Converging Contexts Across Conversations: An … › wp-content › uploads › ...Converging Contexts Across Conversations: An Introduction to Communication Heather Walter, Elizabeth

Heather L. Walter • Elizabeth E. Graham The University of Akron Kent State University

Converging Contexts Across Conversations:

An Introduction to Communication

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Converging Contexts Across Conversations: An Introduction to CommunicationHeather Walter, Elizabeth Graham

Published by August Learning SolutionsCleveland, OH

www.augustlearningsolutions.com

Cover image: © Rawpixel Ltd/iStock/Thinkstock

© 2017 August Learning Solutions. All rights reserved. This book or any portion thereof may not be reproduced or used in any manner whatsoever, including but not limited to photocopying, scanning, digitizing, electronic storage or transmission, or in any other medium, without the express written permission of [August Learning Solutions or its licensors].

ISBN-10: 1-941626-02-5ISBN-13: 978-1-941626-02-3

Printed in the United States of America 20 19 18 17 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

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iii

Brief Contents

Chapter 1 Welcome to the School of Communication 1

Chapter 2 Introduction to the Field of Communication 9

Chapter 3 Rhetorical and Public Communication 21

Chapter 4 Interpersonal Communication and Personal Relationships 35

Chapter 5 Small Group Communication 59

Chapter 6 Family Communication 81

Chapter 7 Organizational Communication 103

Chapter 8 Intercultural Communication and Cultural Diversity 121

Chapter 9 Mass Communication 141

Chapter 10 Social Media Communication 163

Chapter 11 Film/Video 185

Chapter 12 Journalism 207

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Chapter 13 Public Relations 223

Chapter 14 Health Communication 251

Chapter 15 Careers in Communication 275

iv Brief Contents

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v

Chapter 1Welcome to the School of Communication 1

Media Studies 2

Public Relations 3

Strategic and Organization Communication 3

Academic Resources 6Tutoring Services 6University Libraries 6

Health, Wellness, and Safety 6Student Health Services 7Office of Accessibility 7Emergency Resources 7

Useful Student Services 7Office of Financial Aid 8In-person Assistance with Financial Aid, Registration, and Cashiers 8Laptop Checkout 8Computer Repair Services 8

Chapter 2Introduction to the Field of Communication 9

Introduction 10

Defining Communication 11

Approaches to Communication 12

Models of Communication 12

Communication Contexts 16

Summary 17

Key concepts 18

References 18

Discussion questions 19

Chapter 3Rhetorical and Public Communication 21

Introduction 22

Rhetoric’s Ancient Roots 22Classical Rhetoric 23

Rhetoric’s Current Applications and Future Implications 26

Rhetorician as Public Speaker 27Verbal and Nonverbal Aspects of Public Communication 28

Summary 33

Key concepts 33

References 33


Chapter 4Interpersonal Communication and Personal Relationships 35

Introduction 36

Characteristics of Competent Communicators 38

Empathy 38

Contents

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vi Contents

Defensive vs. Supportive Communication 38Self-Disclosure 40Behavioral Flexibility 41Interaction Management 41

Personal Relationship Theories 42Social Penetration Theory 43Relationship Stage Model 44Social Exchange Theory 48Uncertainty Reduction Theory 49Relational Dialectics Theory 52

Summary 54

Key concepts 54

References 54

Notes 57


Chapter 5Small Group Communication 59

Introduction 60

Why Should You Learn About Small Groups? 61

What Is Small Group Communication? 61

Communication Skills: Communication Competence in Groups 63

Small Group Development 64Forming 64Norming 64Storming 64Performing 65Adjourning 65

Establishing Group Culture 65Norms and Conformity 66Roles 68

Group Cohesiveness 69

Groupthink 69

Leadership in Small Groups 70Early Style Theory 70Transformational Leadership 71

Group Decision-Making and Problem-Solving 72

Group Decision Development 73Technology, Social Media, and Group Communication 74Small Group Conflict 75

