Contents Files/Booksho… · i i ii ii i v x Contents 7 Acknowledgements 409 8 Where to look for further information 409 9 References 409 13 Advances in nutrient and water management

© Burleigh Dodds Science Publishing Limited, 2020. All rights reserved.

Contents

Series list xivAcknowledgements xixIntroduction xx

1 The scope and challenge of sustainable forestry 1Philip J. Burton, University of Northern British Columbia, Canada

1 Introduction 12 The natural resilience of forests 23 The evolution of a concept 44 Multiple interpretations of sustainability 95 Challenges in implementing sustainable forestry 106 Boosting the sustainability agenda 137 Conclusions 188 Where to look for further information 189 References 19

Part 1 Tree physiology

2 Advances in understanding root development in forest trees 25Donato Chiatante and Mattia Terzaghi, University of Insubria, Italy; Gabriella Stefania Scippa, University of Molise, Italy; and Antonio Montagnoli, University of Insubria, Italy

1 Introduction 252 Root turnover 283 Root system architecture 364 Environmental stresses and their effects upon roots 415 Conclusion 446 Where to look for further information 457 References 46


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3 Advances in understanding canopy development in forest trees 59W. Keith Moser, USDA Forest Service, USA; Adam P. Coble, Oregon Department of Forestry, USA; Lea Hallik, University of Tartu, Estonia; Andrew D. Richardson, Northern Arizona University, USA; Jan Pisek and Kairi Adamson, University of Tartu, Estonia; Russell T. Graham, USDA Forest Service, USA; and Cynthia F. Moser, LLC Flagstaff, USA

1 Introduction 592 Physiological processes at the leaf level 613 Physiological processes at the canopy (stand) level 684 Conclusion and future trends 825 Acknowledgements 846 References 84

4 The response of forest trees to abiotic stress 99Tanja G. M. Sanders, Thünen Institute of Forest Ecosystems, Germany; Peter Spathelf, University of Sustainable Development, Germany; and Andreas Bolte, Thünen Institute of Forest Ecosystems, Germany

1 Introduction 992 Abiotic stress in trees 1033 Interaction with biotic stress 1094 Environmental dynamics and the change of stress 1115 Adaptive capacity of trees and forest stands to abiotic stressors 1126 Management options to increase tree and forest adaptation to abiotic

stressors under climate change 1137 Future trends and conclusion 1158 Where to look for further information 1169 References 116

Part 2 Forest ecosystem services and climate change

5 Advances in understanding the role of forests in the carbon cycle 131Matthew J. McGrath and Anne Sofie Lansø, Laboratoire des sciences du climat et de l’environnement, France; Guillaume Marie, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, The Netherlands; Yi-Ying Chen, Academia Sinica, Taiwan; Tuomo Kalliokoski, University of Helsinki, Finland; Sebastiaan Luyssaert and Kim Naudts, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, The Netherlands; Philippe Peylin, Laboratoire des sciences du climat et de l’environnement, France; and Aude Valade, Ecological and Forestry Applications Research Centre, Spain


viiContents

1 Introduction 1312 The importance of forest carbon content 1323 Monitoring forest carbon 1344 Mechanisms driving forest carbon storage 1425 Are forests sources or sinks of carbon? 1476 Carbon management as distinct from climate management 1517 Future trends and conclusion 1548 Acknowledgements 1569 Where to look for further information 156

10 References 157

6 Trade-offs between management and conservation for the provision of ecosystem services in the southern Patagonian forests 177Yamina Micaela Rosas, Laboratorio de Recursos Agroforestales, Centro Austral de Investigaciones Científicas (CADIC), Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas (CONICET), Argentina; Pablo Luis Peri and Héctor Bahamonde, Instituto Nacional de Tecnología Agropecuaria (INTA), Universidad Nacional de la Patagonia Austral (UNPA), Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas (CONICET), Argentina; Juan Manuel Cellini and Marcelo Daniel Barrera, Universidad Nacional de la Plata (UNLP), Argentina; and Alejandro Huertas Herrera, María Vanessa Lencinas and Guillermo Martínez Pastur, Laboratorio de Recursos Agroforestales, Centro Austral de Investigaciones Científicas (CADIC), Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas (CONICET), Argentina

1 Introduction 1772 Provision of forest ecosystem services in southern Patagonia 1853 Developing strategies of sustainable forest management 1934 Forest ecosystem services in a changing world 1955 Where to look for further information 1966 References 197

7 Advances in understanding forest ecosystem services: conserving biodiversity 211Anne Oxbrough, Edge Hill University, UK; and Jaime Pinzón, Natural Resources Canada, Canada

1 Introduction 2112 The impact of forest loss and fragmentation on biodiversity 2123 Tree species diversity, tree species composition and conservation 2144 The impact of clearcutting on biodiversity 2165 The importance of deadwood to forest biodiversity 217


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6 Case study: managing for plantation forest biodiversity in landscapes of low forest cover 219

7 Case study: managing for biodiversity in boreal mixedwood forests – emulating natural forest dynamics 222

8 Summary 2259 Future trends 225

10 Where to look for further information 22711 References 228

8 The impact of climate change on forest systems in the northern United States: projections and implications for forest management 239W. Keith Moser, USDA Forest Service, USA; Patricia Butler-Leopold, Michigan Technological University and Northern Institute of Applied Climate Science (NIACS), USA; Constance Hausman, Cleveland Metroparks, USA; Louis Iverson, USDA Forest Service and Northern Institute of Applied Climate Science (NIACS), USA; Todd Ontl, Michigan Technological University and Northern Institute of Applied Climate Science (NIACS), USA; Leslie Brandt, USDA Forest Service and Northern Institute of Applied Climate Science (NIACS), USA; Stephen Matthews, Northern Institute of Applied Climate Science (NIACS) and The Ohio State University, USA; and Matthew Peters and Anantha Prasad, USDA Forest Service and Northern Institute of Applied Climate Science (NIACS), USA

1 Introduction 2392 Climate projections and their influence on forestland trends in the

medium term—the Northern Forests Futures Project 2413 Methods of projection in the long term: modeling projected changes in

habitat and potential migration 2544 Ecoregional vulnerability assessments 2635 Management implications 2746 Conclusion and future trends 2787 Acknowledgements 2808 References 280

Part 3 Breeding and management

9 Key challenges in forest management 291Donald Grebner, Mississippi State University, USA; and Pete Bettinger, University of Georgia, USA

1 Introduction 2912 Key research 2953 Case study: forest management in North America 3084 Summary 310


ixContents

5 Future trends in research 3116 Where to look for further information 3127 References 312

10 Advances in monitoring forest resource status and trends through integration of remote sensing and ground plots 327Andrew Lister, USDA Forest Service, USA

1 Introduction 3272 Forest inventory information 3283 Remote sensing information 3354 Combining traditional forest inventory and remote sensing information 3415 Constructing a vision for integrating ground and remote sensing data 3446 Future trends and conclusion 3457 Where to look for further information 3488 References 348

11 Transitioning monocultures to complex forest stands in Central Europe: principles and practice 355Hans Pretzsch, Technical University of Munich, Germany

1 Introduction 3552 Even-aged monoculture forests versus selection forests 3583 The transition from monocultures to more complex forest stands 3624 The concept of transformation 3645 A practical example of transformation 3686 Models for scenario analysis 3737 Principles of selection forest management 3798 A practical example of selection forest management 3849 Future trends and conclusion 390

10 Acknowledgements 39211 References 392

12 Species choice, planting and establishment in temperate and boreal forests: meeting the challenge of global change 397Christophe Orazio, European Forest Institute, France; Peter Freer-Smith, University of California-Davis, USA; Tim Payn, Scion and Toi Ohomai Institute of Technology, New Zealand; and Tom Fox, Rayonier Inc., USA

1 Introduction 3972 Developing forest practices: site preparation 3993 Planting, direct sowing and stocking 4004 Fertilization and weed control 4025 Selecting genetic material and planted forest design 4036 Conclusion and future trends 406


x

7 Acknowledgements 4098 Where to look for further information 4099 References 409

13 Advances in nutrient and water management in forestry: monitoring, maintaining, and restoring soil health 413Daniel G. Neary, USDA Forest Service, USA

1 Introduction 4132 Advances in nutrient and water management 4203 Soil quality and health monitoring 4344 Restoring degraded soils 4365 Conclusion 4386 References 439

14 Advances in stand management and regeneration 447Thomas J. Dean, Louisiana State University, USA

1 Introduction 4472 Managing uncertainty and risk with silviculture 4483 Management of multiaged stands 4494 Density management principles 4615 Regeneration 4706 Resilience and recovery of multiaged forests 4737 Conclusion and future trends 4758 Acknowledgements 4779 Where to look for further information 478

10 References 478

15 Innovations in forest harvesting technology 489Woodam Chung, Kevin Lyons and Lucas Wells, Oregon State University, USA

1 Introduction 4892 Technological solutions 4923 Conclusion and future trends 5064 Where to look for further information 5085 References 509

Part 4 Pests, diseases and other hazards

16 Advances in understanding and managing insect pests of forest trees 515Barbara Bentz, USDA Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, USA; Pierluigi Bonello, The Ohio State University, USA; Horst Delb, Forest Research Institute of Baden-Württemberg,

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xi

Germany; Christopher Fettig, USDA Forest Service, Pacific Southwest Research Station, USA; Therese Poland, USDA Forest Service, Northern Research Station, USA; Deepa Pureswaran, Canadian Forest Service, Laurentian Forestry Centre, Canada; and Steven Seybold, USDA Forest Service, Pacific Southwest Research Station, USA

1 Introduction 5152 Advances in understanding and predicting native and invasive

forest insect responses to climate change 5183 Advances in managing for resistance in native and invasive forest

insect systems 5274 Advances in native bark beetle monitoring and management 5295 Advances in defoliator monitoring and management 5366 Advances in invasive species monitoring and management 5397 Case studies 5418 Conclusion and future trends 5539 Where to look for further information 554

10 References 555

17 Advances in understanding and managing fungal and other diseases of forest trees 585Tod Ramsfield, Natural Resources Canada, Canada; and Kathy Lewis, University of Northern British Columbia, Canada

1 Introduction 5852 Tree disease 5863 Tree disease effects 5874 Classification of tree diseases 5895 Parasitic flowering plants 6026 Rust diseases 6047 Tree diseases caused by species of Phytophthora 6068 Abiotic disease 6079 Disease management 609

10 Invasive forest pathogens 61211 Forest pathogens and climate change 61512 Conclusion 61613 Where to look for further information 61714 References 618

18 Advances in managing and monitoring natural hazards and forest disturbances 627John A. Stanturf, Estonian University of Life Sciences, Estonia; Lee Frelich, University of Minnesota, USA; Pablo J. Donoso,

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xii

Universidad Austral de Chile, Chile; and Timo Kuuluvainen, University of Helsinki, Finland

1 Introduction 6272 Characteristics of disturbances and natural hazards 6313 Disturbance regimes of boreal and temperate forests 6464 Disturbance and resilient forest management 6605 Climate heating and the increase of many disturbances 6656 Advances in monitoring disturbances 6667 Conclusion and future trends 6708 Where to look for further information 6719 References 673

