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CONSUMER KNOWLEDGE, ATTITUDE AND CONCERN IN CONSUMING
CONTAMINATED PEANUT-BASED PRODUCTS
NUR ADIBAH HASSAN
FP 2019 10
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CONSUMER KNOWLEDGE, ATTITUDE AND CONCERN IN CONSUMING
CONTAMINATED PEANUT-BASED PRODUCTS
By
NUR ADIBAH HASSAN
Thesis Submitted to the School of Graduate Studies, Universiti Putra Malaysia, in
Fulfilment of the Requirements for the Degree of Master of Science
November 2018
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All material contained within the thesis, including without limitation text, logos, icons,
photographs and all other artwork, is copyright material of Universiti Putra Malaysia
unless otherwise stated. Use may be made of any material contained within the thesis for
non-commercial purposes from the copyright holder. Commercial use of material may only
be made with the express, prior, written permission of Universiti Putra Malaysia.
Copyright © Universiti Putra Malaysia
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DEDICATION
I dedicated this thesis to my beloved country, family members, lecturers and friends.
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Abstract of this thesis presented to the Senate of Universiti Putra Malaysia in fulfilment
of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science
CONSUMER KNOWLEDGE, ATTITUDE AND CONCERN IN CONSUMING
CONTAMINATED PEANUT-BASED PRODUCTS
By
NUR ADIBAH HASSAN
November 2018
Chairman : Assoc. Prof. Nitty Hirawaty Kamarulzaman, PhD
Faculty : Agriculture
In Malaysia, peanut has been consumed in form of snacks, or better known as peanut-based
products (roasted peanut, peanut candy, confectioneries, pastry) and as main ingredients in
several local dishes, most notably the satay sauce. However, peanut-based products have
been associated to contamination such as Aflatoxin (AF), Salmonella and possible metal
pieces. Food products contamination is a serious issue and it is most related to food safety
issues. Issues of contaminated peanut-based products have been mentioned from various
parties to minimize the risks of peanut-based products contamination.
The general objective was to determine the consumer knowledge, attitude and concern in
consuming contaminated peanut-based products. Meanwhile, the specific objectives were
to determine consumer’s knowledge, attitude, and concern level in consuming
contaminated peanut-based products, to determine the significant association between
consumer socio-demographic profiles and consumer’s knowledge, attitude and concern
level in consuming contaminated peanut-based products, to examine the relationship
between knowledge, attitude and concern level in consuming contaminated peanut-based
products and to investigate the most influential factors that influence consumers’
behaviour in consuming contaminated peanut-based products.
Purposive sampling was used as sampling method with 1,263 consumer
was selected as respondents to represent Klang Valley. A structured questionnaire was
used in order to gather the data. Four analyses were used to achieve the objectives of the
study, namely descriptive analysis, Chi-square analysis, Pearson correlation analysis and
logistic regression analysis. The result showed that about 86.3% of the consumers have
inadequate knowledge level towards consuming contaminated peanut-based products. In
terms of attitude level, about 74.8% of the consumers have unfavourable attitude towards
consuming contaminated peanut-based products due to the lack of knowledge towards
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issues discussed. However, 81.6% of the consumers have high concern towards consuming
contaminated peanut-based products.
Pearson correlation analysis was conducted to examine the strength of relationship
between knowledge, attitude, and concern level in consuming contaminated peanut-based
products. The results showed the strength association correlation between knowledge,
attitude, and concern level is moderate to low with positive relationships and significant at
1% level of significance. Chi-square analysis was carried out to determine the association
between consumers’ socio-demographic profiles and knowledge, attitude, and concern
level. Age, gender, religion, education level, and income were significantly associated with
consumers’ knowledge level towards consuming contaminated peanut-based products.
Age, religion, and marital status were significantly associated with consumers’ attitude
level towards consuming contaminated peanut-based products, while religion, income, and
marital status were significantly associated with consumers’ concern level towards
consuming contaminated peanut-based products. Logistic regression analysis was
conducted to investigate the most influential factors that influence consumers’ behaviour
in consuming contaminated peanut-based products. The study found that socio-
demographic profiles such as religion and household number had significant relationship
with frequency of consumers experience behaviour in consuming contaminated peanut-
based products. The variables of knowledge, attitude, and concern also had significant
relationship with frequency of consumers experience in consuming contaminated peanut-
based products.
As an improvement guideline for upstream industry to control the contamination peanut-
based products, government should focus on downstream, particularly the consumers by
educating public knowledge on contamination symptoms of peanut-based products.
Frequent press release, campaign and intervention through mass and social media could
increase the public knowledge on the danger of peanut-based products contamination, as
well as reducing the risk of consuming contaminated products among consumers.
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Abstrak tesis yang dikemukakan kepada Senat Universiti Putra Malaysia sebagai
memenuhi keperluan untuk Ijazah Master Sains
PENGETAHUAN, SIKAP DAN KEBIMBANGAN PENGGUNA DALAM
PENGAMBILAN PRODUK BERASASKAN KACANG TANAH TERCEMAR
Oleh
NUR ADIBAH HASSAN
November 2018
Pengerusi : Prof. Madya Nitty Hirawaty Kamarulzaman, PhD
Fakulti : Pertanian
Di Malaysia, kacang tanah diambil dalam bentuk snek yang juga dikenali sebagai produk
berasaskan kacang tanah (kacang tanah panggang, gula-gula kacang tanah, manisan, pastri)
dan menjadi bahan utama di dalam sebahagian masakan tempatan seperti kuah sate. Walau
bagaimanapun, produk berasaskan kacang tanah telah dikaitkan dengan pencemaran
seperti Aflatoksin (AF), Salmonella, dan serpihan logam. Pencemaran produk makanan
merupakan isu serius yang kebiasaannya berkaitan dengan isu keselamatan makanan. Isu
produk berasaskan kacang tanah tercemar telah diketengahkan oleh pelbagai pihak bagi
mengurangkan risiko pencemaran produk berasaskan kacang tanah.
Objektif utama kajian ini adalah untuk menentukan pengetahuan, sikap, dan kebimbangan
pengguna dalam pengambilan produk berasaskan kacang tanah tercemar. Selain itu,
objektif spesifik ialah untuk memeriksa tahap pengetahuan, sikap, dan kebimbangan
pengguna dalam pengambilan produk berasaskan kacang tanah tercemar, untuk
menentukan perkaitan yang signifikan antara profil sosio demografi pengguna dengan
tahap pengetahuan, sikap, dan kebimbangan pengguna dalam pengambilan produk
berasaskan kacang tanah tercemar, untuk memeriksa hubungan antara tahap pengetahuan,
sikap, dan kebimbangan pengguna dalam pengambilan produk berasaskan kacang tanah
tercemar, dan untuk mengkaji faktor yang paling mempengaruhi tingkah laku pengguna
dalam pengambilan produk berasaskan kacang tanah tercemar.
Persampelan bertujuan digunakan sebagai kaedah persampelan kepada 1,263 orang
pengguna yang dipilih bagi mewakili kawasan Lembah Klang. Borang soal selidik
berstruktur digunakan dalam merangka pengumpulan data. Empat jenis analisis telah
digunakan untuk mencapai objektif kajian ini, iaitu analysis diskriptif, analisis Khi-kuasa
dua, analisis korelasi Pearson, dan analisis regresi logistik. Keputusan menunjukkan kira-
kira 86.3% daripada pengguna mempunyai tahap pengetahuan yang tidak mencukupi
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terhadap pengambilan produk berasaskan kacang tanah tercemar. Dari segi sikap
pengguna, kira-kira 74.8% pengguna mempunyai sikap yang negatif dalam pengambilan
produk berasaskan kacang tanah tercemar disebabkan kurang pengetahuan terhadap isu
yang dibincangkan. Walau bagaimanapun, 81.6% pengguna menunjukkan tahap
kebimbangan yang tinggi dalam pengambilan produk berasaskan kacang tanah tercemar.
