Content Analysis

Definition

According to Burleson (1952) “Content analysis is a research technique for the objective, systemic, and quantitative description of the manifest content of communication” (p.18)

Hansen, et al., (1998) pointed out that content analysis is “a method for analyzing texts” (Hansen, et al., 1998, p.99).

Krippendorf (1980) revealed that “content analysis is a research technique for making replicable and valid inference from data to their context” (p. 4).

Budd et al. (1969) defined content analysis as “a systematic technique for analyzing overt communication behaviors of selected communicator” (pp. 3-7).

Stuart Hall (1975) suggested a combination approach for content analysis that immerses both qualitative and quantitative methodologies for reducing their shortcomings and for deducing more authentic results data (p. 83).

Content Analysis is a documentary method that that aims at a qualitative and quantitative analysis of the texts, pictures, films and other forms of verbal, visual or written communication.

Qualitative technique – a subjective technique for instance motives, attitudes, and values

Quantitative technique- time, frequency and duration of an event

Two types Manifest content refer to visible, surface text, the actual part of the text as

manifest in the document, words, sentences, paragraphs and so on. Frequency of units appears – how many times words Pakistan appears in an editorial, or news etc.

Latent content underline meaning conveyed through the document.-researcher read between the lines, identify hidden message. -Study of meanings

Steps in content analysis

1. Selection of the research topic

2. Formulation of the research topic (hypothesis construction)

3. Research design, sample size, data analysis technique, checking reliability

4. Collection of data, frequency, prominence, direction Chosen units appears in text Frequency of appearance Evaluation of the unit – positive, neutral, negative

5. Analysis and interpretation Comparison of frequencies Analysis of symbols and indicators collected Analysis of values Analysis of direction

Construction of categories

Data collection can only be possible with the help of categories. Category is a set of criteria which are integrated around a theme or idea.

Topic: War on terrorismCategories. (1) U.S policy towards Pakistan

(2) Pakistan image Unit of Analysis and Coding: Small group, for instance editorials, news items, columns etc.

Latent coding :meaning, information between the lines Manifest: coding apparent meaning general reading

Methods Quantitative analysis Qualitative Analysis

Quantitative analysis Descriptive analysis counting the frequency in appearance of certain elements Categorical analysis: set categories producing nominal and ordinal data Valence Analysis: involved multi-step scales based on theoretical criteria. In

favor or against Contextual analysis: analyze whole text

Qualitative Analysis

Summary Explication : full text or part of it Structuration: Putting material in some kind of order Objective: interview, family therapy

Computer and content Analysis

This method largely deals to a large extent words and symbols –identify occurrence and frequency of units-words, special phrases, Computer general inquirer, no need for coders, (KWIC- KEY WORD IN TEXT), MWOC- KEY WORD OUT OF TEXT)

Strengths

No effect on respondents When access to research topic or research units is not possible – research topic might

not be accessible Does not require respondents No one can eliminate research bias Text are available for testing or retesting Low cast method than survey Less biased –numerical numbers support data

Weakness

Some document are nor available, diaries, personals letters Small group of people or period of time not a representative data Cannot study unrecorded event –only based on documents Documents are often not complete Less suitable for comparison than other methods May be a coder bias