Part 5 Developing forest products and services

19 Developing forestry products: timber 719David Nicholls, USDA Forest Service, USA

1 Introduction 7192 The role of solid wood in the emerging bioeconomy 7213 Sustainable timber products: wood product use and carbon

sequestration 7234 Innovativeness in new timber-based products and processes 7295 Meeting global demands for wood and bio-based products 7336 Customization of timber-derived products in an era of globalization 7377 Case study: Scandinavian practices in the timber industry and

forest sector 7408 Future trends 7429 Abbreviations 743

10 Where to look for further information 74311 References 746

20 Sustainable production of temperate and boreal nontimber forest products: examples from North America 755James L. Chamberlain, USDA Forest Service, USA; Christine J. Small, Radford University, USA; and Michelle Baumflek, USDA Forest Service, USA

1 Introduction 7552 Biological components used 7573 Traditional and local ecological knowledge 7604 Production of NTFPs 7625 Needs for sustainable harvest and management 7706 Case studies 7717 Conclusion 778

Contents


xiii

8 Future trends 7799 Where to look for further information 780

10 References 782

21 Emerging technologies to develop new forest products 791Tatjana Stevanovic, Laval University, Canada

1 Introduction 7912 Novel uses of cellulose 7923 Novel uses of hemicelluloses 7944 Novel uses of lignins 7955 Polyphenols from bark 7986 Future trends and conclusion 8007 Where to look for further information 8018 References 802

22 Developing forestry recreation services 807John Daigle, University of Maine, USA

1 Introduction 8072 Visitor experience 8093 Recreation opportunity spectrum 8124 Recreation site planning and management 8155 Visitor use management 8176 Monitoring and assessments 8197 Case study 8218 Summary and future trends 8249 Where to look for further information 825

10 References 826

Index 831

Contents


IntroductionForests deliver both economic benefits and a range of key ecosystem services. This collection reviews current research on optimising their use, from understanding tree physiology and effects of disturbances to improvements in planting, stand management, sustainable logging and product diversification.

Chapter 1 sets the scene by providing an introduction to sustainable forestry. Forests have managed to sustain themselves for millennia, recovering, reorganizing or migrating in response to innumerable disruptions. The chapter focuses on current research in sustainable forestry. It discusses the concept of sustainable forestry and goes on to explore the natural resilience of forests. Further sections address the ways in which sustainability is interpreted and the challenges encountered in its implementation. In later sections, each of the subsequent chapters are referred to in turn, providing an overview of the further content of the book. The chapter concludes with a reflection on what sustainable forestry is and how it may be attained.

Part 1 Tree physiologyChapters in Part 1 cover the physiology of trees in boreal and temperate forests. Chapter 2 reviews advances in understanding root development in forest trees, primarily focusing on root turnover and root system architecture parameters whilst also describing the plasticity of fine and coarse roots. The chapter also highlights how different environmental stressors such as drought and fire can affect the roots and cause various tree responses. It concludes by discussing how important developments in root research can be when planning landscape forest restoration of specific sites.

Moving on to Chapter 3, advances in understanding canopy development in forest trees are discussed. The chapter introduces the reader to physiological processes at the leaf, crown and canopy level. It details the importance of light and water to these processes and highlights the patterns that foliage assumes at all three levels to maximize both carbon uptake and tree performance. The chapter also provides an overview of current research in leaf orientation, leaf clumping and traits acclimation along a canopy light gradient. At the canopy level, the continuous recording of canopy phenology and the eddy covariance method of recording biosphere-atmosphere fluxes are also discussed.

Expanding on topics previously covered in Chapter 2, the final chapter of Part 1, Chapter 4, reviews the responses of forest trees to abiotic stress. The chapter introduces abiotic stress in trees and its interaction with biotic stress. It also examines the link between environmental dynamics and changes in stress. The chapter moves on to discuss the adaptive capacity of trees and forest stands


Introduction xxi

to abiotic stressors, focusing heavily on Adaptive Forest Management (AFM) under conditions of climate change. It concludes by reviewing the available management options to increase tree and forest adaptation to abiotic stressors under climate change.

Part 2 Forest ecosystem services and climate changeThe second part of the book discusses current understanding of the ecosystem services that forests deliver and how they can be balanced with various activities. The first chapter of Part 2, Chapter 5, focuses on advances in understanding the role of forests in the carbon cycle. The recognition that increased levels of atmospheric carbon dioxide are warming the global climate has led to forests being viewed as potential natural ways to reduce carbon dioxide concentrations in the atmosphere. Forests’ complex interactions with local and global climates, however, make predicting the impacts of changes in forest cover and composition challenging. The chapter begins by discussing the importance of forest carbon content and methods of monitoring it. It also describes the mechanisms driving forest carbon storage and explores whether forests should be considered sources or sinks of carbon. The chapter concludes by discussing distinguishes between carbon and climate management.

Moving on to Chapter 6, this chapter reviews trade-offs between management and conservation for the provision of ecosystem services in the southern Patagonian forests. Forests provide critical ecosystem services for human well-being; however, some ecosystem services are more valued (e.g. provisioning services) than others (e.g. regulating or supporting services). Temperate regions contain several forests affected by humans, mainly with regard to ecosystem services and biodiversity. The chapter focuses on Nothofagus forests in southern Patagonia, analysing potential trade-offs between ecosystem services and biodiversity and how new silvicultural approaches multi-objective management at the landscape level. It also reviews forest ecosystem service characterization, the provision of forest ecosystem services in southern Patagonia and developing strategies of sustainable forest management. The chapter concludes with an overview of forest ecosystem services in a changing world and that future proposals will require fewer trade-offs and will promote positive synergies within the provision of ecosystem services.

Chapter 7 discusses advances in understanding forest ecosystem services, focusing on conserving forest biodiversity. Forest biodiversity is fundamental to ecosystem functioning, facilitating processes such as nutrient cycling, pollination and seed dispersal. A healthy forest provides a range of economic, societal and cultural values and services beyond timber production, including recreation, carbon sequestration, ecotourism, landscape aesthetics and the intrinsic


Introductionxxii

value of biodiversity to society. Despite this, forest biodiversity remains under increasing pressure from agricultural conversion and intensive, large-scale, yield-driven forest management approaches. The chapter reviews the impact of forest loss and fragmentation on biodiversity, then goes on to discuss tree species diversity, composition and conservation. The chapter also highlights the impact of clearcutting on biodiversity and the importance of deadwood to forest biodiversity. It concludes by providing two case studies on managing forest biodiversity in contrasting biomes: managing forest biodiversity in landscapes of low forest cover, a case study from temperate plantation forestry in Ireland; and, managing forest biodiversity by emulating natural ecosystem dynamics, a case study from boreal mixedwood forests in Canada.

Moving on to the final chapter of Part 2, Chapter 8 focuses on the impact of climate change on forest systems in the northern United States. This area is both the most heavily forested and most densely populated quadrant of the region. Forests in the region cover 69.6 million hectares, or 42 percent of the land area. Chapter 8 characterises mid- and long-term projected climate change impacts for trees and forests of the region. It also provides ecoregional vulnerability assessments and management implications of climate change on forest systems. The chapter concludes by emphasising how important it is for natural disturbance or anthropogenic activities such as biomass harvesting to increase, because unless this changes the current middle-aged forest cohort will continue to age with time.

Part 3 Breeding and managementPart 3 of the book reviews improvements in breeding and sustainable forest management techniques. The first chapter, Chapter 9, reviews key challenges in forest management. Forest managers face many challenges, both now and in the future, driven by society’s need as well as by the impacts dictated by the threat of climate change. Growing populations will also strain the forest’s ability to provide traditional products sustainably while catering to the growing demands for ecosystem services not previously and explicitly managed for across forested landscapes. The chapter provides an overview of current and pending threats and challenges forest managers face around the world. It reviews current and future concerns in forest management such as climate change impacts, changing land use and ecosystem services. Key research areas of climate change impacts, urbanization/forest fragmentation and ecosystem services are also discussed. The chapter concludes by providing a case study on forest management in North America, putting the importance of forest management into perspective.

The next chapter, Chapter 10, focuses on advances in monitoring forest resource status and trends through integration of remote sensing and ground


Introduction xxiii

plots. Information derived from monitoring the status of and trends in forest resources is a critical tool for policymakers, managers, and other environmental decision makers. Advances in forest monitoring technology, particularly in the use of remote sensing, have helped deliver higher quality information in a timelier manner than in the past. The chapter provides background information on the practical and statistical principles behind both ground-based and remote sensing-based forest management and monitoring, provides historical context for each, identifies information gaps and practical challenges, and proposes solutions for harmonizing the two sources of information. This is emphasised through the use of a hypothetical forest management case study which is aimed at providing a conceptual framework for forest managers that seek to design forest monitoring systems.

Moving on to Chapter 11, the transitioning of monocultures to forest stands in Central Europe is discussed. The high expectations placed on forests in Europe require an integrative approach to forest management. Heterogeneous mixed-species stands are of special interest as they fulfil many ecosystem services better than monocultures, and consequently homogenous forest stands are now often transformed into more heterogeneous stands. The chapter contrasts even-aged monoculture forests and selection forests, describing the transition from monocultures to more complex forest stands. It also presents practical examples of transformation and models for scenario analysis and explains the principles of selection forest management.

Chapter 12 focuses on species choice, planting and establishment in temperate and boreal forests to meet the challenge of global change. The chapter provides a discussion of the current issues for most of the key processes of forest establishment. It also provides information on planting, direct sowing and stocking, as well as reviewing the importance of fertilization and weed control. It reviews how choosing genetic material can influence plantation forest establishment. The chapter concludes by confirming that more knowledge and accurate decision support is needed and that new resilience strategies are required for successful forest establishment.

The subject of Chapter 13 is advances in nutrient and water management in forestry, with a focus on monitoring, maintaining and restoring soil health. A number of important advances in nutrient and water management in forestry have been made since the middle of the 20th century to maintain and improve soil health. Many concerns have been expressed about the sustainability of forestry operations with intensification of management and harvesting disturbances and the occurrence of natural disturbances. The chapter begins by providing an overview of forest soils and natural disturbances that can affect forest soil development. It moves on to discuss advances in nutrient and water management and provides a section on soil quality and health monitoring. The


Introductionxxiv

chapter also reviews how degraded soils can be restored and how although the process is expensive, it is key to maintaining the health of forest soils.

Moving on to Chapter 14, the chapter focuses on advances in stand management and regeneration. Multiaged forests are thought to have the redundant structure to withstand changing disturbance regimes expected with future climate scenarios. The chapter describes methods for deciding how to control stand density in multiaged silviculture at both the stand level and the individual tree level, as well as providing an analysis of current density management principles. It also examines stand regeneration and the resilience and recovery of multiaged forests.

The final chapter of Part 4, Chapter 15, provides an analysis of innovations in forest harvesting technology. Forest harvesting is an essential component of sustainable forestry to ensure the maintenance of forest productivity. Increasing demand for forest product quantity and quality, shifting forest workforce composition and expectations, and rising environmental concerns are driving changes in current forest harvesting practices. New research and technologies are transforming conventional forest practices in order to improve sustainability. The chapter reviews the use of electric low-emission log trucks, cable assisted timber harvesting, lightweight teleoperated (remote controlled) felling machinery, automation, machine vision and precision technologies. These research areas hold great promise for improving forest worker safety and sustainable management of forest sites and vegetation. The chapter also acknowledges how these forest technologies require substantial development for practical applications, and concludes by discussing how research can further innovate such forest harvesting technologies.

