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Chapter 2
Consumer Behaviour: Concepts and Theories
CHAPTER 2
1. INTRODUCTION
2. CONSUMER BEHAVIOUR MODELS
2.1 THE ECONOMIC MODEL
2.2 THE PSYCHOLOGICAL MODEL
2.3 THE PSYCHO ANALYTIC MODEL
2.4 THE GESTALT MODEL
2.5 THECOGNITIVETHEORY
2.6 SOCIALOGICAL MODEL
3. DECISION PROCESS MODELS
3.1 NICOSIA MODEL
3.2 HOWARD-SHETH MODEL
3.3 ENGEL KOLLAT AND BLACKWELL MODEL
Chapter 2
1. INTRODUCTION
This chapter deals with various traditional and modern
consumer behaviour models. They explain as how a consumer
behaves prior to, while and after purchasing a product. This
theoretical knowledge served as a useful background in studying
consumers' motivational factors and their purchase patterns.
BUYER, CUSTOMER AND CONSUMER
The term "buyer" or "customer" is used to signify the entity
actually engaged in the act of exchanging goods and /or services for
money. He may or may not be the ultimate user of these things,
depending upon whether the goods are bought for his own
consumption or for reselling or reprocessing and selling. At times he
may even be only the purchasing agent for the transaction. The
term "buyer" is therefore, a much wider term than the term
"consumer" which signifies only the ultimate user of the goods and
services.
The implication of this distinction is that the purchase action is
just one point in the entire buyer-behaviour process, which is
inextricably linked to the consumption of the product, both by the
buyer and the other members of the group for whom he acts as a
purchasing agent. Though consumer research usually focuses on
the buyer behaviour and the motivation of the buyer a careful and
more realistic analysis necessarily includes the influences of the
Chapter 2 3 3
total consuming unit (the family or any other group) on the
purchasing agent.
2. CONSUMER BEHAVIOUR MODELS
Marketers are frequently bewildered by the variables that
influence consumers due to the lack of a clear understanding of the
different situation-specific variables. Some of these variables like
personality and attitudes are internal to the consumer, whereas
others such as the economic climate and reference groups are
external. I n some cases, the marketers identify the variables but
the exact nature and strength of their causation may not be clear to
them. Under such circumstances, a relevant study on consumer
behaviour is felt useful. Many such models of consumer behaviour
have been developed to overcome such difficulties over a period of
time, notable of them are briefly presented below.
MODEL
A model can be defined as a simplified representation of
reality, incorporating only those significant aspects of reality that
interest the model-builder. While modeling, consumer's aspects not
relevant should be excluded.
APPROACHES TO THE STUDY OF CONSUMER BEHAVIOUR
Consumer-behaviour as body of knowledge is an applied field
and an interdisciplinary borrowing from the subjects such as
Chapter 2 34
Psychology, Sociology, Economic, Social Anthropology, etc. to
furnish a body of knowledge about the consumer. Over the last two
decades, several theories of consumer behaviour have been
formulated, tested, substantiated or validated, which have changed
our concept of the consumer and his behaviour. A brief description
of the basic approaches to the study of consumer behaviour is
furnished below:
2.1 THE ECONOMIC MODEL
Classical economists including the famous Alfred ~ a r ~ h ~ l l '
looked upon the customer largely as the rational creature who
consciously bases his buying behaviour primarily on economic
considerations. Economists, in general ignore the question of how
human needs are formed and changed or how this change is
reflected in subsequent behaviour. They postulate that the
consumer follows the principles of utility maximization in order to
maximize his satisfaction. Given a set of needs, tastes and income
data, the economic model seeks to predict how the consumer will
allocate his money over available set of products with given prices.
Philip ~o t l e r * , "in his explanation of the model, says that
because of the principles of diminishing marginal utility, the
consumer will not allocate all his income to one product. Additional
units consumed will give him diminishing satisfaction.
The economic model suggests useful behavioral hypothesis:
(a) Lower the price of the product, higher will be its sales.
Chapter 2 3 5
(b) b w e r the price of its substitutes, lower will be the sales of
this product.
(c) Higher the income, higher will be the sales of this product,
provided it is not an inferior good.
(d) Higher the promotional expenditure, higher will be the sales.