Analisis korelasi Pearson dijalankan untuk memeriksa kekuatan hubungan antara tahap
pengetahuan, sikap dan kebimbangan pengguna dalam pengambilan produk berasaskan
kacang tanah tercemar. Keputusan menunjukkan kekuatan hubungan antara tahap
pengetahuan, sikap, dan kebimbangan adalah sederhana hingga lemah dengan hubungan
positif dan signifikan pada tahap 1%. dengan nilai-r sebanyak 0.465. Sementara itu,
kekuatan hubungan antara tahap pengetahuan dan kebimbangan adalah lemah dengan
nilai-r sebanyak 0.275. Tambahan lagi, kekuatan hubungan antara tahap pengetahuan dan
kebimbangan juga adalah lemah dengan nilai-r sebanyak 0.340. Hubungan antara tahap
pengetahuan, sikap dan kebimbangan menunjukkan hubungan positif dengan tahap
signifikan sebanyak 1%. Analisis Khi-kuasa dua telah dijalankan untuk menentukan
perkaitan antara profil sosio demografi pengguna dengan tahap pengetahuan, sikap dan
kebimbangan. Umur, jantina, agama, tahap pendidikan, dan pendapatan mempunyai
perkaitan yang signifikan dengan tahap pengetahuan pengguna terhadap pengambilan
produk berasaskan kacang tanah tercemar. Umur, agama, dan status perkahwinan
mempunyai perkaitan yang signifikan dengan tahap sikap pengguna terhadap pengambilan
produk berasaskan kacang tanah tercemar, sementara agama, pendapatan, dan status
perkahwinan mempunyai perkaitan yang signifikan dengan tahap kebimbangan pengguna
terhadap pengambilan produk berasaskan kacang tanah tercemar. Analisis regresi logistik
telah dijalankan untuk mengkaji faktor yang paling mempengaruhi tingkah laku pengguna
dalam pengambilan produk berasaskan kacang tanah tercemar. Kajian ini mendapati
bahawa profil sosio demografi seperti agama dan bilangan isi rumah mempunyai hubungan
yang signifikan dengan kekerapan pengalaman pengguna dalam pengambilan produk
berasaskan kacang tanah tercemar. Pemboleh ubah seperti pengetahuan, sikap, dan
kebimbangan juga mempunyai hubungan yang signifikan dengan kekerapan pengalaman
pengguna dalam pengambilan kacang tanah tercemar.
Penambahbaikan garis panduan dalam industri huluan adalah perlu bagi mengawal
pencemaran produk berasaskan kacang tanah, kerajaan juga perlu menumpukan perhatian
kepada industri hiliran, terutamanya pengguna dalam memberikan maklumat kepada
umum tentang simptom-simptom pencemaran produk berasaskan kacang tanah.
Kekerapan dalam penyiaran akhbar, kempen, dan penglibatan melalui media massa dan
media sosial dapat meningkatkan pengetahuan umum tentang bahaya pencemaran serta
mengurangkan risiko dalam pengambilan produk berasaskan kacang tanah tercemar di
kalangan pengguna.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
All praise to Allah for giving me an opportunity to continue my studies toward a successful
completion.
It would not have been possible to write this master thesis without help and support of the
people who are important to me. Firstly, I would like to thank my supervisor, Associate
Professor Dr. Nitty Hirawaty Kamarulzaman who has supervised me, and provided advice
as well as guidance from the early stage of this research, also giving me invaluable
experiences throughout the work. My sincere also go to my committee member, Associate
Professor Dr. Nolila Mohd Nawi from Department of Agribusiness and Bioresource
Economics. Thanks for everything you have taught me since I have been your student.
I would like to express my appreciation to my beloved family who are supported me and
understand for reduced time to be at home due to workload required for this thesis. Finally,
I am very grateful to my beloved friends for their moral support, helped, and encourage
me in making this thesis a success.
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This thesis was submitted to the Senate of Universiti Putra Malaysia and has been accepted
as fulfilment of the requirement for the degree of Master of Science. The members of the
Supervisory Committee were as follows:
Nitty Hirawaty Kamarulzaman, PhD
Associate Professor
Faculty of Agriculture
Universiti Putra Malaysia
(Chairman)
Nolila Mohd Nawi, PhD
Associate Professor
Faculty of Agriculture
Universiti Putra Malaysia
(Member)
_________________________________
ROBIAH BINTI YUNUS, PhD
Professor and Dean
School of Graduate Studies
Universiti Putra Malaysia
Date:
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Declaration by graduate student
I hereby confirm that:
this thesis is my original work; quotations, illustrations and citations have been duly referenced; this thesis has not been submitted previously or concurrently for any other degree at
any other institutions;
intellectual property from this thesis and copyright of thesis are fully-owned by Universiti Putra Malaysia, as according to the Universiti Putra Malaysia (Research)
Rules 2012;
written permission must be obtained from supervisor and the office of Deputy Vice-Chancellor (Research and Innovation) before thesis is published (in the form of
written, printed or in electronic form) including books, journals, modules,
proceedings, popular writings, seminar papers, manuscripts, posters, reports, lecture
notes, learning modules or any other materials as stated in the Universiti Putra
Malaysia (Research) Rules 2012;
there is no plagiarism or data falsification/ fabrication in the thesis, and scholarly integrity is upheld as according to the Universiti Putra Malaysia (Graduate Studies)
Rules 2003 (Revision 2012-2013) and the Universiti Putra Malaysia (Research) Rules
2012. This thesis has undergone plagiarism detection software.
Signature: ________________ Date: _______________
Name and Matric No.: Nur Adibah Binti Hassan (GS 44459)
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Declaration by Members of Supervisory Committee
This is to confirm that:
the research conducted and the writing of the thesis was under our supervision; supervision responsibilities as stated in the Universiti Putra Malaysia (Graduate
Studies) Rules 2003 (Revision 2012-2013) are adhered to.