Part 4 Pests, diseases and other hazardsThe fourth part of this volume reviews ways of managing insect and fungal pests as well as natural hazards in boreal and temperate forests. The first chapter of Part 4, Chapter 16, focuses on advances in understanding and managing insect pests of forest trees. Boreal and temperate forests comprise half of all forested land globally and are a major source of timber and other ecosystem services. Disturbances caused by native and invasive insects are among the most important mediators of forest mortality. The interacting effects of climate change on insects and trees coupled with increasing arrival rates of invasive insects are creating management challenges and uncertainty. The chapter begins by reviewing information and key issues for predicting climate change effects and for managing native and invasive forest insects that are considered pests in such forests. It also covers observed and predicted responses of forest insects to climate change, genetic variability and tree resistance screening mechanisms for tree breeding programmes, integrated biological control


Introduction xxv

strategies for directly reducing native and invasive forest insect population spread and growth and indirect tactics for maintaining forest stand conditions that reduce susceptibility to insect attack. It concludes by providing five case studies that highlight recent strategies being applied to mitigate forest insect-caused tree mortality.

Chapter 17 discusses advances in understanding and managing fungal and other diseases of forest trees. Forest diseases are caused by pathogens and they affect all parts of the tree, including roots, stems and leaves. Forest diseases result in volume losses and decreases in wood quality, which are considered detrimental in stands managed for timber products; however, in the context of a biodiversity reserve, diseases are important for nutrient cycling and habitat creation as agents of succession. The chapter uses a case-study approach to describe how various forest pathogens affect trees and introduces strategies to reduce damage caused by forest pathogens in managed stands. It introduces parasitic flowering plants, rust pathogens, diseases caused by Phytophthora spp., as well as abiotic disease. The chapter discusses the importance of exotic forest pathogens and the damage several of these pathogens have caused to ecosystems following their introduction, establishment, and spread. It concludes by discussing how climate change might change host-pathogen interactions, leading to differences in disease expression.

The final chapter of this section, Chapter 18, focuses on managing and monitoring natural hazards and forest disturbances. These are increasingly critical endeavours as proliferating pests and diseases, changing frequency and intensity of wildfires, windstorms, and invasive species and increases in ungulate herbivory are causing novel responses. The chapter begins by describing the characteristics of natural and anthropogenic disturbances and focuses more specifically on disturbances of boreal and temperate forests, with a particular emphasis on hurricanes as an example of multiple disturbance processes. It also reviews how many forest disturbances will increase in frequency and/or intensity due to climate change. The chapter concludes by highlighting how monitoring forest conditions and detecting changes are necessary to develop early warning systems for predicting disturbances and especially natural disasters.

Part 5 Developing forest products and servicesThe final Part of the book assesses sustainable ways of developing and diversifying forest products, including novel uses of timber and non-timber products and recreational services, as well as reviewing emerging technologies to develop new forest products. Chapter 19, the first chapter of this concluding section, reviews methods of developing timber products. Timber products


Introductionxxvi

can include a wide array of socially valued goods originating from diverse tree species, forest types, and ecosystems. Over the past few decades, forest product market development and timber quality have been characterized by several important factors, many of them international in scope. The chapter reviews the role of solid wood in the emerging bioeconomy and how it is an essential component of the forest product market. It goes on to discuss sustainable timber products in terms of wood product use and carbon sequestration, as well as highlighting new timber-based products and processes. The chapter also emphasises the importance of meeting global demands for wood and bio-based products, and how the customisation of timber-derived products can help to meet consumer needs in an era of globalisation. It concludes by providing a case study of Scandinavian practices in the timber industry and forest sector, as well as providing potential areas for future research.

Chapter 20 provides examples of sustainable production of temperate and boreal non-timber forest products from North America. Understorey plants and fungi are critical to healthy and resilient forest ecosystems, and many of the products they provide are essential to people for sustenance and income. However, nontimber forest products, and the plants and fungi from which they originate, are seldom included in forest management. Most are harvested from natural populations, with potential for negative impacts at multiple ecological scales. The chapter introduces sustainable use of non-timber forest resources and describes methods for assessing product inventory and recovery. It goes on to explain how traditional and local ecological knowledge is important in understanding how people steward the resources and production of non-timber products, with implications for sustainable management. The chapter also provides three detailed case studies of North American edible and medicinal forest species.

The next chapter, Chapter 21, focuses on emerging technologies to develop new forest products. It reviews new processes and applications of wood polymers, notably the use of lignins. The chapter also considers the three major biopolymers: cellulose, hemicelluloses and lignins. The chapter focuses particularly on polymers – especially lignins – as the wood constituents which are the richest carbon sources of all lignocellulosic polymers, as well as the most important aromatic polymers on earth. It also reviews how polyphenols can be obtained from bark, which are compounds with very specialized functions and structures.

The final chapter of the book, Chapter 22, reviews developing forest recreation services. A high percentage of individuals participate in outdoor recreation, and as regions around the world continue to experience population growth there correspondingly will be increased demand for recreation services. Quality in such recreation can be defined as the degree to which recreation opportunities provide the experiences for which they are designed and


Introduction xxvii

managed. Therefore, key to protecting the recreation experiences in certain areas is an understanding of the different aspects of the visitor experience and recognizing which of these are important to visitors. The chapter begins by providing a general introduction on recreation and is followed by a section on visitor experience. It then reviews the concept of the recreation opportunity spectrum, as well as recreation site planning and management, visitor use management and monitoring and assessment. The chapter concludes by providing a case study on the development of recreation services on privately owned forestlands in the United States.

http://dx.doi.org/10.19103/AS.2019.0057.01© Burleigh Dodds Science Publishing Limited, 2020. All rights reserved.

Chapter 1The scope and challenge of sustainable forestryPhilip J. Burton, University of Northern British Columbia, Canada

1 Introduction 2 The natural resilience of forests 3 The evolution of a concept 4 Multiple interpretations of sustainability 5 Challenges in implementing sustainable forestry 6 Boosting the sustainability agenda 7 Conclusions 8 Where to look for further information 9 References

1 IntroductionThe wild and managed forests of Earth are remarkable for the many ecosystem services they generate, and on which humanity and other forms of life depend. A forest’s productive and regenerative potential also makes it the paragon of a renewable natural resource. This potential, if carefully assessed and harnessed, provides the foundation for the conservation of forest values in perpetuity.

Forestry is the management of tree-dominated ecosystems to promote selected values. It is an ancient practice, an applied science and an inherently human-focussed activity. In other words, forest management is ultimately the management of human activities with respect to forests. Forests and the trees that characterize them developed long before the human species came into existence, they have fluxed and waned with changing climates and have recovered or re-organized themselves after numerous natural disturbances. Forests have persisted without us, but we often manipulate them because we have particular expectations of them. It can be argued that our interaction with forests is essentially self-centred, whether that is to harvest natural resources or to protect vistas and species that we deem valuable. In much of the world, ‘forestry’ is equated with wood production and harvesting, an unnecessarily narrow definition that is contextualized below and elsewhere in this volume.

The scope and challenge of sustainable forestry The scope and challenge of sustainable forestry

The scope and challenge of sustainable forestry2


Similarly, it must be emphasized that logging is not forestry: mere resource extraction is not management if it isn’t conducted within a framework of stewardship and consideration for future values.

Sustainability is the ability of a system or an attribute to persist. In the context of natural resources and environmental services, sustainability implies that resources will not be depleted and that the natural environment will not be degraded. The discipline of scientific forestry was one of the first to devise a formal approach to assure sustainable resource production. Yet the concept of sustainability can be complex and nuanced, especially when it comes to the multiple expectations we place on systems as diverse and important as forests. Some of these alternative perceptions are discussed below, while subsequent chapters more fully explore recent developments and options in support of the goal of managing forests sustainably.

2 The natural resilience of forestsAll the tree species found today are the products of millions of years of evolution and adaptation. The assemblies of plants, animals, fungi and microbes associated with those trees – forest ecosystems as we know them – have taken shape over several thousand years. Neither the species nor the ecosystems can be considered permanent, but trees as a growth form and forests as ecosystems are incredibly persistent wherever the climate is suitable. The climatic envelope for temperate forests is loosely defined as being between 3°C and 20°C mean annual temperature and between 550 mm and 3400 mm of mean annual precipitation. Boreal or taiga forests are found where mean annual temperatures range from −6°C to 4°C and mean annual precipitation falls between 350 mm and 1500 mm (Whittaker, 1975, p. 167). Within those zones, as in most tropical moist climates, the land ‘wants’ to grow trees, as the competitive and selective advantages are so great for plants to position their photosynthetic apparatus above that of competing plants, and this typically requires leaves supported from woody branches and sturdy wooden trunks. Shade-loving plants, cavity-nesting birds and wood-decaying mushroom species tag along on the shirt tails of the dominant life form, with different combinations of species finding their optimum expression under different climates, topographic positions and soils to make up thousands of distinctively different forest types around the world.

Yet forests and the evolutionary sculpting of their component species are not just the products of climatic constraints. Depending on the location, forests can be subject to a wide range of physical disturbances, including volcanic eruptions, landslides, floods, windstorms, fires and heavy snow loads. Biotic pressures can sometimes build to outbreak proportions too, killing many trees and changing the composition and structure of forests over wide areas as a


The scope and challenge of sustainable forestry 3

result of insect defoliators, bark beetles, fungal pathogens or high levels of vertebrate herbivores – many of which prey upon particular tree species or genera and are thus more selective than many abiotic disturbances. Collectively, the characteristic combination, frequency, event area, and severity of biotic and abiotic disturbances are described as a forest’s natural disturbance regime (Runkle, 1985). Every natural forest type is thus the product of evolutionary (long-term) and ecological (recent) selection for traits jointly tolerant of the climate, the terrain and the natural disturbance regime.

Because of the pervasive role of disturbances – at one scale and frequency or another – in all forests of the world, and the long history of natural selection, forest species are generally adapted to persist after disruptions characteristic of the natural disturbance regime under which they developed. Where fire is a characteristic part of the landscape and part of the evolutionary backdrop, we often see thick-barked tree species (such as Pinus maritima in southern Europe, P. ponderosa in western North America) that are able to survive all but the most intense fires; other species protect their seeds in serotinous (such as P. contorta) or semi-serotinous (as in Picea mariana) cones, with the seeds released by high temperatures quickly regenerating a recently burnt forest stand (Johnson, 1992). Insect outbreaks and fungal epidemics typically kill a particular species or size of tree, allowing the survivors to take up the newly available resources and fill the recently vacated space (Flower and Gonzalez-Meler, 2015). Some strategies, such as the ability to resprout vegetatively after the aboveground portion of a plant is killed, constitute a generalist adaptive strategy that can allow an individual plant to recover after fire, herbivory, landslide or flood. Seed dispersal traits, often in the form of winged or plumed seeds for wind dispersal, or in the form of attractive or adhesive fruits for animal dispersal, assure species persistence elsewhere even if they cannot persist in place. The shifting combination of species that dominate a forest site after disturbance is expressed in the phenomenon we recognize as ecological succession (Prach and Walker, 2011). Even where species turnover is limited, forest recovery after natural disturbances usually goes through recognizable stages of stand initiation or regeneration, crown closure and self-thinning, maturity and the development of canopy gaps due to the scattered death of mature trees, and (if allowed sufficient time) a self-maintaining old growth stage in which most trees originate in gaps rather after stand-level disturbance (Oliver and Larson, 1996).

