CONTENTS

SECTION ONEFoundations

CHAPTER 1An Overview of Our PlanetaryEnvironment 1

Earth in Space and Time 2The Early Solar System 2The Planets 2Earth, Then and Now 3Life on Earth 6

Geology, Past and Present 6The Geologic Perspective 7Geology and the Scientific Method 7The Motivation to Find Answers 8

Wheels Within Wheels: Earth Cycles and Systems 10

Nature and Rate of Population Growth 12Growth Rates: Causes and Consequences 12Growth Rate and Doubling Time 13

Impacts of the Human Population 14Farmland and Food Supply 14Population and Nonfood Resources 15Uneven Distribution of People and Resources 17Disruption of Natural Systems 18Is Extraterrestrial Colonization a Solution? 19

SUMMARY 22TERMS TO REMEMBER 22EXERCISES22SUGGESTED READINGS/REFERENCES 23NETNOTES 23

CHAPTER 2Rocksand Minerals-A First Look 25

Atoms, Elements, Isotopes, Ions,and Compounds 26

Atomic Structure 26Elements and Isotopes 26Ions 27Compounds 27

Minerals-General 27Minerals Defined 27Identifying Characteristics

of Minerals 27Other Physical Properties of Minerals 29

Types of Minerals 30Silicates 31Nonsilicates 31

Rocks 33

The Rock Cycle 35Igneous Rocks 35Sediments and Sedimentary Rocks 37Metamorphic Rocks 39The Rock Cycle Revisited 41

SUMMARY 41TERMS TO REMEMBER 41EXERCISES 42SUGGESTED READINGS/REFERENCES 42N ETNOTES 42

SECTION TWOInternal Processes

CHAPTER 3Plate Tectonics 43

Plate Tectonics-General Principles 44Stress and Strain in Geologic Materials 44Lithosphere and Asthenosphere 45Locating Plate Boundaries 45

Plate Movements-Accumulating Evidence 47The Topography of the Sea Floor 47Magnetism in Rocks-General 49Paleomagnetism and Seafloor Spreading 49Age of the Ocean Floor 49Polar-Wander Curves 50Other Evidence 53

Types of Plate Boundaries 56Divergent Plate Boundaries 56Transform Boundaries 56Convergent Plate Boundaries 57

How Far, How Fast, How Long, How Come? 59Past Motions, Present Velocities 59

60

Why Do Plates Move? 61History of Plate Tectonics 61

Plate Tectonics and the Rock Cycle 64

SUMMARY 64TERMS TO REMEMBER 65EXERCISES 65

VII

CONTENTS

SUGGESTEDREADINGS/REFERENCES 66NETNOTES 66

CHAPTER 4

Earthquakes 67Earthquakes-BasicTheory 70

Basic Terms 70Earthquake Locations 70

Seismic Waves and Earthquake Severity 71Seismic Waves 71Locating the Epicenter 71Magnitude and Intensity 73

Earthquake-Related Hazards and TheirReduction 75

Ground Motion 76Ground Failure 79Tsunamis and Coastal Effects 80Fire 80

Earthquake Prediction and Forecasting 81Seismic Gaps 81Earthquake Precursors and Prediction 82Current Status of Earthquake Prediction 82The Earthquake Cycle and Forecasting 83

Earthquake Control? 84

Earthquake Awareness, Public Response 86Concerns Related to Predictions 86Public Response to Earthquake Hazards 86

Further Thoughts on Modern and Future u.S.and Canadian Earthquakes 86

Areas of Widely Recognized Risk 86

Other Potential Problem Areas 89

SUMMARY 92TERMS TO REMEMBER 93EXERCISES93SUGGESTED READINGS/REFERENCES 93NETNOTES 94

CHAPTER 5Volcanoes 95

Magma Sources and Types 97

Kinds and Locations of Volcanic Activity 98Individual Volcanoes-Locations 98Seafloor Spreading Ridges, Fissure

Eruptions 98Shield Volcanoes 100Volcanic Domes 100Cinder Cones 101Composite Volcanoes 101