Signature: ________________________
Name of Chairman of
Supervisory Committee: Assoc. Prof. Dr. Nitty Hirawaty Kamarulzaman
Signature: ________________________
Name of Member of
Supervisory Committee: Assoc. Prof. Dr. Nolila Mohd Nawi
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
ABSTRACT i
ABSTRAK iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS v
APPROVAL vi
DECLARATION viii
LIST OF TABLES xii
LIST OF FIGURES xiv
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS xv
CHAPTER
1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 Global Peanut Production 1
1.2 Global Peanut Consumption 2
1.3 Global Peanut-Based Products Contamination 4
1.3.1 Aflatoxin 5
1.3.2 Salmonella 7
1.3.3 Possible Metal Pieces 7
1.4 Peanut-Based Products Contamination
Incidence in Malaysia
8
1.5 Malaysian Guidelines on Peanut-Based
Products
10
1.6 Problem Statement 15
1.7 Research Questions 16
1.8 Objectives of the Study 16
1.9 Significance of the Study 17
1.10 Organization of Thesis 17
2 LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Theoretical Framework 18
2.1.1 Theory of Reasoned Action and
Theory of Planned Behaviour
18
2.2 Knowledge 22
2.3 Attitude 23
2.4 Concern 24
2.5 Summary 25
3 METHODOLOGY
3.1 Conceptual Framework 26
3.2 Source of Data 27
3.2.1 Primary Data 27
3.3 Data Collection 27
3.3.1 Research Location 28
3.3.2 Selection of Sample and Sample Size 28
3.3.3. Questionnaire Design 30
3.4 Pilot Study 31
3.5 Data Analysis 32
3.5.1 Descriptive Analysis 32
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3.5.2 Knowledge Level Analysis 33
3.5.3 Attitude Level Analysis 33
3.5.4 Concern Level Analysis 34
3.5.5 Chi-square Analysis 35
3.5.6 Pearson Correlation Analysis 36
3.5.7 Logistic Regression Analysis 38
3.6 Summary 39
4 RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
4.1 Descriptive Analysis 40
4.1.1 Socio-Demographic Profiles of
Respondents
40
4.1.2 Peanut Consumption Pattern 42
4.1.3 Respondent’s Responses towards
Contaminated Peanut-Based Products
43
4.2 Knowledge Level Analysis towards
Consuming Contaminated Peanut-Based
Products
45
4.3 Attitude Level Analysis towards Consuming
Contaminated Peanut-Based Products
48
4.4 Concern Level Analysis towards Consuming
Contaminated Peanut-Based Products
50
4.5 Chi-square Analysis 52
4.5.1 Association between Socio-
Demographic Profiles and
Consumers’ Knowledge Level
53
4.5.2 Association between Socio-
Demographic Profiles and
Consumers’ Attitude Level
56
4.5.3 Association between Socio-
Demographic Profiles and
Consumers’ Concern Level
60
4.6 Pearson Correlation Analysis 63
4.7 Logistic Regression Analysis 64
4.8 Summary 66
5 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION
5.1 Summary of the Findings 67
5.2 Policy Recommendations 68
5.3 Limitations of the Study 69
5.4 Suggestions for Future Research 69
5.5 Conclusion 70
REFERENCES 71
APPENDIX 86
BIODATA OF STUDENT 92
LIST OF PUBLICATIONS 93
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LIST OF TABLES
Table Page
1.1 World Consumption of Peanut in Metric Tons 3
1.2 Permitted Limit of Mycotoxins in ASEAN Countries for
Aflatoxins
11
3.1 Examples of Primary Data in Social Research 27
3.2 Typical Sample Size for Social Studies of Human Behaviour 30
3.3 Knowledge Level Scale 33
3.4 Recoded Score for Negative Statement 34
3.5 Attitude Level Scale 34
3.6 Concern Level Scale 34
3.7 Chi-Square Hypotheses 35
3.8 Correlation Coefficient Interpretation 37
3.9 Hypothesis of Correlation Variables 37
3.10 Coded of Dependent (DV) and Independents Variables (IV) in
Logistic Regression
38
4.1 Respondents’ Socio-Demographic Profiles 40
4.2 Consumption Pattern on Peanut-Based Products 43
4.3
Respondents’ Responses towards Types of General Contamination
in Foods and Food Products
43
4.4 Respondents’ Responses towards Contaminated Peanut-Based
Products
44
4.5 Experience of Consuming Contaminated Peanut-Based Products 44
4.6 Experience of Illnesses after Consuming Contaminated Peanut-
Based
45
4.7 Statements on Respondent’s Knowledge towards Consuming
Contaminated Peanut-Based Products
46
4.8 Level of Knowledge towards Consuming Contaminated Peanut-
Based Products
48
4.9 Statements on Respondent’s Attitude towards Consuming
Contaminated Peanut-Based Products
49
4.10 Level of Attitude towards Consuming Contaminated Peanut-Based
Products
50
4.11
Statements on Respondent’s Concern towards Consuming
Contaminated Peanut-Based Products
51
4.12 Level of Concern towards Consuming Contaminated Peanut-
Based Products
52
4.13 Association between Socio-Demographic Profiles and
Consumers’ Knowledge Level
53
4.14 Cross-Tab of Socio-Demographic Profiles towards Consumers’
Knowledge Level
55
4.15 Association between Socio-Demographic Profiles and
Consumers’ Attitude Level
57
4.16 Cross-Tab of Socio-Demographic Profiles towards Consumers’
Attitude Level
59
4.17 Association between Socio-Demographic Profiles and
Consumers’ Concern Level
60
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4.18 Cross-Tab of Socio-Demographic Profiles towards Consumers’
Concern Level
62
4.19 Summary of Correlation between Knowledge, Attitude and
Concern Score towards Consuming Contaminated Peanut-Based
Products
64
4.20 Estimated Logistic Regression Model for Consumers’ Behaviour
towards Consuming Contaminated Peanut-Based Products
66
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LIST OF FIGURES
Figure Page
1.1 World Peanut Production Trend (Million Metric Tons) 2
2.1 Theory of Reasoned Action (TRA) 19
2.2 Theory of Planned Behaviour Model (TPB) 20
2.3 Theory of Planned Behaviour Model (TPB) with Background
Factors
21
3.1 Conceptual Framework 26
3.2 Map of Klang Valley 28
3.3 Correlation Coefficient 36
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LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
AF Aflatoxin
AFB1 Aflatoxin B1
CCPs Critical Control Points
DOSM Department of Statistics Malaysia
DV Dependent Variable
FAO Food and Agriculture Organization
FoSIM Food Safety Information System of Malaysia
GMP Good Manufacturing Practice
HACCP Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Point
INC International Nut and Dried Fruits Council Foundation
IV Independent Variable
MOH Ministry of Health Malaysia
myGAP Malaysian Good Agricultural Practice
SD Standard Deviation
SOP Standard Operating Procedure
SPSS Statistic Package for Social Science
TRA Theory of Reasoned Action
TPB Theory of Planned Behaviour
USA United Stated of America
USDA The United Stated Department of Agriculture
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CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
This chapter discusses introduction on global peanut production, consumption, and
contamination issues in peanut-based products, peanut-based products contamination
incidence in Malaysia, Malaysian guidelines on peanut-based products, problem statement,
research questions, and objectives of the study. The problems arise on the peanut-based
products and interconnected with consumers’ knowledge, attitude, and concern are
explained in the problem statement. The significance of the study is also presented to reveal
the impact of the study to respected parties.
1.1 Global Peanut Production
Arachis hypogaea or peanut is a legume crop that can provide protein as a nutrient source
required by human being (Akram, Shafiq, and Ashraf, 2018; Dharsenda, Dabhi, Jethva,
and Kapopara, 2015). It is also known as groundnut and contributed the sources for oilseed
production (Fletcher and Shi, 2016). Peanut is an annual legume crop and grown mainly
in tropics and subtropics area. There are a few varieties of commercialized peanuts such
as Virginia (hypogaea hypogaea), Spanish (fastigiata vulgaris), Valencia (fastigiata
fastigiata) and Runner (hybrid) (Paik-Ro, Smith, and Knauft, 1992). Each variety can be
differentiated by colour, size, flavour, nutritional, and composition (Deng and Han, 2018).
Runner is the hybrid variety from Virginia (hypogaea hypogaea) and Spanish (fastigiata
vulgaris) subspecies.
Peanut is one of the protein-based, highly nutritious foods consumed around the world.
The world’s peanut production has increased progressively throughout 2017 season with
2% up from the previous season (International Nut and Dried Fruits Council Foundation
(INC), 2015; International Nut and Dried Fruits Council Foundation (INC), 2017). Figure
1.1 shows the world production of peanut trend that has increased over the years reaching
41.5 million metric tons of in-shell peanut, more than 16% increase from over the last 10
years on average (INC, 2017).
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Figure 1.1: World Peanut Production Trend (Million Metric Tons)
Source: INC (2017)
Only few of the countries in the world are producing peanut in large scale for export due
to their lower cost of production and good climate condition for peanut species. China,
India, and Nigeria are the three largest producer countries of peanuts, contributing 62% of
the total world productions. The other producer countries of peanut are the United States
of America, Indonesia, Argentina, and a few other countries (INC, 2017). India is the
largest exporting country in 2015, exporting about 1.6 million metric tons of shelled
peanut. South Eastern Asia such as Indonesia, Malaysia, Thailand, Philippines, and
Vietnam are the main importing countries of India’s shelled peanut exports, accounting
77% of total Indian shelled peanut exports (INC, 2017). Peanut and the other nutty products
made up a staple food in most of the countries in the world such as Africa and India. In
fact, peanut is one of the sources for side protein and an essential component of protein
diet that mostly consumed in the world (Dharsenda et al., 2015).