But forests are not infinitely tolerant of or resilient to the disruptions that nature or humankind throws at them. Climate shifts associated with continental drift, mountain building and glaciation have resulted in the displacement of boreal and temperate forests for millennia. With many species persisting in refugia or colonizing from other less-affected forest types, forests have remarkably re-occupied suitable habitat in a few thousand years wherever



climate was suitable (Pielou, 2008). When fires are too frequent, forest land may revert to steppe or tundra vegetation (Jasinski and Payette, 2005). Where mammalian browsing pressure and human foraging for wood is too intense, forests can be degraded to scrub or even desert, as has happened at low elevations in much of the Middle East and around the Mediterranean basin (Vogt et al., 2007; Sands, 2013). Forests exposed to any novel disturbance – such as exotic invasive species, acid precipitation or ionizing radiation – will inevitably go through a period of reaction and adjustment in which sensitive species are lost and others gradually take their place according to their tolerance to the new stress as well as the other background environmental factors and disturbance regime.

3 The evolution of a conceptHumankind has been using wood for fuel and to construct homes and boats since time immemorial. History documents many examples of forests being depleted and lost as human populations rise, not only in response to the demand for wood, but as more and more forest land is cleared to support agricultural production (Sands, 2013). People also have depended on forests to provide non-timber forest products, ranging from edible fruits and mushrooms to bark used for tanning leather and habitat for wildlife hunted for food. As empires grew and industrial development progressed, forests have been exploited for navies and war machines, to provide timbers for mine supports, and to provide fuel for industrial processes such as ceramic production, glass making and metal smelting. When human populations have temporarily declined as a result of plagues or wars, forests have typically recovered on their own over one or two centuries. Even without logging or cultivation, however, the grazing and foraging of domestic livestock (goats, cattle, swine) and browsing by wild ungulates have often constrained forest regeneration and recovery (Sands, 2013; Innes, 2017).

Fuelwood and timber shortages often prompted local authorities to issue decrees to curtail tree felling and wood gathering; in Europe, such restrictions are documented as far back as the fourteenth century (Innes, 2017). Efforts to assure future supplies of desired wood products are expressed through a history of tree planting, thinning and coppicing that extends into antiquity. Medieval nobles and monarchs from China to England also established forest reserves that were off limits to the population at large, and were protected (often with brutal consequences) and managed for wild game, for the hunting pleasure of the aristocracy. While these early efforts at forest conservation represent the birth of forest management, they also epitomize some of the tensions in sustainable management that persist to this day. Where access to forest resources is limited, those tensions are twofold: first, that protecting forests for



future use or enjoyment sacrifices desired uses or profits today (Maser, 1994) and secondly, that there are conflicts between centralized (governmental or industrial) control and the desire of local populations for customary access to harvest desired levels of wood, wild meat and other forest products (Innes, 2017).

In the face of widespread deforestation and timber shortages, the revolutionary concept of sustained yield timber management evolved in central Europe in the eighteenth century. Forest managers realized that it was not enough to simply curtail timber harvesting and forest conversion in an ad hoc manner, but that consideration of the overall forest extent and its rates of tree growth and regeneration would allow the estimation of a level of timber harvesting that could – in theory – continue in perpetuity. This principle of Nachhaltigkeit (as the sustainability principle was originally articulated in German) remains at the core of sustainable forest management around the world today (McDermott et al., 2010; Schmithüsen and Rojas Briales, 2012). Simply put, harvesting is limited and silviculture (the regeneration and manipulation of forest stands) is promoted so that the volume of wood harvested in a given management area over a specified period of time does not exceed the amount of wood grown in the same area over the same time period (Fig. 1). Its objectives can be met at two different scales: either by maintaining the size structure within an uneven-aged stand so that an abundance of seedlings, saplings and pole-size trees is there to replace the harvesting of mature trees; or by maintaining the age structure of even-aged stands across a forest estate

Figure 1 Under sustained yield forestry, timber losses and consumption must be balanced by equivalent (or greater) levels of timber gains through tree growth and regeneration.



as a whole so that younger stands are there to replace the harvesting of mature stands. While these different management approaches have spawned debates over the value of continuous-cover forestry and the use of clearfelling, their appropriate implementation also depends on the size of a forest holding, its management objectives and the silvics (ecophysiological properties) of desired tree species. It can be argued that both approaches merely represent ends of a continuum defined by gap size and forest edge effects, with trees under an uneven-aged management regime harvested in small canopy gaps, and those harvested by clearfelling leaving large gaps in the forest matrix (Coates and Burton, 1997).

Sustained yield forestry was widely adopted on both public and private lands in the northern hemisphere and many European colonies in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. Often focused on rebuilding timber supplies after wars and other causes of over-cutting, this priority typically resulted in forest transformations from diverse slow-growing native broadleaf species to a few fast-growing (often exotic) conifer species. With its emphasis on fibre production and strict regulation of tree cutting and the need to assure regeneration success, control was not limited to logging, but often included the exclusion of grazing and recreational use, and a general erosion of traditional rights to the commons (Innes, 2017). Expanding acknowledgement of the multiple values of forests and the legitimate rights of various forest users led to the development of ‘multiple use’ policies in the United States and other temperate jurisdictions in the 1960s. Backlash from rural and Indigenous communities in tropical regions eventually led to the development of a ‘community forestry’ movement in the 1970s, a concept now adopted in temperate and boreal regions as well, in order to assure better local control over the timber and non-timber benefits of nearby forests (Charnley and Poe, 2007; Gilmour, 2016). The many roles of forests as embraced under the multiple-use and community forest paradigms include the protection of wildlife and fish habitat, the provision of fodder and grazing opportunities, watershed protection and accommodation of recreational activities. In many cases, however, where forest access development and other interventions are undertaken by industrial or government managers intent on commercial wood production, these other roles and values are grudgingly tolerated as constraints, rather than being actively promoted.

The next major steps in the evolution of forestry are associated with a broader societal adoption of the principles of sustainability; indeed, it can be argued that the principle of Nachhaltigkeit and sustained yield forestry spawned the concept of sustainability in general (Kuhlman and Farrington, 2010). Following the coining of the term ‘sustainable development’ by the World Commission on Environment and Development, there is now widespread expectation that interventions in the natural world and investments in human enterprises should ‘[meet] the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future



generations to meet their own needs’ (WCED, 1987). Sometimes considered an oxymoron or a politically negotiated compromise (Hauhs and Lange, 2000), the sustainable development mandate nevertheless recognizes the global limits to growth earlier highlighted by the modelling efforts of the Club of Rome (first released in 1972; Meadows and Randers, 2004), and the need for humanity to steward the planet’s resources. Sustainable development is often portrayed through the metaphor of a three-legged stool supported equally by pillars of ecological integrity, social acceptability and economic viability (Kidd, 1992). More recent interpretations acknowledge that the economy is a subset of society, both of which are nested within and dependent upon a healthy and productive environment (Fig. 2; Giddings et al., 2002), and that the overriding tension is really between societal consumption and nature’s capacity to generate resources (Kuhlman and Farrington, 2010). In the context of forest management, the sustainable development mandate dictates that sustainable forests are not enough, but that sustainable forest communities and sustainable forest enterprises are also necessary ingredients in any recipe for sustainable forestry.

The United Nations Conference on Environment and Development, held in Rio de Janeiro in 1992, resulted in several documents (since endorsed by most nations on Earth) that promoted and advanced concepts of sustainable forestry. Those documents included an overarching set of 27 principles for sustainability (Agenda 21), commitments to save endangered species and their habitats (Convention on Biological Diversity), recognition of the effects of anthropogenic climate change and the potential role of forests in carbon sequestration (Framework Convention on Climate Change) and commitments to combat deforestation and to sustainably manage forest resources under a set of Guiding Principles on Forests (Burton et al., 2003). The promises and aspirations articulated at Rio then spawned several efforts to operationalize sustainability principles into a series of criteria and indicators that could be used to gauge and certify sustainable forest management policies and

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 2 Alternative graphic portrayals of the required components and priorities for sustainable development: (a) the classic Venn diagram that portrays sustainable development, S, at the intersection of ecological integrity, social acceptability and economic viability; (b) an alternative portrayal of economic considerations as a subset of social priorities which in turn depend on a healthy environment; (c) the Costanza et al. (2014) pyramid in which a vigorous economy depends on resources from the natural environment and which is necessary to support social well-being and equity as ultimate goals.



practices. Prompted by consortia of environmental non-governmental organizations, forest products companies and national governments to counteract widespread public protests and boycotts, several certification processes were devised to recognize sustainably produced wood and paper products (Nelson et al., 2003). Those certification criteria, as devised under the Helsinki Process (1993–98) and the Montreal Process (1995–97), endorse the need to maintain productive forests, to protect biodiversity, to protect soil and water, to recognize the contribution of forests to global carbon cycles and to generate socio-economic benefits under appropriate legal and institutional frameworks. These guiding principles now constitute the basis for ‘sustainable forest management’ (SFM) in many boreal and temperate countries. The SFM paradigm has also been interpreted as extending the sustained yield concept beyond its timber production origins to include all forest values (Adamowicz and Burton, 2003; Higman et al., 2005).

Following the Rio+20 world summit held in 2012, the United Nations adopted 17 Sustainable Development Goals to be implemented from 2015 to 2030. These goals implore all humankind to live within planetary limits, share in a living economy and experience a fair distribution of those benefits (Costanza et al., 2014; see http: //www .undp .org/ conte nt/un dp/en /home /sust ainab le-de velop ment- goals .html ). Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 15, in particular, calls upon all nations to protect, restore and promote sustainable use of terrestrial ecosystems, sustainably manage forests, combat desertification, halt and reverse land degradation and halt biodiversity loss (Costanza et al., 2014). Sustainable forestry policies and practices are needed to harvest timber without permanently damaging the world’s forests, to guide reforestation and afforestation, and to protect forest-dependent wildlife and other forms of biodiversity. It is clear that forests also have a role to play in providing reliable supplies of clean water for human use (SDG 6) through watershed protection. Biomass production in forests also constitutes one of mechanisms for meeting SDG 7, which calls for affordable, reliable and sustainable energy.

Sustainable forestry arguably is positioned to contribute to all 17 of the UN SDGs. For example, by providing meaningful employment in forest planning, harvesting and renewal, and in processing, transporting and marketing wood products, the forest sector provides decent work and contributes to economic growth (SDG 8). With forestry activities often taking place in dispersed and rural locations which often have no other economic activities, the sector also serves an important role in poverty reduction (SDG 1). The wood harvesting and processing industries are constantly innovating, improving efficiencies and releasing new products based on renewable sources of wood fibre (SDG 9). This contributes to their role as responsible producers (SDG 12), with the use of wood in construction contributing to sustainable cities and communities (SDG 11). Forests are increasingly used as the setting for solace and recreation,

http://http://www.undp.org/content/undp/en/home/sustainable-development-goals.html

http://http://www.undp.org/content/undp/en/home/sustainable-development-goals.html



contributing to good health and well-being (SDG 3). Forest protection, afforestation and prompt regeneration contribute to carbon sequestration and the slowing of climate change (SDG 13). Sustainable and progressive policies in forestry have the potential to lead the way in other SDGs as well. On the other hand, there can be trade-offs and constraints in the pursuit of all SDGs (Nilsson et al., 2016); forests and forest sector investments often must compete with other land uses (e.g. agriculture) and economic sectors (e.g. industrial development) that also contribute to achieving the SDGs.