These hypotheses may hold well partially, at least where the
industrial buyer is concerned. But in the case of consumer goods
and services, people are not as well informed about prices and
availability of substitutes as the economists would have believed. I n
addition, many of us are influenced by emotional and sometimes
non-rational motives for buying which are well divorced from the
principles of economic rationality.
There is, however, a central core of truth to the Marshallian
model, which makes it a useful point of reference in any study of
consumer behaviour. Gabor and g ranger), referring to the general
public on the basis of their survey-study, suggest that a very
substantial portion of them behave in a way, which conforms to the
basic postulates of demand theory. Eva Mueller, in her study of
purchase decisions, discovered that only 25 percent of the
consumers purchasing large household appliances did so with
"substantial degree of deliberationu4 while there is a tendency on
the part of the marketers to discuss the model as being simplistic,
economists argue that the more trained is the buyer; the more
Chapter 2
important the purchase, closer would be the approximation of the
buying behaviour according to the utility maximization model.
2.2 THE PSYCHOLOGICAL MODEL: (The Pavlovian Learning Model)
This learning model was first developed by a group of classical
~sycholog is t~ , Pavlov being one of the propounders. This model
suggests that human behaviour is based on some central concepts5
- the drives, stimuli, cues, responses and reinforcements which
determine the human needs and need-satisfying behaviour.
Individually, a drive is a strong internal stimulus, which compels
action. Stimuli are inputs, which are capable of arousing drives or
motives. The way a person responds to a given stimulus would
depend upon the configuration of cues. Cues are signs or signals
which act as stimulus to a particular drive.
The way an individual reacts to the stimuli is known as his
response. I f the response to a given stimulus is 'rewarding', it
reinforces the possibility of similar response when faced with the
same stimulus or cue. Applied to marketing, if on an informational
cue like advertising, the buyer purchases a product (response), the
favourable experience with the product increases the probability
that the responses would be repeated the next time the need
stimulus arises (reinforcement).
The model provides useful insights in the behaviour of the
consumer by showing that human needs are a result of the
interplay of drives, stimuli, responses, etc. The marketers utilize
this knowledge to build up the demand of a product by associating it
with strong drives and providing positive reinforcement. They could
use these concepts to create a market for a new product by
associating it with similar cues as that of the competitor and hope
to shift buyer loyalties or to create a differentiated image for their
own product by associating it with dissimilar strong drives.
The above model, however, does not deal adequately with
phenomenon such as perception, the sub-conscious and
interpersonal influence, which are found to be important
determinants of behaviour.
2.3 THE PSYCHO-ANALYTIC MODEL
This model tries to overcome a major limitation of the above
stimulus-response model by incorporating certain intervening
variables like perception, the family and social environment. The
model suggests that human needs operate at various levels of
consciousness. The motivational wellsprings embedded in these
different levels, are not obvious to the casual observer, nor does the
individual himself understands them fully. They can only be
analyzed by vigorous specialised probing. The founder of the
psychoanalytic school of thought, Sigmund Freud, pioneered the
procedure of vigorous observation and analysis to understand the
Chapter 2 3 8
personality complexities and was able to provide some insights into
individual personality differences and resultant behaviour6.
Freud maintained that libido (sex) is one of the most powerful
instincts and the motives for many acts can be attributed to the
sexual urge manifesting itself in obvious fashions unconsciously.
Later researchers like ~ d l e r ~ postulated that other repressed
desires, like the urge for power, also act as powerful motivators of
behaviour. Like the urges mentioned by Freud, these also manifest
themselves in diverse behaviour patterns.
According to psychoanalytic theory the behaviour of the
individual is never simplistic. The motivations thlat underlie it are
not apparent to the casual observer of overt behaviour or even to
the person himself.
Based on the above stated Freudian school of thought, a new
field of research in buyer-behaviour called motivation research
emerged in the fifties. The researchers, starting from the Freudian
premises that the human behaviour is a result of both his conscious
and subconscious mind, try to probe the latter by using projective
techniques in order to be able to furnish reasons underlying overt
behaviour. This field provided a useful broadening of the research
methodology of the Freudian school and utilized the concepts
thereof to study human behaviour.