1.2 Global Peanut Consumption
Table 1.1 shows the global peanut consumption from year 2012 until 2016. Twenty
countries are ranked in descending order based on the world’s largest peanut consumption.
There were more than 6,000,000 metric tons of increased consumption from 35,990,513
metric tons in 2014 to 42,596,000 metric tons in 2016 (INC, 2015; INC, 2017). China,
being the world’s largest population is also the world’s largest producer and consumer of
peanut. Their consumption increased from 16,682,808 metric tons in 2006 to 17,371,242
metric tons in 2015. The other two producers, namely India and Nigeria accounted
4,093,543 and 3,000,000 metric tons of peanut consumption in 2015, respectively. India
shows increasing trend of peanut consumption of 5,627,940 metric tons in 2016, with
1,000,000 metric tons of increase per year. Meanwhile, Nigeria recorded the same amount
of peanut consumption in 2016 which is 3,000,025 metric tons (INC, 2017). Based on the
33.4
31.7
34.6
30.833.3
35.8 37.2
39.8
38.9
40.8 41.5
05
1015202530354045
Pea
nut
Pro
duct
ion (
Mil
lion M
etri
c
tons)
Year
World Peanut Production Trend
Peanut
Production
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data provided in Table 1.1, Asian region such as China, India, Indonesia, Vietnam,
Thailand, Malaysia, Philippines, and Japan consist of the world’s top 20 peanut consumers.
Table 1.1: World Consumption of Peanut in Metric Tons
Country/
Year
Consumption in Metric Tons
2012 2013 2014 2015 2016
1. China 16,462,347 16,421,641 16,636,003 16,682,808 17,371,242
2. India 4,339,061 1,096,543 4,247,948 4,093,543 5,627,940
3. Nigeria 1,550,930 3,000,000 2,999,992 3,000,000 3,000,025
4. USA 2,116,879 1,992,756 2,213,881 2,614,629 2,313,684
5. Indonesia 1,272,932 1,365,917 1,367,024 1,324,925 1,310,520
6. Vietnam 743,703 667,212 648,599 574,994 669,618
7. Brazil 226,410 279,472 287,614 348,459 329,803
8. Mexico 159,546 204,399 212,601 220,761 203,355
9. South Africa 107,880 103,879 78,697 35,946 136,168
10. Canada 74,326 83,350 87,543 91,485 95,797
11. Germany 74,481 85,616 82,574 97,628 92,375
12. UK 46,782 71,103 68,396 70,334 85,099
13. Russian 47,819 66,059 70,986 64,432 77,653
14. Thailand 25,867 29,491 36,192 69,462 74,742
15. Malaysia 74,780 58,020 72,182 84,985 71,494
16. Philippines 58,043 57,764 70,390 62,357 61,106
17. Algeria 15,375 41,177 40,354 33,027 50,698
18. Poland 24,590 30,763 28,276 22,772 46,257
19. Japan 13,030 25,903 29,070 26,016 29,302
20. France 11,036 13,734 16,872 16,204 25,911
World Total 35,990,518 35,990,513 39,144,000 41,701,000 42,596,000
Source: INC (2017)
According to Arya, Salve, and Chauhan (2016), 60% of the world’s peanut consumption
is intended as peanut oil. It is also the world’s most consumed type of oil (Fletcher and
Shi, 2016). Presently, peanut consumption around the world varies, be it as ingredients in
local cuisine, confectioneries, spread or even as snack (Rozalli, Chin, and Yusof, 2015).
The nutritional properties of peanut such as proteins, the presence of fatty acids, fibres,
and carbohydrates are essential to human nutrition and peanut has been an important food
especially in developing countries (Arya et al., 2016). Peanut also provides essential
micronutrients such as vitamin A and E, folate, calcium, magnesium, zinc, and iron that
can improve the quality of individual diet (Griel, Eissentat, Juturu, Hsieh, and Kris-
Etherton, 2004).
The peanut consumption is higher in terms of percentage of consumer, but lower in terms
of daily intake for each portion size (King, Blumberg, Ingwersen, Jenab, and Tucker,
2008). In Northern Europe (Denmark, Norway and Sweden), the peanut consumption is
20.3 gram per day and 29.1 gram per day in Southern Europe such as France, Greece, Italy,
and Spain. The central European region such as Germany, Netherlands, and United
Kingdom consumed around 44.9 gram per day (King et al., 2008). Peanut can be consumed
from simple roasting to grinding that can be mixed with sugar syrup, roasted, and salted,
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as well as the wide variety of food and food products derived from peanut such as peanut
butter (Singh and Singh, 1991).
1.3 Global Peanut-Based Products Contamination
Raw peanuts are consumed around the globe as well as processed peanut-based products
(Arya et al., 2016). Peanut-based products are referred to processed products that utilize
raw peanuts as the main ingredients. Peanuts are also processed as value added products
to broaden the variety and to create unique roasted flavour (Ketney, Santini, and Oancea,
2017). There a number of peanut-based products classified based on the countries of origin,
brands, and product assortment (Carver, 2013). A food-based product is the most popular
products of peanut other than beverages, household products, and cosmetics. Household
products (laundry soap and sweeping compound), beverages (peanut orange punch and
peanut lemon punch), and cosmetics (hand and face lotion, and peanut oil shampoo) are
several examples of peanut-based products produced in the global market (Carver, 2013).
Roasted peanuts are the most popular product among peanut-based products that mainly
consumed by consumers. Roasted peanuts are produced through the heating process
depending on moisture content around 12 to 15 minutes for up to 180 °C or 40 to 60
minutes for 160 °C (Arya et al., 2016). This process has created the roasted flavour and
crunchy texture to be consumed as snacks. Peanut biscuits, peanut butter spreads, ice
cream, and pastries are other examples of food peanut-based products.
Increasing production and consumption of peanut-based products without good production
processes could expose consumers to the health problems due to the contamination issues
in peanut and peanut-based products. Food contamination is generally explained as foods
that are spoiled or tainted by microorganisms such as bacteria, parasites, toxic or any
foreign substances that make them unfit for human food and animal feed consumption.
Generally, food contaminations are assessed and categorized into three groups, namely
physical, biological, and chemical contaminations (Santacruz, 2016; Schweihofer, 2013).
Physical contamination can be identified by consumers simply by the existence of foreign
object such as hair, nail, insects, broken glass, staples, plastics or bone that may have
accidently contacted on food or food products. Biological contamination can be caused by
microorganism such as bacteria, viruses, yeasts, moulds, and parasites that may have
produced toxins. Third category of food contamination, namely chemical contamination
varies in the aspect of production they are related to such as improper use of pesticide,
chemical used on processing equipment and very high concentration of safe substances
such as sweeteners, colouring agent and sodium nitrate (Hussain, 2016). Contaminants
products can be caused by climate condition, hygiene issue and improper processing.
These food product contaminants generally affected consumers’ health and even resulted
in economic losses to the producer country (Kumar, Mahato, Kamle, Mohanta, and Kang,
2017).
There are only two categories of contamination issues that have been recorded in Europe
(United States), Africa, and Asia (Indonesia, Malaysia, Thailand, and India) related to
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peanut and peanut-based products which are physical and biological contaminations
(Channaiah, Holmgren, Michael, Sevart, Milke, Schwan, and Milliken 2016; Ban and
Kang, 2014). Types of contamination in peanut and peanut-based products can be divided
into three, namely Aflatoxin (AF), Salmonella, and possible metal pieces (Grasso, Grove,
Halik, Arritt, and Keller, 2015; Schaffner Buchanan, Calhoun, Danyluk, Harris,
Djordjevic, and Wiedmann, 2013; Ban and Kang, 2014). Aflatoxin (AF) and Salmonella
are categorized as biological contamination, while possible metal pieces are categorized as
physical contamination.