4 Multiple interpretations of sustainabilitySustainability may be a near-universally accepted goal of modern society, but its interpretation and assumptions vary with every attempt at application. At its simplest, the problem reverts to a question of what resources or values, in what geographic arena, should be sustained? Even though the time horizon is notionally ‘in perpetuity’, what period of time constitutes a sufficient window for making projections and assumptions – is a decade enough, or even a century? Because we do not want to ‘save ‘or ‘sustain’ everything found in the world around us today (including current levels of degraded habitats, pollution, disease and crime), the choice of priorities and their indicators become a value-laden decision. Interpretations of an ideal sustainable world are shaped by cultural history and experience at individual and community levels (Fien and Tilbury, 2002). An underlying tension between the three legs of the three-legged sustainable development stool can be seen in most claims to sustainability, which often favour one of environmental protection, social justice or economic opportunity over the other legs on which we as a society must depend if the Brundtland vision is to be achieved (WCED, 1987).

Some of the key concepts around which sustainability theory, planning and implementation are built include intergenerational equity, perceptions of wealth or values, and the degree to which different values or resources can be considered substitutable (Adamowicz and Burton, 2003). But it may not be enough to assure a diverse, healthy and productive future for one’s descendants – intergenerational equity – if those benefits and opportunities are not equally accessible around the world now and in the future. It can be considered irresponsible and elitist if insufficient attention is paid to the ‘social’ pillar of sustainability, and as long as poverty and deprivation exist within a community, a nation and around the world. For example, it could be argued that many high-income nations maintain high levels of protected and sustainably managed forests on the backs of timber imports from other countries where forest management is unsustainable (Busa, 2013).

In the long run, decisions implemented in the face of social disparity can foreseeably be expected to fail, for poverty, inequality, injustice and exploitation



will inspire the underprivileged to disrespect those decisions and plans. At an international level, these situations lead to further disrespect for conservation initiatives and can result in unregulated migration by the desperately poor. People inevitably differ in their conceptions of what is valuable, and whether wealth is interpreted in terms of monetary returns, biological diversity or breadth of recreational and personal development opportunities. This means that the trade-offs necessary in implementing any one sustainability plan will always be unacceptable to one stakeholder or another, because they do not see their values being sustained at the levels desired. Such challenges, though ultimately global in scope, must be addressed by every forest manager with respect to the land and communities for which s/he is responsible. It remains an ongoing challenge for economies, corporations and forest management plans to fully internalize (i.e. account for and fairly pay for) all the external impacts and considerations in their supply chains.

One of the greatest discrepancies in how to implement sustainability can be interpreted as a debate over where policy should aim along the spectrum from ‘weak’ to ‘strong’ sustainability. Strong sustainability denotes an emphasis on the conservation of natural capital, with assumptions that many aspects of that wealth (e.g. rare species, primeval forests) cannot recover or be substituted for once they are lost. Weak sustainability, on the other hand, seeks to conserve the overall capital, including built or human and institutional wealth as well as natural resources, and assumes that development, technology and innovation can substitute (or are a fair trade) for the loss of some natural resources (Turner, 1993; Kuhlman and Farrington, 2010). These options are nicely illustrated in the discipline of sustainable forestry, where a strong sustainability emphasis in parks and protected areas demands that managers limit human activities to the fullest extent possible, whereas the development of an industrial or multiple-use forest perceives value in using the revenue from old-growth harvesting to develop a road network and efficient plantations, with the intent of effectively substituting intensively managed second-growth stands for the less productive but greater-volume old-growth forest. So policy makers and the managers they hire have to be quite clear on the management objectives and priorities for any given holding (Noss, 1993): is it sustainable forests (in the strong sense of all-aged ecosystems and all the biodiversity they support), or simply sustainable wood volume production, or sustainable forest management – a spectrum of values including biodiversity, non-timber products, recreation, a viable timber enterprise and community well-being?

5 Challenges in implementing sustainable forestryDespite being an enshrined principle of responsible forestry for centuries, and even while the concept is being adopted by other sectors of society, it has been



challenging to implement and demonstrate sustainable development in the context of operational forest management. Such challenges are understandable for a number of renewable resources – such as wild fish stocks that are difficult to track and annual agricultural crops that are sensitive to vagaries of a single season’s weather – but why should it be difficult to manage forests sustainably, when trees and forests are long-lived, stationary and can be readily counted and measured? (Townsend, 2008, p. 190).

Even if trying to simply achieve sustainable fibre (timber) production, one dimension of the problem is that the key elements of wood supply sustainability depend on estimation. Many key parameters and coefficients inherent to wood supply projections and allowable harvest determinations are fluid: estimates of growing stocks, growth rates and regeneration delays; and losses to pests, fires and storms are all subject to error and uncertainty. Year-to-year variation in weather conditions, seed crops and small mammal populations can affect regeneration success (Savage et al., 1996; Kitajima and Fenner, 2000). Tree growth and mortality rates also vary with weather and weather events, and can depend on conditions of stand structure and inter-tree spacing that may be imperfectly characterized and understood. Timber losses to disturbance events – wildfires, windstorms, mass movements, floods, pest outbreaks – can be particularly difficult to anticipate; planning that depends on historical averages can grossly overestimate or underestimate impacts. With climate becoming more variable and disturbances more frequent under the effects of anthropogenic climate change, traditionally used forest yield models are becoming less reliable (Monserud, 2003).

As if those biophysical challenges weren’t enough, socio-economic and technological aspects of wood production present even more intractable challenges to sustainability. Oak woodlands historically nurtured to support shipbuilding lost value when ships were instead made of steel (Innes, 2017). The wisdom of planting or promoting one species or group of tree species over another is subject to the whims of market demand, as well as to the vagaries of species-specific outbreaks of native and invasive insect and fungal pests. Many forests reserved or planted for timber are now seen to have more value for amenity purposes such watershed protection, wildlife habitat and recreation, and so are protected from harvesting; this then requires adjustments to the rate of cut that can be sustained elsewhere in the forest estate. Growing human populations and ballooning real estate values mean that considerable forest land and timber production potential is lost to exurban sprawl and residential development, putting further pressure on the timber lands that remain (Drummond and Loveland, 2010). Globalized trading patterns are often able to offset regional differences in fibre supply and demand, but these are sometimes disrupted by tariffs and other trade barriers reflecting the politics of the day. Forest interventions (i.e. forestry and forest restoration) require financial



investments, for which there are always alternatives: capital moves worldwide; land may be more valuable for agriculture or residential development; public funds are often diverted to health, education, infrastructure and defence. As forest products enterprises become increasingly concentrated in large, international corporations, investment capital is also increasingly mobile and fickle. Businesses undertaking sustainable wood production that protects the environment, have broad social support, and are economically viable can still be abandoned when profits aren’t high enough.

The greatest challenge in implementing sustainable forestry is probably in achieving agreement on precisely what should be sustained, over what area of land, and with what priority to rank the forest values that inevitably conflict (Aplet et al., 1993; Wiersum, 1995; Oliver, 2003). If diverse stand compositions and multiple canopy layers are desired to support avian biodiversity, for example, this may be compatible with non-motorized recreational activities, but at some cost to maximum conifer wood production. Conversely, productive plantations may offer the best opportunity for rapid carbon sequestration, but may have little value for old-growth-dependent vertebrates and lichens. Sometimes a representative balance of these values can be sustained over a sufficiently large landscape through zoning and explicit resource-emphasis management in different zones. This still begs the question of how much land should be allocated to each resource emphasis (each value), and every such allocation decision is subject to our uncertainty as to ‘how much is enough’ (Tear et al., 2005). In general, the larger a land base available under a given management plan or policy regime, the better the prospects for sustainability of individual values and for the sustainability of net value to society. But large holdings often result in an unbalanced distribution of activities, so that some sites and some local activities bear the brunt of impacts that are clearly not sustainable at a local scale. For example, a village may face damaged vistas, fuelwood shortages and compromised wildlife habitat after rapid industrial logging in easy-to-reach traditional use areas, even though all those values may be sustainable over the geographic and temporal scope of the entire area being managed.

Forestry and its tradition of sustained yield also come with some undesirable baggage that is difficult to jettison or reform. Many forest management policies call for ‘maximum sustained yield’ and an ‘even flow’ of timber to sustain mills and forest-dependent employment and rural communities. Maximized yields demand management as close as possible to the feasibility frontier of decision-making, a frontier that is frequently overstepped when disturbances strike or the investment climate changes. The even-flow requirement may inspire a more conservative level of harvesting and assumptions about production, but ignores the event-driven sensitivity of forest ecology, business decision-making and politics. Sophisticated analysis of forest management systems has sometimes pointed out these vulnerabilities, but the response is often



to attempt a greater level of command and control, a philosophy of natural resource management with innumerable failures (Holling and Meffe, 1996) and which inevitably inspires protests and backlash from local citizenry. The ultimate irony is that we see examples of forest practices that are in place to make forests follow the assumptions of the models and systems we use to make management decisions, rather than doing the hard work required to make our models and decision-support systems better match the real world.

6 Boosting the sustainability agenda6.1 Learning by doing

There are many documented examples of temperate and boreal forests being successfully managed for long periods of time, even in the face of the many challenges outlined above. These include planted European forests that have generated multiple generations of timber with limited evidence of any decline in yields over time (Evans, 1999). The plantation wood production model has been successfully exported around the temperate world, and is found, for example, in pine (Pinus spp.) plantations in Australia, Chile, New Zealand, South Africa and the US Southeast, as Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii) plantations in Europe and the US Pacific Northwest, and as Chinese fir (Cunninghamia lanceolata) plantations in China. Other native forests subject to extensive management (e.g. in eastern Canada) seem to have recovered naturally after being logged or even cultivated (e.g. in the New England states of the United States) a century or more ago, and are once again delivering commercial quantities of timber. Success at sustainable wood production with shorter regeneration delays and shorter rotations has depended on access to sufficient forest land, soil conservation, the planting of nursery-grown seedlings, tree breeding programmes, the control of unwanted vegetation and forest pests, making the more accelerated or intensive forms of forestry dependent on external factors such as publically funded research, the availability and cost of labour, petroleum fuels, chemicals and so on. As noted above, these dependencies on external inputs and subsidizations may not meet everyone’s criteria for sustainability.