Summary 76

Key concepts 76

References 77


Chapter 6Family Communication 81

History 82

Introduction 82

Defining the Family 83Self-Definition of Family 85Families Defined Through Interactions 85Voluntary and Involuntary Family Members 86Literal and Symbolic Boundaries for Families 86Families Evolving Over Time 86

Family Types 87

Expectations of Family Members 87

Couple Types 88

Family and Communication 90

Parent–Child Communication and Creating a Family Identity 91

Sibling Communication 92

Families, Culture, Gender, and the Influence of Technology 93

Families and Gender 93Families and the Influence of Technology 94

Family Communication Theories 94Systems Theory 94Attachment Theory 96

Family Conflict 97

Summary 98

Key concepts 99

References 99


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Contents vii

Chapter 7Organizational Communication 103

History 104

Introduction 104

Key features of Organizational Communication 107

Organizational Culture 108Communication Networks 110

Network Roles 111

Leadership 112Trait Approaches to Leadership 113Styles Approach to Leadership 113

Summary 116

Key concepts 116

References 116


Chapter 8Intercultural Communication and Cultural Diversity 121

History 122

Introduction 123

Theoretical Approaches 127

Summary 136

Key concepts 138

References 138


Chapter 9Mass Communication 141

Short History of Mass Communication 142

Introduction 143

Examining Communication Models for Mass Communication 145

From Emergence to Convergence 146

Mass Communication Theories 148Magic Bullets and Selectivity 148Agenda setting 148Cultivation 150Media Dependency 151Uses and Gratifications 153Media Ecology 154Spiral of Silence 155Social Cognitive Theory 157

Summary 158

Key concepts 158

References 158


Chapter 10Social Media Communication 163

Introduction 164

Social Networking 165

Interaction Orientation 166

Personalization/Customization 166

User-Added Possibility 167

Functions of Social Media 168Identity 168Conversation 169Sharing 170Presence 171Relationships 172Reputation 172Groups 173

Social Media Audiences 174

Social Media Privacy 176

Social Media Evaluation and Metrics 177

Future Social Media Landscape 178Mobile marketing 178Standalone Applications 178Wearables 178Visual Social Media 179

Summary 179

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Key concepts 180

References 180


Chapter 11Film/Video 185

Introduction 186

Two Approaches to Storytelling 188Dynamic Interaction Between the Narrative Elements and the Stylistic Elements 189Narrative Elements 190Style Elements 192

Production Workflows 195

A History of the Motion Picture 196

Film Theory and Criticism 197

Bazin’s Contention with Realism 198

Auteur Theory 198

On the Digital Technology 199

Summary 200

Key terms 200

Note 201

History of films by location 201

References 203

Chapter 12Journalism 207

What Is Journalism? 208

What Do Journalists Do? 209

Journalism History 211

Gatekeeping 213

Agenda Setting 214

Framing 215

Ethics 215

Journalism Today 218

Summary 219

Key concepts 220

References 220


Chapter 13Public Relations 223

Introduction 224

Public Relations in Popular Culture 224

Defining Public Relations 225A Strategic Communication Process 225Mutually Beneficial Relationships 226Organizations 227Publics 227

Identifying Publics: Demographics and Psychographics 228

The Components of Public Relations 228

Public Relations versus Marketing and Journalism 230

Public Relations versus Journalism 230Public Relations versus Marketing 231

The History of Public Relations 231American Independence 232Westward Expansion 232Who’s Your Daddy? Naming the Father of Public Relations 233

Public Relations Theory and Models 235Hunt-Grunig Two-way Symmetrical Model of Public Relations 235Situational Theory of Publics 237Multi-Step Flow and Theories on the Flow of Opinion 238Crisis Communication Theories in Public Relations 239Contingency Theory 240Situational Crisis Communication Theory 241

Public Relations Ethics 243Licensing and Accreditation 243The PRSA Code of Ethics 243