The most important marketing implication of the model is that
since buyer's needs operate at several levels of consciousness, he is
concerned not only with the functional aspect of the product, the
symbolic aspect may also hold substantial meaning for him and
motivates him to a buying decision. He may, therefore, respond to a
stimulus, both his conscious and subconscious, since his behaviour
is the product of both. This has important implications for the
advertising function and the product planning function.
Two more contributions from the field of psychology are
notable; the first, the Gestalt model which has provided useful
insights into, and a new angle to human perception, and the
second, the cognitive theory which has provided valid explanations
to many hither to unexplained aspects of buyer-behaviour.
2.4 THE GESTALT MODEL
This model lays special emphasis on man and his
environment, On the basis of controlled experiments it has offered
quite a conclusive proof that individual perceives and interprets the
stimuli confronting them, in relation to the organisation of their own
individual experiences. The term "gestalt" means "from a
configuration" anld the gestalt theory deals specifically with the
physical perception of stimuli.
Enlarging upon and modifying the gestalt approach, ~ewin '
has postulated that man lives in complex psychological field
Chapter 2 40
composed of many influences. I f a realistic theory of motivation is
to be formed, he averred all these influences must be
comprehended. By this contention, human activity is basically goal-
directed and individual behaviour of any sort is directed towards a
stable organisation of his psychological field through his/her
attempts to reduce tension, reconcile conflicts and make sense of
the worid in which he lives. This model, as noted earlier, is a step
forward in the study of perception and interpretation of individual
stimuli and may have implications for the marketer in planning his
marketing strategy, particularly brand strategy.
2.5 THE COGNITIVE THEORY
The Cognitive Theory, more pertinent to the understanding of
buyer behaviour, or the Theory of Cognitive Dissonance which is
very pertinent to the understanding of human behaviour, has
provided highly useful and rational explanation of the buyer-
behaviour. It explains, to a certain extent, the tendency towards
consistent brand patronage.
Leon ~ e s t i n g e r ~ , the profounder of the Theory of Cognitive
Dissonance, hypothesized thus:
1. The existence of dissonance (a state of imbalance in the
cognitive structure) is psychologically uncomfortable
and will lead the person to reduce dissonance and
achieve consonance (i.e, balance).
2. Whenever dissonance exists, the person, in addition to
trying to reduce it will also actively try to avoid
situations and information, which add to dissonance.
Applied to day-to-day marketing situations, the theory
interprets buying behaviour as follows: when several alternatives
confront the buyer in his choice decision, he is likely to experience
some anxiety, which becomes more insistent once a commitment to
purchase one of them has been made. As advertisements and word
of mouth information highlighting the qualities of the rejected
alternatives are perceived and received, he may experience some
doubts about the rationality of his decision. The product itself may
not live up to his expectation and thus adding to the already
existing anxiety it will give rise to what is called post-purchase
dissonance.
According to Festinger, the buyer in this situation will try to
reassure himself by seeking information to support his choice; and
also by avoiding sources of information which would reduce his
buying confidence. He may, in addition, collect information which
projects the rejected alternatives in the disadvantageous light.
Being selective in his perception, therefore, the buyer may select
the information supporting or favourable to his choice and avoid or & 2
distort unpleasant information. 4, .-. < - . " J 1 7 k o ,
Chapter 2 42
The marketing implication of this theory lies in the fact that
since dissonance and reassurance motivate buyer action, the effort
to dispel dissonance should be embedded in the product-package, in
its advertising and word-of-mouth publicity as also in its after-sales
services. The advertising and promotion function should be enlarged
to include the "reassurance" aspect to lead support to the buyer's
choice-decision.
2.4 SOCIOLOGICAL MODEL
The sociological model postulates that man's needs and
behaviour are largely dependent upon and shaped by the social
groups and forces. People tend to take the cue for their needs and
wants and how to fulfill them from culture, sub-cultures, social class
reference groups and family.