Whether sustainably produced wood and paper products fully meet our modern definitions of sustainable forest management varies on a case-by-case basis. Even mono-specific planted forests provide habitat for some associated plant, animal and fungal species, and provide watershed protection during the bulk of a rotation (Bauhus et al., 2010). Assessments of the status of various sustainability indicators developed in the wake of the Rio Summit and the Montreal and Helsinki Processes are now being performed on individual management plans (or forest estates) and individual forest policies (at corporate, state or national levels), and are reflected in sustainability certificates and progress reports (Chandran and Innes, 2014). The desirability


Index

1 × 1-degree assessment 256–257, 263

Abiotic stress 100–101, 103, 112–115adaptive capacity and forest stands

112–113environmental dynamics and 111–112interaction with biotic stress 109–111management options to increase

adaptation 113final stage 115initial stage 113–114intermediate stage 114–115

overview 99–103in trees 103

chemical stress 108–109mechanical stress 107–108temperature stress 103–105water stress 105–107

Acclimation 26–27Acid deposition 109Acoustics 532Active-dormancy cycles 40Active sensor tools 336–337Acute lesions 109Adaptation Workbook 276Adaptive Forest Management (AFM) 113,

116‘Additive’ effect 214Adenosine triphosphate 67Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometer

(AVHRR) 335Aerial-based LiDAR 667Aerial photography 337Afforestation 9, 132, 134, 142, 148,

151–153, 220AFM. see Adaptive Forest Management

(AFM)Agro-forest ecosystems 184Air pollution 109

All-terrain vehicles (ATVs) 821Annual cankers 596Anthropogenic disturbances 417–418Appalachian Regional Reforestation

Initiative 269Armillaria mellea 250Armillaria root rot 250Atmospheric carbon dioxide 131–132, 134,

144–145, 147Atmospheric circulation models 138Atmospheric inversion models 141Atmospheric radiation budget 133Atropellis canker, lodgepole pine 598–599ATVs. see All-terrain vehicles (ATVs)Australia 424, 434Autotrophic respiration 139AVHRR. see Advanced Very High Resolution

Radiometer (AVHRR)

BAL. see Basal area of larger trees (BAL)Bark beetles 302–303Basal area of larger trees (BAL) 466BCFSC. see British Columbia Forest Safety

Council (BCFSC)Beavers 639Big-leaf model 70Biochar 431–432Bio-composites 17Biodiversity conservation and ecosystem

services 226–228clearcutting impact 216–217deadwood importance 217–219forest loss and fragmentation

impact 212–214managing boreal mixedwood

forests 222–225managing plantation of low forest

cover 219–222overview 211–212

Index832


and tree species composition 214–216Bioengineering stabilization techniques 38BIOFOREST project 220Biofuels 17Biogenic volatile organic compounds

(BVOCs) 133, 134, 151, 154Biogeochemical models 142Biological control, insect pests 532–533Biometric methods (BM). 136Biophysical structures 182Biotic interactions 182Biotic stressors 101, 103, 109BLUE model 141–142BM. see Biometric methods (BM).Bonn Challenge 408‘Bottom-up’ approach 155Brazil 437British Columbia Forest Safety Council

(BCFSC) 491B. thuringiensis var. kurstaki 537, 547Business cluster 730BVOCs. see Biogenic volatile organic

compounds (BVOCs)

Cable-assistance technology 495Calvin-Benson cycle 67‘Campo dei Fiori’ 43Canaan Valley Institute 269Canadian Global Circulation Model 242Canker disease, tree stem and

branches 596–600Canopy development 83–84

ecosystem physiology and eddy covariance method 75–76

derived quantities and applications 80–81

global perspective 81half-hourly to interannual time

scales 76–78limitations and uncertainties 81–82seasonality of CO2, water, and energy

fluxes 78–79foliage clumping and leaf

orientation 63–66leaf acclimation along light gradient

66–68overview 59–63, 68–72phenology 72

long-term observations and camera-based networks 74–75

PhenoCam approach 73transition dates 73–74

Canopy structure 60, 63–64, 69–71, 83, 144Carbon compartmentation 26Carbon cycle, forests role in 135, 142, 157

carbon contentinteraction with climate 132–133policies regarding storage 133–134

and climate management 151–154future forest carbon sink 149–151human activities in ecosystem

models 156LiDAR sampling of tree biomass 155mechanisms

anthropogenic disturbances 146–147ecological and physiological

drivers 142–144environmental drivers 144–146natural disturbances 146

modeling 30monitoring 134–135

carbon assimilation 135–136carbon loss 139–140carbon storage 138–139forest area change 140–141forest biomass 136–138net carbon flux 141–142

operational frameworks 154–155overview 131–132recent global forest sink 147–149sampling networks 155–156

Carbon emission 134–135Carbon fixation 67Carbon sequestration 9, 12, 26–27, 134,

142, 150, 154, 194, 311Carbon starvation 105–106Carbon storage 134, 138, 147, 151Cascading effect 632CCD. see Charge Coupled Device (CCD)CCF. see Continuous cover forestry (CCF)CCI. see Chlorophyll carotenoid index (CCI)Cellulose nanocrystals (CNCs) 794Central Appalachians Climate Change

Response Framework 266Central Appalachians Forest Ecosystem

Vulnerability Assessment 269Central Appalachians Spruce Restoration

Initiative 269Centre for International Forestry Research

(CIFOR) 228Charge Coupled Device (CCD) 31Check method 454Chinese privet. see Ligustrum vulgareChlorophyll 67


Index 833

Chlorophyll carotenoid index (CCI) 73Chlorosis 109CIFOR. see Centre for International Forestry

Research (CIFOR)Circus cyaneus 220CIS. see Contact Image Sensor (CIS)Cleveland Metroparks (CM) 274Climate change 9, 11, 17, 18, 26, 41, 104,

111, 132, 196, 269, 311Climate change and forest systems in

northern United States 279ecoregional vulnerability

assessments 263–265adaptive capacity 265–266in Central Appalachian

mountains 266–268climate-informed restoration and

Lambert Run Demonstration Project 268–270, 272

impacts 265Lake Erie Allegheny Partnership for

Biodiversity (LEAP) 272–274management implications 274, 276–278modeling projected changes in habitat

and potential migration 254–256Chequamegon-Nicolet NF

assessment 256–257, 263DISTRIB-II projections 256

overview 239–240projections in Northern Forests Futures

Projectmedium-term projections

results 244–249modeling process 241–243precipitation and its effects on oak

health 249–254Climate Change Response Framework 264,

268, 276Cloud computing 337, 338CLRTAP. see UNECE Convention on Long-

range Transboundary Air Pollution (CLRTAP)

CLT. see Cross-laminated timber (CLT)CM. see Cleveland Metroparks (CM)CNCs. see Cellulose nanocrystals (CNCs)CO2 fertilization 148Coastal forests 638Codes of Forest Practice 434Coefficient of variation 331–332Cogongrass. see Imperata cylindricaCohort dynamics 649‘Community forestry’ movement 6

Computer models 139–141Contact Image Sensor (CIS) 31Continental glaciation 417Contingent valuation method 308Continuous cover forestry (CCF) 458–459Continuous variables 333, 335Convention of Biological Diversity 212Copernicus Global Land Service 672Copernicus Program 339Cornell soil health test 429Corporate social responsibility (CSR) 733Cost-plus-loss analysis 333Cronartium harknessii 605Cross-laminated timber (CLT) 721,

731–732CSR. see Corporate social responsibility

(CSR)CTL. see Cut-to-length (CTL) systemCultural ES 189, 193Curve parameter 381Cut-to-length (CTL) system 495, 497, 506

‘Dark reactions’ 67Dauerwald (permanent forest) 363Deforestation 5, 7, 132–133, 152–153,

179, 212Denitrification 428Desertification 436–438Diffuse cankers 596‘Dilution’ effect 214Direct seeding 401Disease of the site 601Disease triangle concept 586Disrupt Micro-flake spruce budworm 538DISTRIB-II 254–256Domain variables 333–334, 335Dothistroma needle blight 592–593Drone technology 337–338Drought 41–42, 105–107, 299–301Dutch elm disease 594, 595Dwarf mistletoes 602, 604Dynamic global vegetation models 138

Early warning systems (EWS) 669, 670EarthExplorer 672Earth system models 156EC. see Eddy-covariance (EC)ECM. see Ectomycorrhizal (ECM) symbiosesEcological processes 16, 183, 223,

268, 629Economics, forest operations 490Ecosystem-atmosphere CO2 fluxes 78

Index834


Ecosystem Management Emulating Natural Disturbance (EMEND) project 223–225

Ecosystem resilience 102–103Ecosystem services (ES) 197, 310

in changing world 195–196in Nothofagus forests 180–184

biodiversity role 180–184and management strategies 184–185

overview 178–180in southern Patagonia 185–190sustainable forest management

strategies 193–195Ectomycorrhizal (ECM) symbioses 112Eddy-covariance (EC) 136, 153, 155EFI. see European Forest Institute (EFI)EFISCEN 671, 672El Salvador 329, 330EMEND. see Ecosystem Management

Emulating Natural Disturbance (EMEND) project

Empirical evidence 496Enhanced vegetation index (EVI) 73Environmental protections 490Environmental stresses 43Ergonomics 490ES. see Ecosystem services (ES)European Academies Science Advisory

Council 134European beech 358, 359, 361, 374,

376–378European Forest Institute 19European Forest Institute (EFI) 671European Space Agency 672Evapotranspiration 83, 133Even-aged monoculture forest versus

selection forest 358–359as management unit 359–362

EVI. see Enhanced vegetation index (EVI)EWS. see Early warning systems (EWS)Extratropical cyclones 642Extreme weather events 103, 293, 298

FACE. see Free Air CO2 Experiments (FACE)FAO. see United Nations Food and

Agriculture Organization (FAO)FAPAR. see Fraction of photosynthetically

active radiation (fAPAR)Farquhar photosynthesis model 80Fast-response infrared gas analyzers 75Felbot 498FIA. see Forest Inventory and Analysis (FIA)

Fire, significance of 418FLUXNET network 81, 132, 155Foliage clumping 63–64, 82Foliar disease 589–593Foliar fungi 590Forest biodiversity 16Forest biomass 17Forest cover-type maps 184Forest Dynamics Model 241, 242Forest ecosystem 1, 144, 179, 264Forest Europe Ministerial Conference

(2015) 134ForestGALES model 476, 646Forest growth, mortality, and health

components, estimation of 335Forest harvesting technology, innovations

automation 500–501lightweight, teleoperated felling

machine 497–500low-emission log trucks 492–494machine vision 501–503precision forestry 503–506steep-slope mechanized tree

harvesting 494–497sustainability as a driving force 489–490workforce and safety 490–492

Forest impact models 267Forest Inventory and Analysis (FIA) 241–242,

245, 254, 254–256, 669, 671USDA Forest Service 346, 435

Forest loss 115Forest management 1, 4–5, 7, 12, 15, 116,

142, 147, 151, 156, 184, 212challenges 311–312

climate change impacts 292–293, 295–304

ecosystem services 294–295, 307–308

forest fragmentation 305forests in transition 295land use change 293–294in North America 308–310overview 291–292urbanization 305wildland–urban interface 305–306

Forest managers and oak decline lessons 252–254

Forest parcelization 305Forest pests and invasive species 293, 302,

304Forest Plans of North America 308Forest recreation services 17


Index 835

Forest Resource Assessment (FRA) 671Forest resource status and trends

monitoring, advances in 327–328, 335–345

forest inventory information 328–335future trends 345–348

Forestry 1, 6, 12recreation services

case study 821–824monitoring and assessments 819–821overview 807–809recreation opportunity spectrum