Public Relations Careers 244Positions and Salaries 244Work Environments 245

viii Contents

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Summary 247

Key concepts 247

References 248


Chapter 14Health Communication 251

Introduction 252

Provider-Patient Communication 254

Communication Satisfaction 255Managing Uncertainty in Health Settings 256

Family Caregiver Experiences 257Social Support 257

Cultural Issues in Health Communication 259

Communication in Healthcare: Organizational Perspectives 260

Managed Care 261

Healthcare Teams 261Stress and Burnout 262

Health Communication and the Media 263

Agenda Setting Theory 264Cultivation Theory 265Health Campaigns 265

Technology and Health 266Online Health Information Seeking 267

Health Literacy 268

Summary 268

Key concepts 269

References 269


Chapter 15Careers in Communication 275

Introduction 276

Preparing for the Job 277

Careers 279Career Salaries 281

Summary 283

References 284


Glossary 287

Author Biographies 297

Contents ix

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Welcome to the School of Communication

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Chapter 1

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2 Chapter 1 Welcome to the School of Communication

Dear School of Communication 101 Student,Welcome to the Introduction to Communication 101. We are delighted you have chosen to study and learn with us. We are dedicated to pro-

viding you with the best educational experience possible so that you can thrive in your future careers and life choices. Our school offers students a liberal arts education combined with professional and practical experience to meet the social, professional, and personal challenges of the 21st-century marketplace. We hope you find this course both personally engaging and professionally enriching.

This course is designed to enhance a student’s ability to:

1. Understand the field of communication from an historical, theoretical, disciplinary, and applied perspective.

2. Explain how theories and concepts can be applied to communication problems in various contexts.

3. Trace the development of the field of communication from its early origin to modern day applications.

4. Recognize the possible careers associated with a degree in communication.

5. Appreciate how your major program, minor program, and co- and extra-curricular opportunities (for example, speech and debate, PRSSA, 2380, WZIP, NewsOutlet internship, ZTV) can create a path to a desired career in communication.

6. Practice the skills necessary for improved communication.

This collaborative textbook, written by faculty, alumni, and friends of the School of Communication, is a survey of the field of communication. Introduc-tion to Communication is a new course in our curriculum and it is designed to serve as a foundation for understanding the congruence among the three pro-grams of study in the school, which includes media studies, public relations, and strategic and organizational communication.

Media StudiesThe media studies program is cutting edge and represents the communication environment characteristic of converged media platforms today. Students are introduced to media prin-ciples, theories, and practices. Through classroom instruction, hands-on application, and fieldwork, students explore media from a communicative, technological, management, ethical, and social perspective. Students learn the knowledge and skills necessary to gather information, create content, and design and distribute subject matter for print, audio, video, and digi-tal platforms. Students gain facility with emerging technology tools and learn to become responsible media content develop-ers and information brokers. Media management, the strategic organization and marketing of media content, prepares stu-dents for positions in the management, programming, and the sales side of the industry.

The program trains students to be professionals and to successfully compete in the 21st-century media industry. Students completing this major typically find employment as a broadcast journalist, news analyst, reporters, correspondents, and marketing and business managers for TV, film, radio, and Internet-based media. Students are increasingly finding employment in the business sector as media sales associates and social media marketing specialist.

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Public RelationsAccording to the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics 2014, public relations is one of the fastest growing employment sectors in the United States and abroad. Influenced by the intersec-tion of the information revolution, the proliferation of per-suasion and advocacy campaigns, and the critical need to understand and adapt to the transformative power of social media, public relations students need to be broadly educated. Students develop essential skills—writing across media plat-forms, communicating with internal and external publics, creating promotional tools, organizing special events, idea generation, strategy creation, strategic planning, and visual graphic design. Students learn to be responsible, ethical, and strategic social media users. Coursework is informed by the Public Relations Society of America (PRSA), which promotes an understand-ing of the history, theories, and ethics of communication. Many public rela-tions students participate in the school internship program, which provides an opportunity for students to apply knowledge learned in the classroom to real-world situations.

The public relations program prepares students to serve as communication specialists for profit and nonprofit organizations. Students have established careers as event planners, chief communication officers, campaign strategists, crisis man-agement consultants, and media tacticians in corporations, small businesses, government agencies, and in fields such as sports and entertainment, education, healthcare, and finance.