The social theorist, Thorstein veblenlo of century
suggested that individuals are members of various social groups
and they tend, under normal circumstances, "to confirm the largely
unwritten but nevertheless powerful behavioural standards or norms
of these social groups". Sometimes they emulate the behavioural
norms of higher status groups to which they aspire to belong. I n
subsequent years, several social researchers confirmed this and
reiterated that the purchase by individuals of various kinds of goods
and services is likely to be strongly influenced by group norms of
Chapter 2 4 3
the groups to which they belong or aspire to belong. The major
sources of influence on individual behaviour are the family, the
cultures, and the sub-cultures that surround the individual, the
reference group or social class to which he belongs or aspires to
belong.
3. DECISION PROCESS MODELS/CONTEMPORARY MODELS
With the development of the study of consumer behaviuor as
a distinct discipline, newer approaches were offered to describe and
explain as to what influence consumer behaviour. They were distinct
from the previous models by their concentration on the decision
process engaged by the consumers while deliberating about
products and services. I n contrast with the economic models, they
placed emphasis on the mental activity that occurs before, during
and after, purchases are made. Moreover, the contemporary models
borrowed extensively from materials developed in the behavioural
sciences. A number of contemporary models have been developed,
differing in terms of sophistication, precision, domain and scope.
The literature of related behavioural sciences has yielded
comparatively a few models of behaviour and purchase decision-
making. Each of the related disciplines throws light on specific
aspects of consumer and his behaviour in the consuming situation,
but a total profile of his consuming behaviour does not emerge.
Chapter 2 44
To be able to utilize the useful insights provided by the various
contributing disciplines and to arrive at an integrated framework of
buyer-behaviour, later day researchers have tended to focus their
attention on the process by which the consumer actually arrives at a
purchase decision. I n marketing literature, a few models, based on
the decision-process, have appeared. Each of them, in its own way,
provides a valuable frame of reference and gives useful aid in
understanding the way in which the buyer reaches a purchase
decision, his post-purchase evaluation and resultant behaviour.
Some of the important models are discussed below.
3.1 NICOSIA MODEL
Fransesco ~ i c o s i a ~ ~ , one of the prominent motivation
researchers, put forward this model of buyer behaviour in 1966. The
model tries to establish the linkages between a firm and its
consumer - how the activities of the firm influence the consumer
and result in his decision to buy. The messages from the firm first
influence the predisposition of the consumer towards the product.
Depending on the situation, he develops a certain attitude towards
the product. It may lead to a search for the product or an
evaluation of the product. I f these steps have a positive impact on
him, it may result in a decision to buy. This is the sum and
substance of the 'activity explanation' in the Nicosia model. The
Nicosia model groups these activities into four basic fields as shown
in Fig 2.1.
Fig. 2.1
Field one: Firm's and consumers attributes CL!l+FIEI,I? -l'\\'C>
SCiiBFiELD ONE CONSUMER'S ,+\-TTUIRCTES
AJTRIBU-T'ES (F~SPECIt \ l~ l~ \~ F'Kt:t>ISPOSl'l~lOh'S)
FIELD FOUR: FEEDBACK
7 SEARCH
EVALUATION
T
FIELD TWO SEARCH FOR AND EVAL-U4TION OF hlEANS - END(S) RFI_ATION(S) (PREACTION FIELD)
Nicosia Arlodel A Dzugratnaric Represc7r7ration
Field one has two sub-fields - the firm's attributes and the
consumer's attributes. An advertising message from the firm
reaches the consumer's attributes. Depending on the way the
message is received by the consumer, a certain attribute may
develop, and this becomes the input for Field Two. Field Two is the
area of search and evaluation of the advertised product and other
alternatives. I f this process results in a motivation to buy, it
becomes the input for Field Three. Field Three consists of the act of
purchase. And Field Four consists of the use of the purchased item.
There is an output from Field Four - feedback of sales results to the
firm.
3.2 HOWARD-SHETH MODEL
Howard-Sheth model, which has been developed by an Indian
Jagdish Sheth in collaboration with ~ o w a r d ' ~ , explains the
behaviuor of an individual consumer. There are separate models for
group consumer behaviour and organisational buying behaviour.
The model explaining the individual consumer behaviour is
explained below.
The model is essentially an attempt to explain brand choice
behaviour over time and pertinent to our field. Focusing on repeated
buying, the model relies on four major components: (1) Stimulus
inputs, (2) hypothetical constructs, (3) response outputs and (4)
exogenous variables.