1.3.1 Aflatoxin
Issues in nutty products have existed from various contexts of contaminations and AF is
the most concerning issues in nutty products especially peanut-based products (Ali, 2000).
Aflatoxin (AF) is naturally toxic produced by specific fungi namely Aspergillus flavus and
Aspergillus parasiticus (Gong, Watson, and Routledge, 2016). The presence of AF
depends on various factors including region, humidity, season, and temperature (Dashti,
Al-Hamli, Alomirah, Al-Zenki, Abbas, and Sawaya, 2009). The main factors for these
fungi to grow in soil are high moisture contents and temperature at pre-harvest and post-
harvest stage (Aycicek, Aksoy and Saygi, 2005; Dorner, Cole, Connick, Daigle, McGuire,
and Shasha, 2003). Historically, contaminated peanut-based products associated with AF
infected during production and processing resulting from growth of Aspergillus flavus and
Aspergillus paraciticus (Abbas Wilkinson, Zablotowicz, Accinelli, Abel, Bruns, and
Weaver, 2009). Mycotoxicosis is a term used to describe diseases of animals caused by
toxic metabolic while aflatoxicosis is a term used to describe the infections by AF after
consuming food that is highly carcinogenic (Herrman, Trigo-Stockli, and Pedersen, 2002).
Aflatoxin (AF) is one of mycotoxin, also known as secondary metabolites and has been a
major concern due to its carcinogenic to human foods and animal feeds (Chen, Luan,
Wang, Wang, and Shao, 2017; Yu, Payne, Campbell, Guo, Cleveland, Robens, and
Nierman, 2008; Akbas and Ozdemir, 2006). Various agricultural commodities, specifically
cereals including peanut, corn, pistachio, sorghum, and almond have potential to be
contaminated by AF (Yazdanpanah, Mohammadi, Abouhossain, and Cheraghali, 2005).
However, peanut is most susceptible to AF contamination compared to other agricultural
cereal commodities. This is mainly due to the direct contact between the fungi (A. flavus
and A. parasiticus) commonly found in the soil with the underground peanut. Ultimately,
highly toxic AF subsequently affects the peanut (Aycicek et al., 2005). Although, the
presence of these fungi are depend on various factors including region, humidity, season,
and temperature (Dashti et al., 2009). Higher moisture contents and temperature at pre-
harvest and post-harvest stage are favourable for fungal growth in the soil (Aycicek et al.,
2005; Dorner et al., 2003).
Previous studies conducted particularly in Asia, revealed AF is a common contamination
that has infected peanut-based products. For example in Thailand, contamination of AF
from natural fungi is most frequently found in peanut-based products compared to other
cereal products such as corn, wheat, barley, and spices (Kooprasertying, Maneeboon,
Hongprayoon, and Mahakarnchanakul, 2016). Sugita-Konishi, Nakajima, Tabata,
Ishikuro, Tanaka, Norizuki, and Kumagai (2006) also revealed AF contamination in
peanut-based products (peanut butter) was found in the Japanese local market, indicating
that Japan is not free from AF.
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The occurrences of AF contamination and mycotoxin contamination in major food
commodities including peanut-based products are reported around Southeast Asia such as
Thailand, Indonesia, and Philippines (Pitt and Hocking, 1996). As argued by Wang, Lien
and Ling (2018), peanuts and peanut-based products are the commodities that mostly
infected by AF (Wang et al., 2018). In Indonesia, the contamination levels of AF in various
food products including peanut-based products are frequently reported (Razzazi-Fazeli,
Noviandi, Porasuphatana, Agus, and Böhm, 2004). Peanut-chilli sauces, traditional snacks,
peanut butter, flour egg coated peanut, and peanut cake are the mostly affected peanut-
based products with 35% of the these products contaminated with AF and the
contamination level is ranged between 5ᴫg/kg to 870ᴫg/kg (Razzazi-Fazeli et al., 2004).
In 2001, the occurrence of AF has been reported in Taiwan. Commercial peanut products
sold in the local market are contaminated with AF between 0.2ᴫg/kg to 513.4ᴫg/kg.
Peanut-butter is reported as the highest level of AF contamination, followed by peanut
flour and peanut candy. The level of AF contamination has exceeded the maximum
permissible limit of AF in Taiwan (15ᴫg/kg) (Chen Liao, Lin, Chiueh, and Shih, 2013).
Most of the contaminated peanut-based products throughout Asia are attributed of AF with
various levels of contamination and mostly exceeded the maximum permitted limit set by
each of the country regulations.
The clinical signs of aflatoxicosis are extremely varied as the infection also depends on the
individual. Signs of acute of Aflatoxicosis includes depression, nervousness, abdominal
pain, diarrhoea, stunted growth on children, liver cancer, and possibly even death due to
weaken immune system (Herrman et al., 2002; Lewis, Onsongo, Njapau, Schurz-Rogers,
Luber, Kieszak, and DeCock, 2005; Wild and Gong, 2010; Zain, 2011). Recent
investigations have also recognized liver cancer as a cause by AF. According to Ministry
of Health Malaysia, liver cancer is listed as the top ten most common cancers occurring in
Malaysia (MOH, 2011; MOH, 2006). As stated by Norlia et al. (2018) that liver cancer is
the main target of aflatoxicosis due to high consumption of AF in peanut-based products
in the Malaysian market. Furthermore, Nemunaitis, Brown-Glabeman, Soares, Belmonte,
Liem, Nir, and Gullapalli (2018) recently released that AF exposure increased the risk of
gallbladder cancer. Koshiol, Gao, Dean, Egner, Nepal, Jones, and Ferreccio (2017) also
reported that scientific research has indicated the AF effect on human body system. The
risk of gallbladder cancer among consumer can be reduced by educating consumers on AF
contamination (Koshiol et al., 2017).
AF contamination in peanut have caused decline in terms of quantity and quality of peanut-
based products (Loi, Fanelli, Liuzzi, Logrieco, and Mulè, 2017). Findings from previous
studies reported that contaminated peanut as a sign from AF contamination can be
identified by discolouration, mould, and rancidity of the product (N’Dede, Jolly, Vodouhe,
and Jolly, 2013). Since AF cannot be eliminated using heat treatment or during processing,
monitoring and prevention in upstream and downstream must be implemented to reduce
the risks of AF contamination.
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1.3.2 Salmonella
Salmonella is mostly infected on raw peanuts and peanut-based products during processing
stage (production, harvesting, storage, processing, and packaging) and this is due to non-
hygiene practices that caused Salmonellosis (Nascimento, Carminati, Silva, Silva,
Bernardi, and Copetti, 2018; Ministry of Health Malaysia (MOH), 2015). Salmonellosis
can be described as the illness cause by Salmonella infection (Acheson and Hohmann,
2001). According to Peng, Salaheen, Almario, Tesfaye, Buchanan, and Biswas (2016) and
Delgago, Rosegrant, Steinfeld, Ehui, and Courbois (2001), Salmonellosis incidents are
associated with consumption of animal products such as poultry, meat or eggs, fresh
produce, and foods of low water activity included peanut butter. Current outbreak reported
that Salmonellosis have shifted focus from AF as major contamination in peanut-based
products due to the fact that Salmonella also contributed the infections in same type of
products which is peanut-based products (CDC, 2010). In the United States, it has been
reported that multistate outbreaks involving S. Typhimurium in peanut butter products
occurred during 2008 to 2009 (CDC, 2009; CDC, 2010; CDC, 2011). These salmonellosis
outbreaks have caused for illnesses in 714 people resulting in more than 150
hospitalizations and 9 recorded deaths (CDC, 2011; CDC, 2010; Shachar and Yaron,
2006).