Hazards Related to Volcanoes 103Lava 103Pyroclastics 105Lahars 106

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Pyroclastic Flows-Nuees Ardentes 107Toxic Gases 110Steam Explosions 110Secondary Effects: Climate and Atmospheric

Chemistry 110

Issues in Predicting Volcanic Eruptions 112Classification of Volcanoes by Activity 112Volcanic Precursors 112

Response to Eruption Predictions 117Present and Future Volcanic Hazards

in the United States 118Hawaii 118Cascade Range 118The Aleutians 119Long Valleyand Yellowstone Calderas 120

SUMMARY 122TERMS TO REMEMBER 123EXERCISES 123SUGGESTED READINGS/REFERENCES 123NETNOTES 124

SECTION THREESurface Processes

CHAPTER 6Streams and Flooding 125

The Hydrologic Cycle 126

Streams and Their Features 127Streams-General 127Sediment Transport 127Velocity, Gradient, and Base Level 128Velocity and Sediment Sorting and Deposition 128Channel and Floodplain Evolution 129

Flooding 130Factors Governing Flood Severity 130Flood Characteristics 133Stream Hydrographs 134Flood-Frequency Curves 135

Consequences of Development in Floodplains 138Reasons for Floodplain Occupation 138Effects of Development on Flood Hazards 139

Strategies for Reducing Flood Hazards 140Restrictive Zoning and "Floodproofing" 140Retention Ponds, Diversion Channels 141Channelization 141

Levees 143Flood-Control Dams and Reservoirs 144

SUMMARY 146TERMS TO REMEMBER 146EXERCISES 146

SUGGESTED READINGS/REFERENCES 147NETNOTES 147

CHAPTER 7Coastal Zones and Processes 149

Nature of the Coastline 150

Emergent and Submergent Coastlines 152Causes of Long-Term Sea-Level Change 152Signs of Changing Relative Sea Level 154

Coastal Erosion, Sediment Deposition and Transport 155Sand Transport and Beach Erosion 155Cliff Erosion 157

Especially Difficult Coastal Environments 159Barrier Islands 159Estuaries 161

Weather, Climate, and Coastal Dynamics 162Present and Future Sea-Level Trends 162Storms and Coastal Erosion 162

Costs of Construction-and Reconstruction-in

High-Energy Environments 164Recognition of Coastal Hazards 165

SUMMARY 168TERMSTO REMEMBER 168EXERCISES168SUGGESTED READINGS/REFERENCES 169NETNOTES 169

CHAPTER 8Mass Movements 171

Factors Influencing Slope Stability 173Effects of Slope and Materials 173Effects of Fluid 175Effects of Vegetation 175Earthquakes 176Quick Clays 176

Types of Mass Wasting 176Falls 178Slumps and Slides 178Flows and Avalanches 179Scales and Rates of Movements 179

Consequences of Mass Movements 180Impact of Human Activities 181In Harm's Way #1: The Vaiont Dam 183In Harm's Way #2: The Venezuelan Coast 184

Possible Preventive Measures 184

Slope Reduction 185Retention Structures 186Fluid Removal 186Other Slope-Stabilization Measures 187Recognizing the Hazards 189Landslide Warnings? 192

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CONTENTS

SUMMARY 195TERMS TO REMEMBER 195EXERCISES 195SUGGESTED READINGS/REFERENCES 196NETNOTES 196

CHAPTER 9Geology and Climate: Glaciers, Deserts,and Global Climate Trends 197

Glaciers and Glacial Features 198Glacier Formation 198Types of Glaciers 199Movement and Change of Glaciers 200Glacial Erosion and Deposition 201Glaciers as a Water Source 204

Wind and Its Geologic Impacts 205Wind Erosion 206Wind Deposition 208Dune Migration 208Loess 208

Deserts and Desertification 210Causes of Natural Deserts 210Desertification 211Causes of Desertification 212Desertification in the United States 213Global Impact of Desertification 213

Global Climate, Past and Present 213

Evidence of Climates Past 216Ice Ages and Their Possible Causes 217

Climate, Present and Future 219The Greenhouse Effect and Global Warming 219Climate Change Is More Than Global Warming 223Winds and Currents, Climate and Commerce:

EI Nino 223

SUMMARY 226TERMS TO REMEMBER 226EXERCISES 226SUGGESTED READINGS/REFERENCES 227NETNOTES 228

SECTION FOURRESOURCES 229

Resources, People, and Standardsof Living 229

Projection of Resource Supply and Demand 230

CHAPTER 10Water as a Resource 233

The Global Water Budget 234

Fluid Storage and Movement: Porosityand Permeability 234

IX

CONTENTS

Subsurface Waters 235

Aquifer Geometry 236Confined and Unconfined Aquifers 236Other Factors in Water Availability 237

Consequences of Groundwater Withdrawal 238Lowering the Water Table 238Compaction and Surface Subsidence 239Saltwater Intrusion 240

Other Impacts of Urbanization on GroundwaterSystems 240

Loss of Recharge 242Artificial Recharge 243

Other Features Involving Subsurface Water 243Sinkholes 243Karst 243

Water Quality 244Measures of Water Quality 244Hard Water 245

Water Use, Water Supply 245General U.S. Water Use 245Surface Water versus Ground Water as Supply 245

LIVING GEOLOGY BOX 10: What's in the Water? 246

Regional Variations in Water Use 249

Case Studies in Water Consumption 250The Colorado River Basin 252The High Plains (Ogallala) Aquifer System 255The Aral Sea 256

Extending the Water Supply 256Conservation 256Interbasin Water Transfer 257Desalination 259

SUMMARY 260TERMS TO REMEMBER 261EXERCISES261SUGGESTED READINGS/REFERENCES 261NETNOTES 262

CHAPTER 11Soil as a Resource 263

Soil Formation 264

Soil-Forming Processes: Weathering 264Soil Profiles, Soil Horizons 265

Chemical and Physical Properties of Soils 267Color, Texture, and Structure of Soils 267Soil Classification 268

Soils and Human Activities 269Lateritic Soil 269Wetland Soils 272Soil Erosion 272Soil Erosion versus Soil Formation 276Strategiesfor Reducing Erosion 276 .

Irrigation and Soil Chemistry 279The Soil Resource- The Global View 280

LIVING GEOLOGY BOX 11: Unintended Consequences 282

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SUMMARY 283TERMS TO REMEMBER 283EXERCISES 283SUGGESTED READINGS/REFERENCES 284NETNOTES 284

CHAPTER 12Mineral and Rock Resources 285

Ore Deposits 286Definition 286Distribution 286

Types of Mineral Deposits 288Igneous Rocks and Magmatic Deposits 288Hydrothermal Ores 288Relationship to Plate Margins 290Sedimentary Deposits 291Other Low-Temperature Ore-

Forming Processes 292Metamorphic Deposits 293

Mineral and Rock Resources-Examples 293Metals 293Nonmetallic Minerals 294Rock Resources 294

Mineral Supply and Demand 294u.s. Mineral Production and Consumption 294World Mineral Supply and Demand 295

Minerals for the Future: Some OptionsConsidered 299

New Methods in Mineral Exploration 299Marine Mineral Resources 303Conservation of Mineral Resources 303

LIVING GEOLOGY BOX12: What'sitTh a 12"Ounce Can? 305

Impacts of Mining Activities 306Underground Mines 307Surface Mines 307Mineral Processing 309

SUMMARY 310TERMS TO REMEMBER 310EXERCISES 310SUGGESTED READINGS/REFERENCES 311NETNOTES 311

CHAPTER 13

Energy Resources-Fossil Fuels 313Oil and Natural Gas 314

Formation of Oil and Gas Deposits 314Oil and Gas Migration 316The Time Factor 316

Supply and Demand for Oil and Natural Gas 317Oil 317u.S. Oil Supplies 317Natural Gas 318Future Prospects 319Enhanced Oil Recovery 321

Geopressurized Natural Gas and Other AlternateGas Sources 321

Conservation 322

Oil Spills 323

Coal 326

Formation of Coal Deposits 326Coal Reserves and Resources 327Limitations on Coal Use 328Gasification 328Liquefaction 328

Environmental Impacts of Coal Use 329Sulfur in Coal 329Ash 329Coal-Mining Hazards and Environmental