Fig. 2.2
INPIITS
STIhlULCS DISPLAY
PERCEPTUAI. I I- AKNfNCv (.'ON<; I R I ' < ' I \ CONSTRUCTS
1 1 SIGNIFICATIVE 1
a. QUALITY OVERT II'TEKTIOP; PI'KCIlASF: 4 - 7 I I
I
I t I I
I I I
b. PRICE ' SEARCH d-:
I - - - - - - c . DISTIKCTIVENESS
' d. SERVlCfi
I e. AVAIL.4RIldITY I P
I I
I I I
I 1 I IN-I'ENT1C)N I I
I I
I , I
I I
I I I I
I I
SYMB<>lAlC 1 : - - - - - - -y_-_ - - -__- - - - - I I STIMULUS I All l lT l 'l?i! I a. QUALz r Y 1 1 I
I
I AlTITU VF.
b. PRICE b' I I AMBlGUITY I
c DISTWCTIVENESS 1 I
I I 1
d. SERVICE I I
I I
r I I
e. AVAILABII-ITY I I
h.lOTIVES C tdOIC.f-: BKrIND I I BRAND 4
I I
I CRITt<KIA I I
t I I
r------~----7 CVhtPKEH : COh4PREHE: *-f
v I I ENSlON v 'I NSION I
SOCIAL, a . FAMILY ATTENTION PEKCEFTU,~ZL.
A b. REFERENCE
GROiJPS c. SOCIAL CLASS A I TtiNTION - '
Sr27'1SI-ACTION
S ~ m p l ~ f i e d Ilescrtpt~on ot thc I-loward-Sheth Model Source - John A Howard. Jagdlsh Sherh, The I h e o n of Buyer Beha\ lour (John l\'ilc\ 196q)
Chupter 2
The variables are briefly described below:
Input variables - they consist of informational cues about the
attributes of a product or brand, (i.e, quality, price, distinctiveness,
service, availability). These informational cues may be significative
in that they may emanate from the product itself or they may be
symbolic in that they come from impersonal source like advertising
or promotional activities by the firm. These two sources are
commercial in that they represent the effort of the firm to build and
project these values in the product. A third set of informational cues
may come from the buyer's social environment, comprising of his
family, reference groups, social class, culture, etc. This source is not
only non-commercial but also non-controllable by the firm.
Hypothetical constructs - these constructs have been
classified into two: (1) the perceptual constructs and (2) the
learning constructs. The former deal with the way individual
perceives and responds to the information from the input variables.
All the information that is received may not merit 'attention' and the
intake is subject to perception (stimulus ambiguity). This ambiguity
may lead to an overt search for information about the product.
Finally, the information that is received may be, distorted
(Perceptional bias) according to the buyer's own frame of reference
and predisposition. The learning constructs deal with the stages
from the buyer motives to his satisfaction in a buying situation.
Chapter 2 49
The purchase intention is an outcome of the interplay of buyer
motives, choice criteria, brand comprehension, resultant brand
attitude and the confidence associated with the purchase decision.
AS a feedback component of learning, the model includes
another learning construct - satisfaction which refers to the post-
purchase evaluation and resultant reinforcing of brand
comprehension, attitudes, etc. (shown by broken lines in the
Fig. 2.2).
The output variables consist of a set of possible hierarchical
responses from attention to purchase. The purchase act is the
actual, overt act of buying and is the sequential result of the
a~ttention (buyer's total response to informational intake), the brand
comprehension (a statement of buyer-knowledge in the product
class), brand attitude (referring to the evaluation of satisfying
potential of the brand) and the buyer intension.
Exogenous variables - the variables which are not defined but
are taken as constant. These influence all or some of the constructs
explained above and through them the output. Some of the
exogenous variables are: importance of the purchase, time at the
disposal, personality traits, financial status, etc.