812–814recreation site planning and

management 815–817visitor experience 809–812visitor use management 817–818

Forest soils 413–414Forest Stewardship Council (FSC) 19, 403ForWarn 673Fossil fuels 17, 133FRA. see Forest Resource Assessment (FRA)Fraction of photosynthetically active

radiation (fAPAR) 72Free Air CO2 Experiments (FACE) 144–145Freestyle silviculture 458, 460, 464, 474FRY plot 384–385FSC. see Forest Stewardship Council (FSC)Fuelwood 4, 12, 248Fungal and other diseases, forest trees

abiotic disease 607–609disease management 609–612

resistance breeding 612silvicultural techniques 610–611tree species selection 610

forest pathogens and climate change 615–616

invasive forest pathogens 612–615overview 585–586parasitic flowering plants 602, 604rust diseases 604–606tree disease 586–587

classification 589–602effects 587–591Phytophthora 606–607

General circulation model 134, 151Generalized linear regression estimator

(GREG) 342, 343Gene sequencing 16Genetic diversity 16, 181Genome editing 45

Geographic information system (GIS) 189, 327

Geomorphology 425GFDL A1FI projects 264GFDL climate model 264GFPM. see Global Forest Products Model

(GFPM)GFW. see Global Watch – Forest Watch

(GFW)GHGs. see Greenhouse gases (GHGs)GIS. see Geographic information system

(GIS)Glaciated Lake Erie Allegheny Plateau

Ecoregion 272Global ecosystem models 136, 140, 145Global Fire Atlas 672Global Forest Products Model (GFPM) 734Global navigation satellite system

(GNSS) 504Global Watch – Forest Watch (GFW) 673Globcover 140GNSS. see Global navigation satellite system

(GNSS)GPP. see Gross primary production (GPP)Grapple yarding 495Green Forests Work 269Greenhouse gases (GHGs) 151, 155, 408,

408–409, 721GREG. see Generalized linear regression

estimator (GREG)Gross primary production (GPP) 135–136,

146Ground and remote sensing data, vision

construction to integrate 344–345Ground-based inventory, history of 328Ground-based systems 668Ground plots, traditional use of 333–334Growing stock level (GSL) 455GSL. see Growing stock level (GSL)

Habitat heterogeneity 225Habitat quality 188Heart rot, tree stem 593–594

Phellinus tremulae 595–597Heat waves 41Hedonic analysis 307–308Helsinki Process 8, 13Hen Harrier. see Circus cyaneusHerbicides 419Heterotrophic respiration 139, 143–146HFI. see Human footprint index (HFI)High-resolution image analysis 28

Index836


Host susceptibility 586Human-centered automation 501Human footprint index (HFI) 189Human management activities 156HURRECON model 645Hydraulic chainsaw 498Hydraulic conductivity 106Hydraulic failure 105–106Hydroxyapatite 796

Ice storms 633ICS. see Intermediate-cool-small (ICS)

pyromesIKONOS 336Imperata cylindrica 303–304Importance value (IV) 254–255Individual tree-level management 506Indonesia 437InSAR. see Interferometric synthetic aperture

radar (InSAR)Insecticides 533–534, 545, 546, 550Insect pests of forest trees

defoliator pest species 536–539direct control 536–538indirect control 538–539

emerald ash borer 541–543early detection, monitoring and

management 542SLow Ash Mortality 543

European and Asian gypsy moths 549–553

population biology advances 551population management 551–553

European spruce beetle 548–549biocontrol 549semiochemical-based tools 549

invasive species advances 539–541detection and monitoring 540–541management 541

mountain pine beetle 543–546fuels and fire behavior 544insecticides 546semiochemical-based tools 544–546

native and invasive forest insect responses, climate change 518, 523–527

observed and predicted responses 523–526

plasticity and adaptive potential 526–527

resistance management 527–529native bark beetle 529–536

direct control 532–534indirect control 534–536risk and hazard rating 531–532survey and detection 530–531

overview 515–523spruce budworm 546–548

early intervention strategy 547–548Spruce Budworm Decision Support

System 546–547Insurance hypothesis 113InTEC. see Integrated Terrestrial Ecosystem

Carbon Cycle model (InTEC)Integrated Terrestrial Ecosystem Carbon

Cycle model (InTEC) 139Interferometric synthetic aperture radar

(InSAR) 137Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change

(IPCC) 241–242, 293, 298, 312Intermediate-cool-small (ICS)

pyromes 647International Association for Society and

Natural Resources 826International Co-operative Programme on

Assessment and Monitoring of Air Pollution Effects on Forests 116

International Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) 134, 152–154, 734

International Standards for Phytosanitary Measures (ISPM) 613

International Union of Forest Research Organization (IUFRO) 19, 26, 116, 228

Invasive plants 267, 303–304IPCC. see International Panel on Climate

Change (IPCC)ISPM. see International Standards for

Phytosanitary Measures (ISPM)ITree 347IUFRO. see International Union of Forest

Research Organization (IUFRO)IV. see Importance value (IV)

Journal of Forestry 826Journal of Outdoor Recreation and

Tourism 826Journal of Park and Recreation

Administration 826

Kreuzberg forest silvicultural regulation, alternative guidelines for 386, 388

Kudzu 302–303Kyoto Protocol 133, 151


Index 837

LAI. see Leaf area index (LAI)Lake Erie Allegheny Partnership for

Biodiversity (LEAP) 272–273challenges and opportunities 273Cleveland Metroparks (CM) 274management goals 273

Lambert Restoration Project 269, 272Lambert Run Strip coal mine 269Lambert Run watershed 269Land cover 132

change 151maps 140

Land management 185Land Processes Distributed Active Archive

Center (LP DAAC) 339Landsats 5, 7, 8, 336Landscape matrix concept 213Landscape polygons 333–334Land-sharing strategy 185, 195Landslide Hazard Assessment for Situational

Awareness (LHASA) Model 673Land-sparing strategy 185, 194–195Land surface models 134, 138Land-use, land-use change and forestry

(LULUCF) 140–142Land-use and land-cover change 146–147,

179LCA. see Life cycle assessment (LCA)LdNPV. see Lymantria dispar

nucleopolyhedrosis virus (LdNPV)Leaf area index (LAI) 61, 72Leaf energy balance 70Leaf inclination angle 65–66Leaf mass per area (LMA) 62, 66, 68Leaf nitrogen content 67, 70LEAP. see Lake Erie Allegheny Partnership for

Biodiversity (LEAP)Leisure Sciences 826LEK. see Local ecological knowledge (LEK)Lenga. see Nothofagus pumilioLevel of automation 501LHASA. see Landslide Hazard Assessment

for Situational Awareness (LHASA) Model

LiDAR 336–337. see Light Detection and Ranging (LiDAR)

Life cycle assessment (LCA) 429–430, 429–430, 725, 742

Light acclimation 67Light Detection and Ranging (LiDAR) 138Light-response functions 80Light-saturated photosynthetic rates 80

Light transmittance 70–72Light use efficiency (LUE) 68Ligustrum vulgare 303–304Livestock production 194LMA. see Leaf mass per area (LMA)LMAV. see Lower Mississippi Alluvial Valley

(LMAV)Local ecological knowledge (LEK) 761Longleaf pine 646Long-term ecological research networks

(LTER) 227Lower Mississippi Alluvial Valley

(LMAV) 459LP DAAC. see Land Processes Distributed

Active Archive Center (LP DAAC)LTER. see Long-term ecological research

networks (LTER)LUE. see Light use efficiency (LUE)LULUCF. see Land-use, land-use change and

forestry (LULUCF)Lymantria dispar nucleopolyhedrosis virus

(LdNPV) 536

MAES. see Mapping and Assessment of Eco-systems and their Services (MAES)

Management requiring condition (MRC) 491

Mapping and Assessment of Ecosystems and their Services (MAES) 181

Mass customization 737Mass trapping 538Mass wasting 417MCC. see Microcrystalline cellulose (MCC)MEA. see Millennium Ecosystem Assessment

(MEA)Mechanical stress 38, 40MERIS satellite instrument 140Metal contaminants, soil testing for 429MFC. see Microfibrillated cellulose (MFC)Micro- and macro-biota 416Microbial biological control 536–537Microcrystalline cellulose (MCC) 792–793Microfibrillated cellulose (MFC) 793Micro-meteorological technique 136Microsatellites 337Millennium Ecosystem Assessment

(MEA) 307, 736Minirhizotron 30–31Missouri Ozark forests 250Mixed evergreen forests 191Mixed species, use of 406Model-assisted estimation 341, 342, 346

Index838


Model-data fusion approach 81Moderate Resolution Imaging

Spectroradiometer (MODIS) 336, 672

ModFacs 254–255MODIS. see Moderate Resolution Imaging

Spectroradiometer (MODIS)Mollisols 416Monitoring and Management of Visitors

and Recreational and Protected Areas 826

Monoculture forests 355–358, 364–373even-aged, versus selection forests

358–362future trends 390–392scenario analysis 373–379selection forest management, practical

example 384–390selection forest management principles

and 379–384transition to complex forest stands

362–363Monongahela National Forest 269Montreal Process 8, 13Mosaics 406Mountain glaciation 417MRC. see Management requiring condition

(MRC)‘Multiple use’ policies 6

Nachhaltigkeit 5, 6NADM. see North American Drought

Monitor (NADM)NADPH. see Nicotinamide adenine

dinucleotide phosphate hydrogen (NADPH)

NAIP. see United States National Aerial Imagery Program (NAIP)

Nanofibrillated celluloses (NFCs) 793–794Nano-technology applications 17National Climate Assessment 265National Forest Inventory (NFI) 671Nationally determined contributions

(NDC) 133–134National Plant Protection Organizations

(NPPO) 613National Woodlands Owner Survey

(NWOS) 346Natural disturbances 414–417Natural enemy biologica control 537–538Natural hazards and forest disturbances

characteristics 631–646

biotic disturbances 638–639geological disturbances 638meteorological disturbances

633–638multiple disturbance processes

641–646spatial disturbances 639–641

climate heating 665–666disturbance and resilient forest

management 660–665disturbance regimes 646–648

anthropogenic disturbances 654–657boreal forests 648–650ecosystem memory and

legacies 657–660temperate forests 650–654

early warning systems 673forest inventories 671–672global data 672monitoring disturbances advances

666–670overview 627–631

Natural pest control 179Natural selection 16The Nature Conservancy (TNC) 269, 505NDC. see Nationally determined

contributions (NDC)NDVI. see Normalized difference vegetation

index (NDVI)Necrosis 109NEE. see Net ecosystem exchange (NEE)NEP. see Net ecosystem productivity (NEP)Net ecosystem exchange (NEE) 76–78Net ecosystem productivity (NEP) 143–145,

150New forest products development

cellulose, novel uses 792–794cellulose nanocrystals 794microcrystalline cellulose 792–793microfibrillated cellulose 793nanofibrillated celluloses 793–794

hemicelluloses, novel uses 794–795lignins, novel uses 795–798overview 791–792polyphenols, bark 798–800

New Generation Plantations (NGP) 406–407New Zealand 403, 405, 433Next-generation breeding programs 45NFCs. see Nanofibrillated celluloses (NFCs)NFFP. see Northern Forest Futures Project

(NFFP)NFI. see The National Forest Inventory (NFI)


Index 839

NGP. see New Generation Plantations (NGP)Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide

phosphate hydrogen (NADPH) 67Ñire forests 185, 187–191, 193–194Nitrogen 145, 148Non-contagious disturbances 640Noninvasive methods 36–37Non-market benefits of forests 180Non-market-valued services 295Nonpoint source pollution 301Non-timber forest products 17Nontimber forest products (NTFPs) 755–781

American ginseng 775–777biological components used 757–760Black cohosh (Actaea racemosa)

