Contrastive linguistics: an introduction

Tadeusz Piotrowski

Contrastive linguistics: what is it?

Contrastive linguistics is the systematic comparison of two or more languages, with the aim of describing their similarities and

differences, focusing, however, on differences, it is predominantly practical.

The term “contrastive linguistics” was used for the first time by Whorf in 1941.

Basics

Form lecture attendance required

Prerequisites knowledge of basic linguistic notions

Textbooks

Fisiak J., Lipińska-Grzegorek M., Zabrocki T., 1978/1987. An Introductory English-Polish Contrastive Grammar

Warszawa: Państwowe Wydawnictwo Naukowe

Krzeszowski T.P., 1984. Gramatyka angielska dla Polaków.

PWN. Warszawa

Willim,E. and Mańczak-Wohlfeld,E., 1997. A contrastive approach to problems with English.

Kraków: PWN.

CL and linguistics

general linguistics theory of linguistics

similarities in languages what is common to all languages in the world

comparative linguistics differences between languages typology of languages

aiming at classification of all languages in the world synchronic or diachronic

CL and comparative linguistics

comparative linguistics contrastive linguistics (CL)

differences (and similarities) between two (usually) languages

contrastive linguistics

differences (usually) between two (usually) languages basis for typological description mainly practical applications

translation foreign language teaching and learning bilingual lexicography (dictionaries)

why differences? it is assumed that the two languages are

similar except for the points described as different

CL in linguistics

the languages being compared can be related Polish and English

or can be unrelated like Polish and Chinese

can be from the same historical period Polish and English in the 20th c.

or can be from different historical periods English and Polish from the 16th and the 20th

c.

CL in linguistics

usually, however, CL is synchronic comparative linguistics

without the historical dimension CL can be

theoretical applied

theoretical CL

gives an exhaustive account of the differences and similarities between two or more languages,

provides an adequate model for their comparison.

applied CL

on the basis of the theoretical framework provided by theoretical CA/CS, gives the researcher the information

necessary to conduct actual contrastive analyses.

CL: terms

contrastive linguistics (or its methods) is also called contrastive studies contrastive analysis interlingual linguistics

the rationale for studying CL

who: prospective teachers of a foreign language

CL and a FL teacher

why: contrastive studies are (were) used as a

means of predicting and/or explaining difficulties of second language

learners with a particular mother tongue (Polish) in learning a particular target language

(English) however, CL does not explain all problems of

foreign language students

CL and a FL teacher

other hypotheses to explain the problems in learning/teaching a foreign language error analysis performance analysis interlanguage studies language awareness studies

these belong to applied linguistics foreign language learnign/teaching

methodology

advantages

it is suggested that when FL learners are made aware of L1:L2

contrasts this makes it easier for them to learn difficult FL structures

L1 interference accounts for some 30% of error.

what to compare

early contrastive studies focused on microlinguistic analysis phonology/phonetics grammar (syntax, inflection) lexis

today there are also contrastive pragmatics

cross-cultural/intercultural pragmatics contrastive rhetoric

what to compare

microlinguistic analysis: examples What are the consonant phonemes in

languages X and Y? How do they differ in inventory, realization, and

distribution? What is the tense system of languages X and

Y? What are the verbs of saying in languages X

and Y?

what to compare

pragmatic analysis: examples How is cohesion expressed in languages X

and Y? How are the speech acts of apologizing and

requesting expressed in languages X and Y? How are conversations opened and closed in

languages X and Y?

this course

mainly practical basic theoretical notions a review of microlinguistic contrasts

how to compare?

what is the basis for comparison? comparison of seemingly related phenomena:

“to compare them would be tantamount to putting ten-ton lorries and banana skins in the same class on the grounds that neither ought to be left on footpaths”.

Carl James (1980). Contrastive Analysis. London: Longman, p :167

how to compare?

object A object B

either have something in common and we can compare them

or do not have anything in common and we cannot compare them

it is arguably difficult to find objects that do not have anything in common but:

God and ...

how to compare?

that something in common is not A is not B is C

C is called Tertium Comparationis (TC)

Tertium Comparationis

what is common in comparison between languages

is probably the meaning of a pair of sentences, in other words, their translation equivalence

translation equivalence

there is one big problem CL

studies the systems of two languages translation is not about systems

it is about texts this is a basic distinction in linguistics

system and text langue and parole competence and performance

translation equivalence

text translation translation of a particular sentence depends on other sentences around it (context) on the function of the whole text

its stylistic level the user of the text

system translation translation of sentences without any context

though the most probable one is used

translation equivalence

Eng.: I loved you.

Pol.: Kochałem kochałam kochałom cię ciebie was Panów Panie Państwa

kochałom: an example

„...to chybam ja się przesuwało dalej i wchodziło w krąg następnego spojrzenia... w miarę postępów [mej wędrówki] powiększałom się i rozpoznawałom siebie...” Stanisław Lem Maska

system and text equivalence

that is why system equivalence can be called

correspondence text equivalence can be called

equivalence

Equivalence/Tertium Comparationis

What is, in fact, equivalence? we know it is based on a Tertium

Comparationis but what use as a TC?

TC: requirements

TC should be external to both languages

a category based on one language has no counterpart

usable for teachers: can be used without extensive

theoretical studies

TC in lexical equivalence

concept

(word) sign- - - - - - - -referent (object)

TC in lexical equivalence

Either referents or concepts can be treated as TCs.

We can reject referents as a TC because, there are no pure references, the very act of distinguishing a referent

depends to a large degree on the relevant language

Engl. finger Pol. palec

TC in lexical equivalence

Concepts can be also rejected. They are not suitably external to any

language an English word has an English meaning a Polish word has a Polish meaning

They are theoretical constructs depending on a language. Other views.

TC

TC should be external to the two languages but it should include them

language use? situation of use of both languages translation is used in situations when both

language are used

situations

"How meaning X is expressed in L1 and L2?„ This is a question based on meaning. This question goes from the vague notion of

meaning, about which there is little theoretical

agreement, goes to two unknowns:

L1 and L2 items. We can say that we have to do with three

unknown objects here.

situations

How else can one find similarities/contrasts in meaning between two languages? "In the situation S, when an expression X is

used by the L2 speaker to speak of Z, what would be the most natural expression Y used by the L1 speaker?".

This does not depend on any theoretical assumptions.

it includes two known entities (S and X), which are used to reach the third entity (Y).

Competent bilinguals can easily answer such questions.

Situations

Situations are either typical of L1 or of L2, and linguistic expressions are included in the

situations, not vice versa. Situations, in turn, cannot be separated from

wider contexts, ultimately from the context of culture.

Situations-applicability

Lyons (1977). Semantics. CUP. a particular lexeme (or expression, or whole

utterance) is applicable (i.e. may be correctly applied) in a certain context, situational or linguistic ...;

it is applicable to individuals or properties of individuals.

We may use the term 'applicability', in fact, for any relation that can be established between elements or units of language ... and entities in, or aspects of, the world in which the language operates.

Equivalence: other types

Tomasz Krzeszowski statistical equivalence system equivalence semanto-syntactic equivalence rule equivalence pragmatic equivalence