The essential working-relationships of the model are as
follows:
Chapter 2 5 0
A stimulus one of the three categories outlined, impinges
upon one or more of the five senses. The amount of attention that i t
invokes depends probably upon the stimulus ambiguity, which
motivates a search for further information. Subject to the
perceptual bias brought about by the interaction of attitudes and
retained motives, the information is received. This informational
input may alter the existing configuration of motives and choice
criteria and thereby modify or disturb the brand attitude, brand
comprehension, purchase intension and /or action. Whether the
buying decision is actually made or not depends upon the interplay
of comprehension of the brand attributes, strength of attitudes
towards the brand, confidence in the purchase decision and
intension (which in turn are affected by the various exogenous
variables like the importance of purchase, influence of culture and
family financial status, etc.). I f the brand purchase is made, the
resultant satisfaction in him strengthens brand comprehension and
reinforces the confidence associated with similar buying situations in
future.
Like all the important conceptual developments, this Theory of
Buyer Behaviour has its firm supporters and is, at the same time,
beset with certain limitations. I ts impact on subsequent marketing
can be adjudged from the amount of research i t has stimulated;
most scholars agree that the study of Consumer Behaviour was
advanced and given an impetus by Howard-Sheth model. The major
advantage and strength of the theory lies in the precision with
which a large number of variables have been linked in the working
relationships to cover many aspects of the purchase decision and
the effective utilization of contribution from the behavioural
sciences. But the model does not make sharp distinctions between
exogenous and other variables. Some of the variables are not well
defined and are difficult to measure and the model has limited
generality. I t is quite complex and difficult to understand for those
who are new to the field.
I n spite of all these limitations, the model, because of its
comprehensive coverage of almost all aspects of the purchase
decision and operational explanation of the underlying stimuli and
response, has given a useful frame of reference for the study of the
buying decision over time.
3.3 ENGEL, KOLLAT AND BLACKWELL MODEL
Engel, Kollat and lackw well'^ first published their text
"Consumer Behaviour" in the year 1966; a later version in 1968.
This model finds its place in this text. I n order to incorporate the
later developments in the field of behavioural sciences and their
own works in this field, a final more sophisticated version was
published in the 1973 edition of their text 'Consumer Behaviour".
They have applied term "multi-dimensional" to the model to refer to
the fact that "many processes intervene and mediate between
exposure to stimuli and final outcome of behaviour". Consequently
many factors affect the outcome, "making the composite behaviour
picture a multifaceted one". A brief description of the model is given
below: (Fig. 2.3)
Fig 2.3
bngt'l Kollat Blackwall Model A Dlagramat~c Kcpresenaat~on Source - J I Engel, D T Kollat and R D Hlackwall - Consumer Behav~our, Dey Den press 1973
STIMU1,I INFORMATION A INCOME -
& EXPERIENCE I' CIJL.,TIJRE
['t IY SIC'AL
I I I I I
PROBLEM
I - - - . . - * - - - - - - I - - - - - - " _ _ _ _ _ _ _ , _ _ IDENT1FlCA'~ION
1 I I
1r
,,,,.,.,,IT
DECISION
: EXTERNAL I ! INi:ORMAI'ION I I FEF.I)IlAC'E; : I - - - - - - - - - _ _ - - r - -
ti01 '1)
PROCESS
r
I ' I I I I
I r
EVAlAJA'HON
I
I I I I I I _ _ _ _
INTERNAL, SEAKC'H -
I\ND A1,TEKNAI'IVE
I I I I I I
I I I 1 -b I
1 I I-lOl,l) - I I I
HOLD
I I I I I---- I )
4 I I I I I I
EXTERNAL SEARClI AND ALTERNATIVE EVALUATION
I I I I I I I I
PURCHASING PROCESSES
I -
I I I I I I I OU'fCOM ES I I I I I I
y FLIR'THER
BE1 IAVIOlJR t '
POSTPURC'HASE
EVAL,lJATION
Four basic components go into this decision process:
(3) The Central Contrul Unit: I t is the individual's own
command centre, including both memory and basic
facilities for thinking and directing behaviour. Those that
directly influence buyer-behaviour are information and
experience, evaluation criteria and attitudes, each of which
is affected by the individual's personality. Together, these
factors interact to form a sort of filter through which all the
incoming information from exposure to various stimuli is
processed.
Consumer Information Processing Component: The
incoming stimuli are processed through the filter and are
processed in four sequential, distinct phases of exposure,
attention, comprehension and retention. The processes
within the central control unit interact with this incoming
stimulus to shape the final outcome. Arrows in Fig. 2.3
show the impinging influence of central control unit on
information processing. Broken arrows show the feedback.