According to Scheil, Cameron, Heaton, Kirk, Vulcanis, Holland, and Rouch, (1996), the
first outbreak of salmonellosis was reported in 1996 in five mainland states of Australia
and Northern Territory. South Australia alone reported 15 cases during three months,
compared with 12 cases over previous five years (Scheil, Cameron, Dalton, Murray, and
Wilson, 1998). Based on 44 cases reported in Victoria, children and senior citizen are most
susceptible to the risk of salmonellosis infection (Lund and O’Brien, 2009). Investigation
results revealed that the consumption of nine different brands of peanut butter is associated
with salmonellosis incidence (Shachar and Yaron, 2006). All brands except one were
produced in the same factory (Scheil et al., 1998). In 2015, the cases of Salmonella
outbreak were reported from 10 states in USA. According to Peng et al. (2016), from 13
outbreak cases, seven were related with peanut butter products that have been consumed
by consumers.
1.3.3 Possible Metal Pieces
Possible metal pieces can be identified as physical contamination in the product due to
non-hygiene practices occurring along the supply chain processes. These types of
contamination in peanut-based products are identified as “high profile” incidence of food
products issue. In 2015, the first case of physical contamination in peanut-based products
was reported in the United State of America (USA). Skippy Reduced Fat Creamy Peanut
Butter Spread is among the product contaminated with the metal shaving on the jar of the
products, also known as possible metal pieces. Jars containing small pieces of metal
shavings were discovered on an in-line magnet check during routine cleaning and the size
of the contamination objects were found to be greater than 7mm in length. It was reported
that the product batch affected by the physical contamination is limited to 16.3 ounce per
jar, “Best If Used By” batch DEC1416 with a package UPC code 37600-10500. However,
this batch was not marketed in Malaysia (MOH, 2015). Possible metal pieces are
categorized as physical contamination with reports being one of the contaminants in peanut
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butter (Santacruz, 2016). The company has issued a statement where 153 cases of reduced
fat creamy Skippy brand peanut butter may be contaminated by small pieces of metal
discovered during an in-line magnet check.
1.4 Peanut-Based Products Contamination Incidence in Malaysia
In Malaysia, peanut and peanut-based products are not specified as staple food. However,
this foodstuff has been used as main or as base ingredients for some local dishes (Norlia,
Jinap, Nor-Khaizura, Son, and Chin, 2018). Malaysia is listed at the top 12 of the highest
peanut consumption in 2015 and top 15 of the highest peanut consumption in 2016 (INC,
2015; INC, 2017). The average daily intake of peanut and peanut-based products among
the Malaysian consumers is around 56.90 g per day with the purchasing pattern of nuts and
their products twice per month (Arzandeh, Selamat, and Lioe, 2010; Leong, Ismail, Latiff,
Nurul Izzah, Narazah, and Nurul Ain, 2011). Despite peanut not being a staple food and
main protein source among Malaysian consumers, the consumption of peanut is rising in
recent year due to the variety of peanut products and the high accessibility of the products
in the market (Mohd Azaman, Kamarulzaman, Shamsudin, and Selamat, 2015). Malaysian
consumers, particularly consumed peanut in forms of snack or ready-to-eat foodstuff
(roasted peanut, unshelled peanut, and peanut candy), as well as in local cuisine such as
satay sauce, desserts, pastries, buns, and cookies (Mohd Azaman, Kamarulzaman,
Shamsudin, and Selamat, 2016). However, some of the peanut-based products listed in the
Malaysian market have been identified to be contaminated by AF (Arzandeh et al., 2010).
It has been widely reported by Malaysian research that AF is the major incidence of peanut-
based products contamination compared to incidences associated with Salmonella and
possible metal pieces globally (Sulaiman, Chye, Hamid, and Yatim, 2007; Sabran,
Jamaluddin, Mutalib, Sokhini, and Ahmad, 2013; Hong et al., 2010; Leong, Ismail, Latif,
and Ahmad, 2010). Malaysian’s hot and humid climate is favourable for AF growth
(Sabran et al., 2013). Malaysia is located at equatorial area with high humidity range and
an average temperature of 28°C to 31°C with heavy rainfall throughout the years that
provide favourable condition for fungal growth. Hence, the risks of mould growth an AF
production in peanut-based products increased especially when stored under these
conditions (Norlia et al., 2018; Arzandeh et al., 2010; Cotty and Jaime-Garcia, 2007;
Kozakiewicz, Highley, and Johnson, 1996).
The first incidence of AF outbreak in Malaysia began in Perak during 1988 resulting 13
deaths among children after consuming contaminated noodles (Chao, Maxwell, and Wong,
1991; Isa et al., 1995). Since then, research on AF has been conducted in Malaysia (Sabran
et al., 2013). Peanut are the main cereal commodities commonly found to have been
contaminated with AF (Isa and Abidin, 1995).
Surprisingly, the level of AF contamination in peanut-based products is greater than
maximum permissible limit by Malaysian 1985 (Sulaiman et al., 2007; Sabran et al.,
2013). In 1981, AF was found in peanut butter in the local market of Malaysia. In Melaka,
Selangor, and Negeri Sembilan have reported of AF contamination with the state of
Selangor contained only 5.8% of peanut-based products safe to consume by human,
whereas the rest of the peanut-based products samples contained AF contamination and
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exceeded the maximum permitted limits set by Malaysian Food and Regulation 1985 (Isa
and Abidin, 1995). Aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) was reported as the major contamination in
peanut-based products among all AF class (Ali, Hashim, and Yoshizawa, 1999).
In Kuala Terengganu, the incidence of contamination in peanut-based products was
reported to have exceeded the permitted limit of AF set by Malaysian standard (Hong,
Mohd Yusof, and Ling, 2010). The same incidence was also reported in Penang Island
where peanut-based products in the local market such as roasted ground nut in shell,
roasted ground nut shelled, peanut cake, peanut butter, and bakery products were
contaminated by AF. The level of contamination detected was more than 15ᴫg/kg, which
has exceeded the maximum permitted limit of AF set by Malaysian Food Act 1983 and
Regulation 1985. This incidence was reported to be the highest level of AF contamination
found in most of the peanut-based products in the local market (Leong et al., 2010).
Peanut consumption among Malaysian consumers has increased due to the availability of
peanut-based products in the local market. Therefore, consumers are likely to be exposed
to the health hazards of consuming contaminated peanut-based products (Mohd Azaman
et al., 2016; Afsah-hejri, Jinap, Hajeb, Radu, and Shakibazadeh, 2013). Cereal-based foods
which are peanut-based products were reported as the most susceptible to AF
contamination. Abdullah, Nawawi, and Othman (1998) reported that contamination of AF
in food products frequently occurred at the consumer level due to the higher percentage of
contaminated peanut samples occurring at private homes compared to retail market. Policy
concept under food safety frequently highlighted treatments to reduce microbiological
hazards such as pasteurization, pulsed light technologies, and high-pressure treatments
were not necessary to ensure complete elimination of the hazards such as Salmonella
(Norhana, Poole, Deeth, and Dykes, 2010). The food safety with respect to food products
contamination is of great concern worldwide. Consumers need to have knowledge towards
the issues of contaminated peanut-based products by identifying the contaminated
symptoms. Information on the symptoms of food products contaminations should not be
withheld by scientists but must be educated to the consumers as well (Abdullah et al.,
1998).
Thus far, there are no cases on the outbreak of contaminated peanut-based products
reported by Malaysian consumers, but the incidence of AF infection in peanut-based
products are frequently reported around Malaysian market by various agencies (Sulaiman
et al., 2007; Sabran et al., 2013; Hong et al., 2010; Leong et al., 2010). Malaysia has lower
incidence rates compared to developed countries such as France and United Kingdom. In
the United Kingdom, the incidence rates was reported to be 2,600 cases per 100,000;, 1,210
cases per 100,000 in France; and 25,000 per 100,000 in both Australia and United States
(Teisl and Roe, 2010). The incidence rates in Malaysia are unreported due to the complex
chain that needs to be addressed before it can be reported to the authority (Soon, Singh,
and Baines, 2011). Such a situation indicates that peanut-based products outbreaks cannot
be identified by Malaysian consumers due to lack of knowledge especially in terms of food
safety. Consumers’ lack of knowledge towards products contamination will lead to
unfavourable attitude. The argument that consumers have lack of public knowledge about
the incidence needs to be addressed and resolved (Sabran, Jamaluddin, Abdul Mutalib, and
Abdul Rahman, 2012).
