

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Appendix 1 – Interview Guide Table 4. Interview Guide (own).

Q1 How did you structure the beginning of your story?

Q2 How did you structure the middle of your story?

Q3 How did you structure the end of your story?

Q4 How do you portray the organizations identity through the story?

Q5 What makes the audience remember the story/organization?

Q6 How does the story create a bond between the audience and organization?

Q7 How is the hero portrayed in the story?

Q8 How is the founder portrayed in the story?

Q9 How is the organization portrayed in the story?

Q10 How is the story adapted towards the customers?

Q11 How is the story adapted towards the stakeholders?

Q12 How does the story motivate the audience?

Q13 How does the story make it possible to envision the future for the organization?

Q14 How does the story keep the audience loyal?

Q15 How does the story portray the brand?

Q16 What differentiates the organization from competitors through the story?

Q17 What makes this story unique?

Q18 What is the emotional appeal to the audience?

Q19 What personally connect the audience to the story?

Q20 How are the organizations mission portrayed through the story?

Q21 How are the organizations vision portrayed through the story?

Q22 How are the organizations values portrayed through the story?

Q23 What creates a community around the organization?

Q24 How is an organizational change portrayed in the story?

Q25 How does the story portray the organization taking responsibility?

Q26 How is conflict portrayed in the story?

Q27 How is the conflict resolved in the story?

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Appendix 2 – The Galvin Green Story Presented below (Image 1 and 2) is The Galvin Green Story from 1998 in its original design and

language.

Image 1. The Galvin Green Story part 1 (Smålands Reklambyrå, 1998)

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Image 2. The Galvin Green Story part 2 (Smålands Reklambyrå, 1998)