Strategic and Organization CommunicationHiring agents, business professionals, and healthcare specialists consistently identify communication skills as a singular deter-minant of a student’s personal and professional success. The program in strategic and organization communication equips students with the knowledge and skills necessary to engage in meaningful and consequential dialogues and construct mes-sages and share meanings in face-to-face and mediated environ-ments. Rooted in the rhetorical tradition, students learn to be adaptive thinkers, adept at developing arguments for persuasive purposes and deliberative endeavors. The ability to communi-cate effectively in relationships, the workplace, and in society is at the core of civic engagement and a civil society. Learning to accomplish goals in groups, engage in effective decision-making, assume leadership roles, affect social change, and manage people and relationships in work settings all require a deep understanding and application of communication principles, components that are featured in this program.

The strategic and organizational communication program prepares students to work in many different employment sectors. Whether the goal is to work in a corporate or a nonprofit service industry, the foundational skills learned in this program will equip you to succeed. Students secure positions in training and development, media management, human resources, personnel, customer service, sales, and all levels of management.

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The school is also the home of several co-curricular activities, including the nationally rated student-run radio station WZIP, the Emmy Award winning tele-vision station Z-TV, and the nationally ranked speech and debate team. A recent addition to the school is the Social Media Learning Lab, a place for students to gain hands-on experience with emerging technology tools to learn to become respon-sible new media content developers and information brokers. The lab features the latest in social media management software.

Also, there are several school and university sponsored student groups, which include the Public Relations Student Society of America (PRSSA), the 2380 Film Project, and the student newspaper The Buchtelite. Additional information about the school, faculty, and programs is available at www.uakron.edu/schlcomm.

We wish you a wonderful semester as you embark on the study of communication.

Heather L. Walter, PhD Elizabeth E. Graham, PhD

School of Communication School of Communication

Did You Know . . .Employers list the ability to verbally and nonverbally communicate as the #1 “most desired” quality they are looking for in employees.

Majoring in communication equips you with the skills most requested by employers today. According to a survey conducted by the National Association of Colleges and Employers (NACE) the 10 skills employers are looking for in college graduates include:

Employers Rating of the Importance of Job Candidate’s Skills

Source: Job Outlook 2013, National Association of Colleges and Employers1=Not at all important; 2=Not very important; 3=Somewhat important; 4=Very important; and 5=Extremely important

A degree in communication at the University of Akron provides students with the opportunity to master these skills and more, giving them a competitive edge in today’s job market.

Skill/Quality Weighted Average Rating

Ability to verbally communicate with persons inside and outside the organization

4.63

Ability to work in a team structure 4.60

Ability to make decisions and solve problems 4.51

Ability to plan, organize, and prioritize work 4.46

Ability to obtain and process information 4.43

Ability to analyze quantitative data 4.30

Technical knowledge related to the job 3.99

Proficiency with computer software programs 3.95

Ability to create and/or edit written reports 3.56

Ability to sell or influence others 3.55

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Below you will find the School of Communication’s three programs with requirements. All three areas require the same core, which serves as prerequisites for additional courses. Once you choose your concen-tration, you should complete the required courses within it and have a variety of electives to complete as well. Participation in co-curricular pro-grams (forensics and debate, WZIP, zTV, and the Buchtelite) can account for no more than three credits of the elective requirements.

School of Communication Requirements (39 cr)

Choose concentration

Media Studies Public Relations Strategic & OrganizationalCommunication

Complete core for chosen concentration

Media Studies Electives (choose 9 cr):

Public Relations Electives (choose 9 cr):

Strategic & Organizational Electives (choose 9 cr):

School of Communication Elective (3cr)

7600:101 Introduction to Communication

7600:210 Multiplatform Production

7600:245 Augmentation

7600:348 Communication Research

Choose one of these three: 7600:499 Capstone inCommunication or

7600:485 Honors Project inCommunication or

7600:480 Internship at Senior Level(need 90 credits to qualify)

7600:247 Introduction to the Media Industries

7600:219 Introduction to Public Relations 7600:235 Interpersonal Communication

7600:284 Legal Issues in Media 7600:303 Public Relations Cases 7600:260 �eories of Rhetoric