Impacts 329Oil Shale 332

Tar Sand 334

SUMMARY 335TERMS TO REMEMBER 335EXERCISES 335SUGGESTED READINGS/REFERENCES 336NETNOTES 336

CHAPTER 14

Energy Resources-Alternative Sources 337Nuclear Power-Fission 338

Fission-Basic Principles 338The Geology of Uranium Deposits 340Extending the Nuclear Fuel Supply 341Concerns Related to Nuclear Reactor

Safety 342Concerns Related to Fuel Handling 344Radioactive Wastes 344Risk Assessment, Risk Projection 345Concluding Observations 346

Nuclear Power-Fusion 346

Solar Energy 348Solar Heating 348Solar Electricity 350Potential Environmental Impacts of Large-Scale

Commitment to Solar Electricity 351Solar Energy Summary 351

Geothermal Power 352The Geothermal Resource 352Applications of Geothermal Energy 352Environmental Considerations of Geothermal

Power 354Limitations on Geothermal Power 354Alternative Geothermal Sources 355

Summary of Geothermal Potential 355

Hydropower 355

Limitations on Hydropower Development 355Tidal Power 357

Wind Energy 358

CONTENTS

360

Biomass 362Alcohol as Fuel 362

Biogas 363

SUMMARY 363TERMS TO REMEMBER 364EXERCISES 364SUGGESTED READINGS/REFERENCES 365NETNOTES 365

SECTION FIVE

Waste Disposal '

CHAPTER 15

Waste Disposal 367Solid Wastes-General 368

Municipal Waste Disposal 369Open Dumps 369Sanitary Landfills 370Incineration 372Ocean Dumping 372

Reducing Waste Volume 374Handling (Nontoxic) Organic Matter 375Recycling 375

Other Options 379

Liquid-Waste Disposal 379Secure Landfills 380Deep-Well Disposal 380Other Strategies 382

Sewage Treatment 382

Septic Systems 382Municipal Sewage Treatment 383

The Ghost of Toxins Past: Superfund 385Radioactive Wastes 386

Radioactive Decay 386Effects of Radiation 387Nature of Radioactive Wastes 388Historical Suggestions: Space, Ice, and Plate

Tectonics 390Seabed Disposal 390Bedrock Caverns for Liquid Waste 390Bedrock Disposal of Solid High-Level Wastes 391Waste Isolation Pilot Plant (WIPP) 392The Long Road to Yucca Mountain 392No High-Level Radioactive Waste

Disposal Yet 395

SUMMARY 396TERMS TO REMEMBER 397EXERCISES 397SUGGESTED READINGS/REFERENCES 397NETNOTES 398

XI

CONTENTS

CHAPTER 16Water Pollution 399

General Principles 400Geochemical Cycles 400Residence Time 400Residence Time and Pollution 402Point and Nonpoint Pollution Sources 402

Industrial Pollution 403

Inorganic Pollutants-Metals 403Other Inorganic Pollutants 405Organic Compounds 405Problems of Control 406Thermal Pollution 407

Organic Matter 408Nature and Impacts 408Biochemical Oxygen Demand 411Eutrophication 411

Agricultural Pollution 412Fertilizers 412

Sediment Pollution 415Herbicides and Pesticides 416

Reversing the Damage-Surface Water 417Dredging 418Physical Isolation or Chemical Treatment

of Sediments 418Decontamination; Aeration 418

Groundwater Pollution 418The Surface-Ground Water ConnectionExplored 419

Reversing the Damage-Ground Water 422In Situ Decontamination 422Decontamination After Extraction 423Damage Control by Containment-The Rocky

Mountain Arsenal 423

New Technology Meets Problems from the Past:California Gulch Superfund Site, Leadville,Colorado 424

SUMMARY 426TERMS TO REMEMBER 427EXERCISES427SUGGESTED READINGS/REFERENCES 428NETNOTES 428

CHAPTER 17Air Pollution 429

Atmospheric Chemistry-Cycles and ResidenceTimes 430

Costs of Air Pollution 430

Types and Sources of Air Pollution 432Particulates 433Carbon Gases 433Sulfur Gases 434Nitrogen Gases 436Ozone and Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) 437