771–773forest farming 768–769harvest scale 762–764LEK and TEK integrating,

silviculture 769–770natural forest management 764–766overview 755–757Ramps (Allium tricoccum) 773–775sustainable harvest and management

needs 770–771synthesis, case studies 777–778timber and NTFPs integration,

management 766–767timber harvesting impacts on 767–768traditional and local ecological

knowledge 760–762Non-wood forest products 180Normalized difference vegetation index

(NDVI) 72–74North American Drought Monitor

(NADM) 673Northern Forest Futures Project

(NFFP) 241–242, 245Northern Institute of Applied Climate

Science 269, 272Norway spruce 358, 359, 361, 374,

376–378Nosema fumiferanae 537Nothofagus pumilio 181, 183NPPO. see National Plant Protection

Organizations (NPPO)NTFPs. see Nontimber forest products

(NTFPs)Nutrient and water management, advances

in 413–420best management practices (BMPs)

420–433

degraded soils restoration 436–438soil quality and health monitoring

434–436Nutrient management 432–433Nutrients 145NWOS. see National Woodlands Owner

Survey (NWOS)

Oak decline 249–254OBIA. see Object-based image analysis

(OBIA)Object-based image analysis (OBIA) 339Open Foris 347OpenNESS 196OPERA 196OPPLA platform 196Organic matter maintenance 430–431Over-bank flows 425Ozone 109, 111

Parenchyma cells 62–63Paris Agreement 133, 134, 151

on climate change 407, 408Park Science 826Payment for Environmental Services

(PES) 26PCM climate model 264People and society performance 490Perennial cankers 597PES. see Payment for Environmental Services

(PES)Pest risk assessment (PRA) 613PhenoCam approach 83Phenological observatory networks 75Phenotypic plasticity 181Phenotyping approach 45Phosphorus 145Photogrammetry 45Photosynthesis 26–27, 68–70, 83Physiological process-based models

(PPBMs) 405Pine wilt disease 595PLANFORBIO project 220Planophile leaf angles 65Plantation forestry 215Plantation wood production model 13Plant disease, defined 586Planted forests 398

see also Species choice, planting and establishment

Plastic acclimation processes 68Plenterwald 449

Index840


Plot-based estimates, of forest attribute changes 335

Pollination 179, 182Post-establishment storms 405Poststratification 342PPBMs. see Physiological process-based

models (PPBMs)PRA. see Pest risk assessment (PRA)Precision forestry 503–506Precision technology 505Pre-establishment storms 405Prestratification 342Process-based ecosystem models 138,

151, 154Product customization 737, 742Program for Endorsement of Forest

Certification 19

Quality optimization 490Quantitative forest inventory data

330–332Quickbird 336

Random Forest DISTRIB model 254, 256Random sampling 331Rare-cool-small (RCS) pyromes 647Rare-intense-large (RIL) pyromes 647RCS. see Rare-cool-small (RCS) pyromesReal Estate Investment Trusts 305Recreation Opportunity Spectrum

(ROS) 810, 813, 814Red spruce 270Reference curve 381, 382Reforestation 8, 43, 132–134, 151REINFORCE arboreta network 404Remote sensing information

history of data for forest mapping 335–338

modern mapping workflows 339–340traditional forest inventory in combination

with 341–345traditional mapping workflow 338–339traditional use of pixels for forest

properties estimation 340–341Remote sensing technologies 16Resilience 631Resources Planning Act (RPA) 241, 243, 244Respiration 68–70Reynolds, Osborne 75Rhizophagus grandis 532Ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate carboxylase/

oxygenase (Rubisco) 67

RIL. see Rare-intense-large (RIL) pyromesRio Summit 13RMSE. see Root mean square error (RMSE)Root development 45–46

environmental stresses and their effects 41

adult trees roots 43–44seedlings roots 42–43

overview 25–28root system architecture (RSA) 36–37

and anchorage 38–41and nutrition 37–38

turnover 28–30in-growth cores and root mesh

method 34–35innovative methods 36rhizotrons 30–31sequential coring 31–34

Root diseases 599–602Armillaria ostoyae 601–603

Root inclusion net technique 35Root mean square error (RMSE) 340Root mesh method. see Root inclusion

net techniqueRoot system architecture (RSA) 36–37

and anchorage 38–41and nutrition 37–38

ROS. see Recreation Opportunity Spectrum (ROS)

RPA. see Resources Planning Act (RPA)RSA. see Root system architecture (RSA)R statistical package 339Rubisco. see Ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate

carboxylase/oxygenase (Rubisco)

SAII. see Semiautomated image interpretation (SAII)

Salvage logging 656San Dimas Technology and Development

Center 435–436Sanitation 533, 545, 550Saproxylic organisms 217–218Satellite-based spectrometry 137SBWDSS. see Spruce Budworm Decision

Support System (SBWDSS)Scenario analysis models

approaches to simulation and 374guidelines and 375–379results 374–375transformation and 373–374

Scientific forestry 1Scleroderris canker 597


Index 841

SCORP. see State Comprehensive Outdoor Recreation Plan (SCORP) process

Scotland 405SDG. see Sustainable Development Goal

(SDG)SDI. see Stand density index (SDI)SDM. see Species distribution model (SDM)Secondary metabolites 110Sediment detention 425Selection forest 358

versus even-aged monoculture forest 358–362

managementpractical example of 384–390principles 379–384

Semiautomated image interpretation (SAII) 343–344

Semiochemicals 534, 538, 545, 550Sentinel 336SFM. see Sustainable forest management

(SFM)Shade-intolerant species 65–66, 71, 82Shade-tolerant species 71, 82SHIFT model 254–256SIF. see Solar-induced fluorescence (SIF)SILVA model 374, 376Silver fir 358, 359, 361, 374, 376–378Silvicultural methods 70, 71, 113, 147, 195Silviculture 363, 373–382Silvopastoral systems (SPS) 179, 185, 194Simultaneous Localization and Mapping

(SLAM) technology 505Site-specific management (SSM) 504SLAM. see Simultaneous Localization and

Mapping (SLAM) technologySLow Ash Mortality 541, 543Slow the Spread (STS) 538, 541, 551SMZs. see Streamside management zones

(SMZs)Society of Outdoor Recreation

Professionals 826Soil

acidification 109carbon content 139, 147erosion 419management and health 420moisture 267, 278nitrogen content 187–188organic carbon 139, 146, 187retention 179sedimentation 301testing advances 428–429

Solar-induced fluorescence (SIF) 136Sonic anemometers 75Spain 433Spatial planning 185Species choice, planting and

establishment 397–399fertilization and weed control 402–403forest practices development and site

preparation 399–400future trends 406–409genetic material selection and planted

forest design 403–406planting, direct sowing and

stocking 400–402Species distribution model (SDM) 254Species occurrence maps 184Species richness 181Species’ shifts 295–297Spot 336Spruce Budworm Decision Support System

(SBWDSS) 546–547SPS. see Silvopastoral systems (SPS)SSM. see Site-specific management (SSM)Standard error 342Stand density index (SDI) 462Stand density-productivity

relationship 389–390Standing stock 388–389Stand management and regeneration

density management principlesin multiaged stands 470stand level 461–465tree level 465–470

multiaged forests, resilience and recovery 473–475

multiaged stands management 449–461analytical solutions 459–461BDq method 454–458continuous cover forestry 458–459plentering and single-tree

selection 450–454overview 447–448regeneration 470–473uncertainty and risk management,

silviculture 448–449State Comprehensive Outdoor Recreation

Plan (SCORP) process 821Statistical analysis 28, 141St. Croix study 812Steady-state diameter distribution and

guideline curve deviation 383–384

Index842


Stoddard-Neel system 451Stratification 341–342Streamside management zones

(SMZs) 422–428Stress–adaptation/acclimation

processes 102–103Stressors 100–101, 628STS. see Slow the Spread (STS)Sustainable development 6–7Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 8–9Sustainable forest management (SFM)

8, 214Sustainable forestry 7–8, 12, 18–19

challenges in implementing 10–13evolution 4–9forest science 15–17learning by doing 13–15multiple interpretations 9–10natural resilience 2–4overview 1–2

Sustainable management plans 184, 226Sustained yield forestry 5–6, 12

Taiga 648Tectonic disturbances 653TEK. see Traditional ecological knowledge

(TEK)Teleoperation 492, 4982,2,6,6-tetramethyl-1-piperidine

oxoammonium 793Thinning, based on diameter class and target

diameter 381–383Three-dimensional array model 693D laser scanner 463D scanning 45‘Three-Zone Concept,’ 423–424Timberland Investment Management

Organizations 305Timber management 5Timber production 16Timber products development

bioeconomy 722–723carbon fluxes, forest stands 724–725carbon in durable wood products

725–727cascaded wood products 727–728cross-laminated timber 731–732customization, timber-derived

products 737–740forest carbon 723–724innovation 729–730

summary 732–733

overview 719–721Scandinavian practices 740–742solid wood products vs. wood

energy 721–722wood and bio-based products, global

demands 733–737ecosystem services 736–737plantation forests 735–736

wood products clusters 730–731Timber shortages 4–5TNC. see The Nature Conservancy (TNC)‘Top-down’ approach 155Tourism 187Traditional ecological knowledge

(TEK) 760, 761Traditional excavator-style machines 498Traditional forest inventory design

paradigm 328–333Transformation

horizontal and vertical structuring of stand and 371–373

main and young stand tree number-diameter distribution and 370–371

phase, developing standing volume in 368–370

stand, essential decisions and practical measures for 366–368

standing rock and diameter distribution regulation during 364–365

Transfusion tissue 62–63Transpiration 62, 68–69, 72, 76, 78, 82,

105–106, 180, 267, 278, 300, 311Travel cost method 308Tree anchorage 108TreeDivNET network 215–216, 227Tree felling techniques 498Tree growth rates 297–298Tree number-diameter distributions

384–386Tropical cyclone 641–642Two-dimensional multi-layered model 70Two-leaf model 70Typhoon 642

UAVs. see Unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs)UEs. see Unexpected events (UEs)UNECE Convention on Long-range

Transboundary Air Pollution (CLRTAP) 116

Unexpected events (UEs) 491United Nations Conference on Environment

and Development 7


Index 843

United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) 347

United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change 151

United States 437United States National Aerial Imagery

Program (NAIP) 337Unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) 504USDA. see US Department of Agriculture

(USDA) Forest ServiceUSDA-NRCS Plant Materials Center 269US Department of Agriculture (USDA) Forest

Service 241, 269, 305, 434, 435, 534, 539

Variable retention methods 195, 224Vascular wilt diseases, tree stem 594–595VFSMOD model 425, 427Visitor capacity 817Volcanoes 417

Waldsterben phenomena 108Water 179, 292–293, 299

quality 301

Waterlogging 105–107Western gall rust 605West Virginia Division of Natural

Resources 269Whole-tree harvesting 418Wildfire risk 267Wildfires 632, 652, 653Wildland–urban interface (WUI) 293, 306,

310Windstorm 629Windthrows 417Wofsy, Steve 75Wood and woody biomass 408Wood cellulose 792Wood-concrete skyscrapers 732Wood forest products 180World Commission on Environment and

Development 6WUI. see Wildland–urban interface (WUI)

X-ray computed tomography scanner 36Xylitol 795

Yellow cedar decline 608

Documents

Contents Files/Booksho… · i i ii ii i v x Contents 7 Acknowledgements 409 8 Where to look for further information 409 9 References 409 13 Advances in nutrient and water management