7600:300 Newswriting Across the Media 7600:404 Public Relations Cases 7600:305 Communication �eory

7600:474 Media �eory 7600:409 Public Relations Strategic Campaigns 7600:600 Organizational Communication

7600:209: Principles of Social Media

7600:303 Public Relations Writing

7600:304 Information Gathering & Editing

7600:309 Public Relations Publications

7600:317 Topics in Media Production(may be repeated with a change in topic)

7600:345 Advanced Presentational Communication

7600:355 Freedom of Speech

7600:368 Basic Audio/ Video Editing

7600:372 Video Production

7600:378 Topics in Media History (may be repeated with a change in topic)

7600:405 Media Copywriting

7600:408 Women, Minoritied and News

7600:437 Training Methods in Communication

7600:487 Advanced Topics in Media Witing(May be repeated with a change in topic)

7600:468 Advanced Audio/Video Editing

7600:475 Political Communication

7600:481 Film as Art

7600:486 Media Management and Leadership

7600:209: Principles of Social Media

7600:309 Public Relations Publications

7600:405 Media Copywriting

7600:406 Advanced Public Relations �eory

7600:450 Special Topics in PR

Any other 7600 course can be used as elective, except 105/106

Co-curricular activities (forensics, WZIP, zTY, & Buchtelite) are limited to a total of 3 credits to be applied to the elective

7600:226 Interviewing

7600:227 Nonverbal Communication

7600:252 Persuasion

7600:325 Intercultural Communication

7600:344 Small Group Communication

7600:345 Advanced Presentational Communication

7600:436 Analyzing OrganizationalCommunication

7600:436 Analyzing OrganizationalCommunication

7600:436 Training Methods in Communication

7600:457 Rhetoric in Contemporary Society

7600:459 Leadership & Communiction

7600:356 Rhetorical Criticism

7600:475 Political Communication

7600:444 Communication & Conflict

7600:450 Special Topics & Conflict

Any other 7600 course can be used as elective, except 105/106

Co-curricular activities (forensics, WZIP, zTY, & Buchtelite) are limited to a total of 3 credits to be applied to the electiveAny other 7600 course can be used as

elective, except 105/106. Co-curricular activities (forensics, WZIP, zTY, & Buchtelite) are limited to a total of 3 credits to be applied to the elective

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Academic ResourcesAdvisingLocation: College of Arts and Science Building (CAS)Telephone: (330) 972-7880Hours: 8:30am – 5:00pm, Monday – FridayWebsite: www.uakron.edu/bcas/academic-advising/

Your academic adviser can help you:

• decide on a major—change a major, add a minor• identify your faculty mentors• understand degree requirements• interpret academic policies• assess progress toward degree completion• select courses• identify course prerequisites• identify career possibilities• explore options for graduate study• identify university resources and programs

Tutoring ServicesLocation: Bierce Library and Polsky BuildingTelephone: (330) 972-7111Hours: 8:30am – 5:00pm, Monday – FridayWebsite: www.uakron.edu/tutoring/

Free tutoring is available for all students. The university has two tutoring cen-ters on campus that provide free assistance to currently enrolled students.

University Libraries Bierce Library

Telephone: (330) 972-5355Hours: 7:30am – 12:00am Monday – Thursday 7:30am – 9:00pm Friday 9:00am – 8:00pm Saturday 12:00pm – 12:00am SundayWebsite: www.uakron.edu/libraries/Subject Librarian: Beate Gersch, PhD Bierce Library, 177C (330) 972-7831

Wayne College Library

Telephone: (330) 684-8789Email: [email protected]: www.wayne.uakron.edu/library/

Health, Wellness, and SafetyThe Counseling CenterLocation: 306 Simmons HallTelephone: (330) 972-7082Hours: 8:00am – 5:00pm, Monday – Friday Tuesdays: 8:00am – 7:00pm during fall and spring Website: www.uakron.edu/counseling/

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Useful Student Services 7

The Counseling Center offers free, comprehensive psy-chological services to current students. A culturally diverse staff of licensed psychologists and doctoral trainees provide psychological counseling and psychotherapy.