(c) The Consumer Decision Process: I n this model the
consumer decision process is shown to consist of five
stages:
(1) Problem Recognition
( 2 ) Internal search and alternative evaluation
Chapter 2
(3) External search and alternative evaluation
(4) The purchasing process
(5) The decision outcomes
Problem recognition could occur because of the awareness of
an external stimulus or through need activation or through a
process of autistic thinking. Once the problem is recognized, the
individual begins a search for preferable alternatives to solve the
problem at hand, both externally and internally. The internal search
is largely unconscious and is a wei~ht ing process of the consumer's
attitude towards the brand in question. External search takes place
when the problem is not non-routine; internal search being
insufficient to identify preferable alternatives. All these sequential
stages may not necessarily lead to purchase. External influence like
income, culture, conflicting family desires, etc. may serve as
constraints (shown as 'Holds' in the Fig. 2.3).
Decision outcomes: I n case the stimulus culminates in
purchase decision there are two outcomes of purchase:
(1) Post-Purchase evaluation: On account of user benefits
being derived from the product and information now
supplied about the product, people tend to evaluate
their purchase decision and consequently the product.
Any difference between the perceived and the actual
attributes, if unfavourable, could lead to post-purchase
dissonance. I f satisfaction is the outcome of the
purchase, it could lead to reinforcement of the existing
attitudes towards the brand and increase the probability
of future purchase.
PI Future behaviour: Since behaviour is sequential, one
purchase act could have implication on future purchase
behaviour. I n fact, the purchase decisions in the past
become inputs for decision making in future.
The preceding discussion on the various models of consumer
behaviour gives us a useful framework within which certain aspects
of consumer-behaviour can be studied, for they furnish concrete
guidelines to our understanding of the consumer as an individual, as
a social person, a rational economic person and so on. The earlier
models (Economic, Psychological and Social) on consumer
behaviour have tried to enlarge upon single specific facets of the
consumer personality, while the later decision models have gone
further to incorporate the findings of all related behavioral sciences
to furnish an interdisciplinary and consequently a multi dimensional,
more complex approach to the study of consumer behaviour.
The present study has made use of sensual aspects of
consumer behaviour which are analysed here to elaborate upon the
consumer's reaction to the stimuli of certain variables and
purchasing processes and also to rationalize the statement of likely
behaviour under different situations made by the sample
respondents.
REFERENCES
1. Alfred Marshall: "Principles of Economics", 8'" ed.
Macmillan, London 1996.
2. Philip Kotler- "Marketing Management-Analysis,
Planning and Control", prentice hall, 1976 (I11
edition).
3. A. Gaber and C.W.J. Ganger- "Price Sensitivity of The
Consumer", Journal of Advertising Research, Vo1.4,
1964.
4. Eva Muller - "A Study of The Purchase Decision-A
Simple Survey", in Consumer Behaviour in "The
Dynamics of Consumer Reaction" ed. Lincoln Clark
(New York, N.Y Univ Press 1954).
5. Pavlov- "Conditioned Reflexes", Dover New York
Explained in John Dollard and N.E.Miller "Personality
and Psychotherapy" New York, Mc Graw-Hill Book Co.
6. The description furnished here is based on the
explanation of Freudian thought in Calvin Hall "A
Pr imer of Freudian Psychology" New York 1954.
7 . Alfred Alder - "The Science of Living ", New York,
Greenberg, 1929.
8. Kurt Lewin - "Principle of Topological Psycology"
quoted in Engel, Kollat and Blackwell- Consumer
Behaviour, op. cit.
9. Leon Festinger - "A Theory of Cognitive
Dissonance" Stanford Unicecity press, 1957.
10. Thorstien Veblen - op. cit.
1 I Fransesco Nicosia - "Consumer Decision Process":
Marketing and Advertisement Implications (Englewood
Cliffs N.J. Pretice Hall, 1966).
12. John A. Howard, Jagdish N. Sheth - "The Theory of
Buyer Behaviour" (New ork: Wiley, 1969).
13. James F. Engle, D.T.Kollat and R.D. Blackwell:
Consumer Behaviour- Op. Cit