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1.5 Malaysian Guidelines on Peanut-Based Products
The policies adapted by different countries serve as guidelines to control activities of
business firms, but also to protect consumers from any hazards include food contamination
issue. Food contamination is the prevalent case occurring most of the countries in the
world. Peanut-based products are one of the food products highly exposed to food
contamination issues. In terms of health concern, international and local regulation such as
Hazards Analysis and Critical Control Point (HACCP), Good Manufacturing Practice
(GMP), Malaysian Good Agricultural Practice (myGAP), Standard Operating Procedure
(SOP), Food Act 1983, Food Regulation 1985, Codex Alimentarius Commision,
Regulatory Limit of Aflatoxin and government department which have role to control food
safety of products before entering Malaysian markets were employed and enacted to
protect the public from food products contamination issues and fraud in the preparation,
sale, and the use of food (Regulatory Limits of Mycotoxins in ASEAN Countries, 2015;
MOH, 2018).
Food safety can be analysed by hazard analysis or HACCP, the universal standard that are
accepted globally as a guideline to control the food contaminations issues. Pillsbury
Company was developed HACCP standard in 1959 and it became mandatory requirement
by USDA before being accepted as the world’s standard for food safety control
(Schweihofer, 2013). There are seven principles in HACCP analyses to minimize the food
safety hazard, namely conduct of hazard analysis, determination of the critical control
points (CCPs), establishment of critical limits, monitoring procedures, corrective actions,
verification procedures and record-keeping and documentation procedures (Schweihofer,
2013). Written documentation and verification are keys to a successful HACCP plan
(Schweihofer, 2013).
Regulatory Limit of Mycotoxin in ASEAN is a collaboration between ASEAN countries
as a guideline used to control the existence of Mycotoxin especially AF not only in nutty
products, but also in other foods such as spices, cereals, herbs, and infant food. Brunei
Darussalam, Indonesia, Philippines, Singapore, Thailand, Vietnam, and Malaysia are the
involved countries for this regulation (Regulatory Limit of Mycotoxins in ASEAN
Countries, 2015). Under this regulation, the permitted limits of AF differ between
countries, foods categories, and AF groups. As mentioned before, AFB1 is the most
carcinogenic among mycotoxins and has been highlighted in the Regulatory Limit of
Mycotoxin in ASEAN (Coppock, Christian, and Jacobsen, 2018; Xiong, Xiong, Zhou, Liu,
and Wu, 2018). The details of permitted limit of mycotoxins for AFB1 and total AF are
listed in Table 1.2.
Based on Table 1.2, permitted limit of total AF in Malaysia for peanut-based products are
divided into three products namely raw peanut, peanut for further processing, and peanut
ready-to-eat. Raw peanut recorded about 35 ᴫg/kg for total AF that has been permitted in
this product. Peanut for further processing shows about 15 ᴫg/kg and only 10 ᴫg/kg of total
AF that has been permitted in peanut ready-to-eat products.
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Table 1.2: Permitted Limit of Mycotoxins in ASEAN Countries for Aflatoxins
Aflatoxins
Country
AFB1 (ᴫg/kg) Total Aflatoxins (ᴫg/kg)
Food Category Max
Limits
Food Category Max
Limits
Indonesia
Peanuts, maize,
spices
15 Peanuts, maize, spices 15
Maize 15 Maize 15
Spices 15 - -
- - Food 20
Malaysia
Cereal-based food
for infants and
children (calculated
as dry matter basis)
0.1 Food 35
- - Peanuts 35
- - Other food 5
- - Peanuts, almonds,
hazelnuts and
pistachios for further
processing
15
- - Brazil nut, shelled, for
further processing
10
- - Peanuts, almonds,
hazelnuts and
pistachios ready-to-eat
10
- - Others 5
Philippines
Herbal food products
ready-to-drink
Food supplements
10 Processed pili nut 10
- - Peanuts for further
processing
15
- - Ready to eat tree nuts 10
- - Corn based snack
foods
20
- - Shelled corn (Feed
greds
50
- - Herbal food
Products ready-to-
drink
Food supplements
20
- - Dry base mixes for
soups and bases
containing peanut
10
Singapore
All foods except food
for infants or young
children
5 All foods except food
for infants or young
children
5
Food for infants or
young children
0.1 - -
- - Food 20
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Thailand - - Class I, II, III of corn
kernel
15, 20, 50
Vietnam
1.1 Peanuts and other kinds of
oil seeds used as
raw materials or
need to be
processed before
using as food or
as food
ingredients.
8 1.1 Peanuts and other kinds of oil seeds
used as raw
materials or need
to be processed
before using as
food or as food
ingredients.
15
1.2 Almonds, pistachio, dried
apricots used as
raw materials or
need to be
processed before
using as food or
as food
ingredients.
12 1.2 Almonds, pistachio, dried
apricots used as
raw materials or
need to be
processed before
using as food or as
food ingredients.
15
1.3 Chestnuts, brazil nuts used as raw
materials or
need to be
processed before
using as food or
as food
ingredients.
8 1.3 Chestnuts, brazil nuts used as raw
materials or need
to be processed
before using as
food or as food
ingredients.
15
1.4 Tree nuts used as raw materials,
excluding the
products
specified in 1.2;
1.3; or need to
be processed
before using as
food or as food
ingredients.
5 1.4 Tree nuts used as raw materials,
excluding the
products specified
in 1.2; 1.3; or need
to be processed
before using as
food or as food
ingredients.
10
1.5 Peanuts and other oil seeds
for eating and
their derived
products
Except for:
crude vegetable
oil for refinery
and refined
vegetable oil
2 1.5 Peanuts and other oil seeds for eating
and their derived
products
Except for: crude
vegetable oil for
refinery and
refined vegetable
oil
4
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1.6 Almonds, pistachio, dried
apricots used as
food or as food
ingredients.
8 1.6 Almonds, pistachio, dried
apricots used as
food or as food
ingredients.
10
1.7 Chestnuts and brazil nuts used
as food or as
food ingredients.
5 1.7 Chestnuts and brazil nuts used as
food or as food
ingredients.
10
1.8 Tree nuts used as food,
excluding the
products
specified in 1.6,
1.7, or products
used as food
ingredients.
2 1.8 Tree nuts used as food, excluding the
products specified
in 1.6, 1.7, or
products used as
food ingredients.
4
2.0 Material dried fruits that need to
be processed
before using as
food or as food
ingredients.
5 2.0 Material dried fruits that need to
be processed
before using as
food or as food
ingredients.
10
2.1 Dried fruits and derived products
used as food or
as food
ingredients.
2 2.1 Dried fruits and derived products
used as food or as
food ingredients.
4
2.2 Cereal and derived products
including
processed
products (except
for the products
specified in
1.12; 1.15; 1.17)
2 2.2 Cereal and derived products including
processed products
(except for the
products specified
in 1.12; 1.15; 1.17)
4
2.3 Corn and rice that need to be
processed before
using as food or
as food
ingredients.
5 2.3 Corn and rice that need to be
processed before
using as food or as
food ingredients.
10
2.4 Material milk, thermos-
processed milk,
milk for
producing dairy
5 2.4 Material milk, thermos-processed
milk, milk for
producing dairy
10
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2.5 Spices: - Chili: all kinds
of chilies, chili
sauce, chili
powder, paprika,
hot chilies.
- Pepper, - including both
black and white
pepper
- Nutmeg - Ginger and
turmeric
0.1 2.5 Spices: - Chili: all kinds of
chilies, chili sauce,
chili powder,
paprika, hot
chilies.