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Lead 439Other Pollutants 441

Acid Rain 442The Nature of Acid Rain 442Regional Variations in Rainfall Acidity

and Impacts 442

Air Pollution and Weather 447Thermal Inversion 447Impact on Precipitation 449

Toward Air-Pollution Control 450

Air-Quality Standards 450Control Methods 450Automobile Emissions 452Cost and Effect 452

SUMMARY 455TERMS TO REMEMBER 455EXERCISES 455SUGGESTED READINGS/REFERENCES 456NETNOTES 456

SECTION SIX

Other Related TopicsCHAPTER 18Environmental Law 457

Resource Law: Water 457Surface-Water Law 458Groundwater Law 459

Resource Law: Minerals and Fuels 460

Mineral Rights 460Mine Reclamation 460

International Resource Disputes 461Law of the Sea and Exclusive Economic

Zones 461Antarctica 462

Pollution and Its Control 463

A Clean Environment-By What Right? 463Water Pollution 464Air Pollution 465Waste Disposal 465The U.s. Environmental Protection Agency 467Defining Limits of Pollution 468The Canadian Environmental Protection Act 468International Initiatives 469

Cost-Benefit Analysis 470Problems of Quantification 470Cost-Benefit Analysis and the Federal

Government 471

Laws Relating to Geologic Hazards 471Construction Controls 472Other Responses to Earthquake Hazards 472Flood Hazards, Flood Insurance 474Problems with Geologic-Hazard Mitigation Laws 474

The National Environmental

Policy Act (1969) 475

SUMMARY479TERMSTO REMEMBER 479EXERCISES479SUGGESTED READINGS/REFERENCES 480NETNOTES 480

CHAPTER 19

Land-Use Planning and EngineeringGeology 481

Land-Use Planning-Why? 482Conversion of Rural Land 482Some Considerations in Planning 482

Land-Use Options 484Multiple Use 484Sequential Use 484

The Federal Government and Land-Use Planning 485

Maps as a Planning Tool 486

Engineering Geology-Some Considerations 490

The Role of Testing and Scale Modeling 492Case Histories, Old and New 495

The Leaning Tower of Pisa 496

The Panama Canal 498The Rotterdam Subway, Holland 499

Dams and Their Failures 499The St. Francis Dam 500Other Examples and Issues 500

SUMMARY503TERMSTO REMEMBER 503EXERCISES503SUGGESTED READINGS/REFERENCES 503NETNOTES 504

APPENDIX A

Geologic Time, Geologic Process Rates 505Introduction 505

RelativeDating 505Arranging Events in Order 505Correlation 506Uniformitarianism 507

How Old Is the Earth? 507

Early Efforts 507The Nineteenth-Century View 508

CONTENTS

Radiometric Dating 508The Discovery of Radioactivity 508Radioactive Decay and Dating 508Choice of an Isotopic System 509Radiometric and Relative Ages Combined 509

The Geologic Time Scale 510

Geologic Process Rates 511Examples of Rate Determination 511The Danger of Extrapolation 511

SUMMARY 512TERMS TO REMEMBER 512SUGGESTED READINGS/REFERENCES 512

APPENDIX B

Introduction to Topographic and GeologicMaps and Satellite Imagery 513

Maps and Scale 513

Topographic Maps 513Contour Lines, Contour Intervals 513Other Features on Standard Topographic

Maps 513Obtaining Topographic Maps 514

Geologic Maps 515Basic Concepts Related to Geologic Maps 515Interpretation from Geologic Maps-

Examples 517Cross Sections 518Obtaining Geologic Maps 521

Remote Sensing and Satellite Imagery 521Landsat Images and Applications 521Radar Imaging 523Imaging Spectroscopy 523

TERMS TO REMEMBER 525SUGGESTED READINGS/REFERENCES 525NETNOTES 526

APPENDIX CMineral and Rock Identification 527

Mineral Identification 527A Note on Mineral Formulas 527

Rock Identification 528

APPENDIX DUnits of Measurement-Conversions 533

GLOSSARY 535INDEX 541

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