Student Health Services Location: Student Recreation and Wellness

Center, Suite 260Telephone: (330) 972-7808Hours: 8:00am – 5:00pm, Monday – FridayEmail: [email protected]: www.uakron.edu/healthservices/

Student Health Services provides students with conve-nient medical care, including the treatment of minor inju-ries. Health Services also provides health education, wellness promotion, and risk reduction programming to students.

Office of AccessibilityLocation: Simmons Hall 105Hours: Monday, Tuesday, Thursday, and Friday, 8:00am – 5:00pm Wednesday, 8:00am – 7:00pmTelephone: (330) 972-7928TDD: (330) 972-5764Email: [email protected]: www.uakron.edu/access/office/

The mission of the Office of Accessibility is to provide students with full access to and the opportunity for full participation in the academic environment.

Emergency Resources The University of Akron Police

Location: 146 Hill St. Telephone: (330) 972-2911TTY: (330) 972-6238Email: [email protected]

Free escort between campus locations is available 24/7.

Akron City Police

Location: 217 South High St. Telephone: (330) 375-2451

• Portage Path Psychiatric Emergency Services Hotline: (330) 434-9144• National Suicide Prevention Lifeline: (800) 273-8255• Rape Crisis Hotline: (330) 434-7273

Useful Student ServicesUA Career CenterLocation: Student Union 211Telephone: (330) 972-7747Hours: 8:00am – 5:00pm, Monday – Friday (evening

appointments are available on request)

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Did You Know . . .The School of Communication offers unmatched opportunities for hands-on media experience.

You can start your career right here in Kolbe Hall and refine your skills by taking advantage of our out-standing co-curricular activities and student organi-zations. We have a state-of-the-art high definition television studio, an award-winning radio station, and extra-curricular opportunities such as 2380, our film club. These hands-on experiences illustrate the connec-tions between theory and practice and help you obtain the skills that you will need to flourish in the media industry. Be sure and visit the media complex on the third floor of Kolbe Hall and see our radio (WZIP-FM 88.1) and TV (Z-TV) operations as well as the Social Media Learning Lab.

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Walk-in Hours: 10:00am – 4:00pm, weekdaysEmail: [email protected]: www.uakron.edu/career/

The career center provides career advising and programming while develop-ing valuable relationships with employers and campus partners to provide stu-dents with ample opportunities for relevant learning and career development and placement.

Office of Financial AidLocation: Simons HallTelephone: (330) 972-7032Email: [email protected]: www.uakron.edu/finaid/

See the Office of Financial Aid for assistance with grants, loans, scholarships, and work study.

In-person Assistance with Financial Aid, Registration, and CashiersLocation: Student Services Center, Simons Hall LobbyHours: Monday, Tuesday, Thursday, 8:00am – 5:00pm

Wednesday, 8:00am – 6:00pm Friday, 9:00am – 5:00pmTelephone: (330) 972-7272Email: [email protected]: www.uakron.edu/ssc

The Student Services Center provides a single location to assist students with services relating to registration, financial aid, and student accounts. These ser-vices include, but are not limited to, adding/dropping classes, reviewing/collecting financial aid documents, explaining tuition/fee charges, and much more.

Laptop Checkout Location: Information Center, first floor of the Student Union Hours: 7:00am – 11:00pm, Monday – Thursday 7:00am – 12am, Friday – Saturday 12:00pm – 11:00pm, SundayTelephone: (330) 972-4636 Email: [email protected]: www.uakron.edu/studentunion/informationcenter

/laptops.dotTo check out a laptop requires a valid Zipcard and a second photo ID.

Computer Repair ServicesLocation: Computer Center 185 Carroll StreetHours: 8:00am – 5:00pm, Monday – FridayTelephone: (330) 972-7626Email: [email protected]: www.uakron.edu/studentunion/informationcenter

/laptops.dotStudents will be charged a $25 fee for repair to personally owned computers.

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