- Pepper, including - both black and
white pepper
- Nutmeg - Ginger and
turmeric
10
2.6 Food derived from cereal for
new born babies
and small
children
0.1 2.6 Food derived from cereal for new born
babies and small
children
Unspe-
cified
2.7 Milk powder for children and
milk for new
born babies
Unspe
-cified
2.7 Milk powder for children and milk
for new born
babies
Unspe-
cified
2.8 Diet food especially for
new born babies
0.1 2.8 Diet food especially for new
born babies
Unspe-
cified
Source: Regulatory Limit of Mycotoxins in ASEAN Countries (2015)
In addition, collaboration between several countries was also initiated to overcome the AF
contamination in peanut-based products. Codex standards is the guideline applies to peanut
and peanut-based products for human consumption. The scope highlights contaminant,
hygiene, methods of analysis and sampling, packaging, labelling, essential component, and
quality factors. Essential component and quality factors characterize peanut contaminants
that can be identified by physical characteristics such as mouldy kernels, decayed kernels,
and rancid kernels. Mouldy kernels can be referred to kernels with mould filaments visible
to the naked eye, whereas decayed kernel as those showing visibly significant
decomposition. Meanwhile, rancid kernels are related to the oxidation of lipids or the
production of free fatty acids that result in the production of unpleasant flavours (Wallace
and Walton, 2011). Codex also highlighted the maximum level for moisture content as less
than 10% and 9% for peanut in-pod and peanut kernels, respectively. The limit is imposed
to prevent contaminant peanut especially during transportation where climate, duration of
transport, and storage are important regulators.
Food Regulations 1985 outlines the standards and particular labelling requirements for
food stuffs including nut and nut products. All nut and nut products must be free from
moulds and insect infestation. For peanut butter products, the product must be prepared by
clean grinding, sound, and using roasted peanut kernels that have been decorticated
(Malaysian Food Regulations, 1985). Under this regulation, there are also specific
requirement that needed to be followed where the amount of peanut, protein, edible fat and
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edible oil, water, sugar and glucose, salt, and permitted food conditioner cannot exceed or
less than required.
Food Safety Information System of Malaysia (FoSIM) under the Ministry of Health
Malaysia (MOH) controls the inspection of imported food products before entering the
Malaysian market from any hazardous physical, chemical or biological contaminants. The
news release by Food Safety Information System of Malaysia (FoSIM) on contaminated
peanut butter with possible metal pieces and subsequently being recalled from the market
shelves is a good medium to broadcast the current issue of food contamination (Ministry
of Health Malaysia, 2015).
1.6 Problem Statement
Peanut and peanut-based products are consumed as a side component of the protein and
the consumption rate in Malaysia is high although it is not the staple food of Malaysians
(Afsah-Hejri et al., 2013). Most of the peanuts are imported from China and India to fulfil
the consumers’ demand on peanut and peanut-based products (INC, 2017). However,
peanuts are susceptible to contamination by fungi, specifically Aspergillus flavus and
Aspergillus paraciticus due to the climate condition during the transport between the
exporting and importing countries. Contamination by the fungi resulted in the release of
toxin called Aflatoxin (AF) that can also be found in several cereal grains, feeds, and nuts
such as peanuts, cocoa beans, spices, and others nutty products.
Fungi are distributed worldwide and can be found in various food and feedstuffs. The
incidences of foodborne diseases due to the AF contamination have been reported
especially in developing countries like Malaysia, as well as in the developed countries
(Norlia et al., 2018; Sulaiman et al., 2018). Aflatoxin (AF) contaminations have caused
serious problem to consumers’ health both short or long term and these problems have
become a great issue and concern among consumers in Malaysia. The common effects of
AF contaminations are liver cancer, vomiting, diarrhoea, and convulsion. Consumers that
are exposed to high level of AF contamination could result in fatalities within a short time.
As indicated by Norlia et al. (2018) that liver cancer is the main target of aflatoxicosis due
to high consumption of AF in peanut-based products in the Malaysian market. Other than
AF, Salmonella, and possible metal piece are also listed as ‘high profile’ food incidence in
peanut-based products. Salmonella and possible metal pieces occur during processing
stage due to non-hygiene practices that have negatively affect consumers’ health. Possible
metal piece will lead to injuries such as choking, cuts or broken teeth where a Salmonella
infection can cause nausea, vomiting, abdominal cramps, diarrhoea, fever, and headache
(Santacruz, 2016; Rahmianna, Purnomo, and Yusnawan, 2015).
Although there are yet major cases reported in Malaysia, there is a high possibility of the
consumers inflicted by contaminated peanut-based products. The low incidence rates in
Malaysia are masked by the lack of knowledge among the Malaysian consumers on peanut-
based products outbreak and related issues (Soon et al., 2011). As consumers are not in the
best position to accurately assess food risk themselves, they rely on the food industry and
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government to remove the risk. However, many stakeholders are still ignoring the
importance of safety certification label includes HACCP (Abdul-Mutalib, Syafinaz, Sakai,
and Shirai, 2015). Consumers’ knowledge, attitude, and concern on detailed information
related to contamination of food products in various markets need to be addressed where
they must be educated with scientific knowledge on symptoms of food products
contaminations (Ziman, 2004). Otherwise, the consumers will be exposed to the danger of
consuming contaminated peanuts-based products that can lead to adverse health especially
over a long term period. Hence, consumers’ knowledge, attitude, and concern towards
various types of contamination in food products especially peanut-based products become
critical.
1.7 Research Questions
In this study, four research questions were developed as follows:
1. What is the level of consumers’ knowledge, attitude, and concern in consuming contaminated peanut-based products?
2. Is there any significant association between socio-demographic profiles and consumers’ knowledge, attitude, and concern level in consuming contaminated peanut-based
products?
3. What is the relationship between consumers’ knowledge, attitude, and concern in consuming contaminated peanut-based products?
4. What are the most influential factors that influence consumers’ behaviour in consuming contaminated peanut-based products?
1.8 Objectives of the Study
The general objective of this study is to examine consumer knowledge, attitude, and
concern in consuming contaminated peanut-based products.
The specific objectives of this study are as follows:-
1. To determine consumers’ knowledge, attitude, and concern level in consuming contaminated peanut-based products.
2. To determine the significant association between consumers’ socio-demographic profiles and consumers’ knowledge, attitude, and concern level in consuming
contaminated peanut-based products.
3. To examine the relationship between knowledge, attitude, and concern in consuming contaminated peanut-based products.
4. To investigate the most influential factors that influence consumers’ behaviour in consuming contaminated peanut-based products.
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1.9 Significance of the Study
This study will benefit to the industry players such as producers, manufacturers, and
marketers to have a better understanding about consumers’ knowledge, attitude, and
concern on safe food products for consumption. By understanding the level of consumers’
knowledge, attitude, and concern in consuming contaminated peanut-based products, this
study indirectly provides the government and private agencies the information towards
consumers’ risks in consuming contaminated peanut-based products. In addition, findings
from this study will contribute important information to the policy makers as the guideline
for better policy formulation in terms of reducing the risk of consuming contaminated
peanut-based products.
1.10 Organization of Thesis
The thesis is organized into five chapters. The first chapter discusses the background of
the study which included global peanut production, global peanut consumption, global
peanut-based products contamination, peanut-based products contamination incidence in
Malaysia, Malaysian guidelines on peanut-based products, the research questions and the
objectives. The second chapter displays a review of some relevant literature on previous
study, information and findings which are appropriate to the study. The third chapter
discusses an overview of the approach employed to research methodology selection
including sampling techniques, methods of data collection, description of the study areas,
and tools of the data analysis for this study. The fourth chapter presents an in-depth
discussion on analysis and findings of the study. The last chapter discusses briefly the
summary of the findings, policy recommendations, limitation of the study, suggestion for
future research, and conclusion.
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