conflict/clash between western and Islamic civilization

8/6/2019 conflict/clash between western and Islamic civilization

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REASONS OF CONFLACT BETWEEN WESTERN AND

ISLAMIC CIVILIZATION

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TABLE OF CONTENTS


The Spread of Islam

General Characteristics of Islam

Global Religion

A Brief History of Islam

Islam in the United States

Aftermath of the Colonial Period

Revival and Reassertation of Islam

Reform Organizations

Education and Science in the Islamic World

Influence of Islamic Science and Learning Upon the West

WESTRN CIVILIZATION

Brief History

Where Western Culture Is

Western Culture Transcends Geography and Race

Race and Culture No Connection

Western Culture Superior?

CULTURE DIFFERNCE BETWEEN ISLAMIC AND WESTERN WORLD

NO FLIRTATIOUS INTENT

PURPOSE OF LIFE

CHASING FUN

FOOLS


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ISLAMIC ECONOMY

Zakat

How Zakat works

How are assets valued for zakat purposes?

The Concept of Conservatism

Interest-Free Banking

Islamic Profit & Loss System

Accounting issues of interest free banking

Conclusion


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The Spread of Islam

From the oasis cities of Makkah and Madinah in the Arabian desert, the message of Islam wentforth with electrifying speed. Within half a century of the Prophet's death, Islam had spread tothree continents. Islam is not, as some imagine in the West, a religion of the sword nor did itspread primarily by means of war. It was only within Arabia, where a crude form of idolatry wasrampant, that Islam was propagated by warring against those tribes which did not accept themessage of God--whereas Christians and Jews were not forced to convert. Outside of Arabia alsothe vast lands conquered by the Arab armies in a short period became Muslim not by force of thesword but by the appeal of the new religion. It was faith in One God and emphasis upon HisMercy that brought vast numbers of people into the fold of Islam. The new religion did notcoerce people to convert. Many continued to remain Jews and Christians and to this dayimportant communities of the followers of these faiths are found in Muslim lands.

Moreover, the spread of Islam was not limited to its miraculous early expansion outside ofArabia. During later centuries the Turks embraced Islam peacefully as did a large number of thepeople of the Indian subcontinent and the Malay-speaking world. In Africa also, Islam hasspread during the past two centuries even under the mighty power of European colonial rulers.Today Islam continues to grow not only in Africa but also in Europe and America whereMuslims now comprise a notable minority.

General Characteristics of Islam

Islam was destined to become a world religion and to create a civilization which stretched fromone end of the globe to the other. Already during the early Muslim caliphates, first the Arabs,then the Persians and later the Turks set about to create classical Islamic civilization. Later, inthe 13th century, both Africa and India became great centers of Islamic civilization and soonthereafter Muslim kingdoms were established in the Malay-Indonesian world while ChineseMuslims flourished throughout China.

Global Religion

Islam is a religion for all people from whatever race or background they might be. That is why

Islamic civilization is based on a unity which stands completely against any racial or ethnicdiscrimination. Such major racial and ethnic groups as the Arabs, Persians, Turks, Africans,Indians, Chinese and Malays in addition to numerous smaller units embraced Islam andcontributed to the building of Islamic civilization. Moreover, Islam was not opposed to learningfrom the earlier civilizations and incorporating their science, learning, and culture into its ownworld view, as long as they did not oppose the principles of Islam. Each ethnic and racial groupwhich embraced Islam made its contribution to the one Islamic civilization to which everyonebelonged. The sense of brotherhood and sisterhood was so much emphasized that it overcame


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all local attachments to a particular tribe, race, or language--all of which became subservient tothe universal brotherhood and sisterhood of Islam.

The global civilization thus created by Islam permitted people of diverse ethnic backgrounds towork together in cultivating various arts and sciences. Although the civilization was profoundly

Islamic, even non-Muslim "people of the book" participated in the intellectual activity whosefruits belonged to everyone. The scientific climate was reminiscent of the present situation inAmerica where scientists and men and women of learning from all over the world are active inthe advancement of knowledge which belongs to everyone.

The global civilization created by Islam also succeeded in activating the mind and thought of thepeople who entered its fold. As a result of Islam, the nomadic Arabs became torch-bearers ofscience and learning. The Persians who had created a great civilization before the rise of Islamnevertheless produced much more science and learning in the Islamic period than before. Thesame can be said of the Turks and other peoples who embraced Islam. The religion of Islam wasitself responsible not only for the creation of a world civilization in which people of manydifferent ethnic backgrounds participated, but it played a central role in developing intellectualand cultural life on a scale not seen before. For some eight hundred years Arabic remained themajor intellectual and scientific language of the world. During the centuries following the rise ofIslam, Muslim dynasties ruling in various parts of the Islamic world bore witness to theflowering of Islamic culture and thought. In fact this tradition of intellectual activity waseclipsed only at the beginning of modern times as a result of the weakening of faith amongMuslims combined with external domination. And today this activity has begun anew in manyparts of the Islamic world now that the Muslims have regained their political independence.

A Brief History of Islam

The Rightly guided CaliphsUpon the death of the Prophet, Abu Bakr, the friend of the Prophet and the first adult male toembrace Islam, became caliph. Abu Bakr ruled for two years to be succeeded by 'Umar who wascaliph for a decade and during whose rule Islam spread extensively east and west conquering thePersian empire, Syria and Egypt. It was 'Umar who marched on foot at the end of the Muslimarmy into Jerusalem and ordered the protection of Christian sites. 'Umar also established thefirst public treasury and a sophisticated financial administration. He established many of thebasic practices of Islamic government.

'Umar was succeeded by 'Uthman who ruled for some twelve years during which time theIslamic expansion continued. He is also known as the caliph who had the definitive text of the

Noble Quran copied and sent to the four corners of the Islamic world. He was in turn succeededby 'Ali who is known to this day for his eloquent sermons and letters, and also for his bravery.With his death the rule of the "rightly guided" caliphs, who hold a special place of respect in thehearts of Muslims, came to an end.


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The Caliphate

Umayyad

The Umayyad caliphate established in 661 was to last for about a century. During this timeDamascus became the capital of an Islamic world which stretched from the western borders ofChina to southern France. Not only did the Islamic conquests continue during this periodthrough North Africa to Spain and France in the West and to Sind, Central Asia andTransoxiana in the East, but the basic social and legal institutions of the newly founded Islamicworld were established.

Abbasids

The Abbasids, who succeeded the Umayyads, shifted the capital to Baghdad which soondeveloped into an incomparable center of learning and culture as well as the administrative andpolitical heart of a vast world.

They ruled for over 500 years but gradually their power waned and they remained only symbolicrulers bestowing legitimacy upon various sultans and princes who wielded actual militarypower. The Abbasid caliphate was finally abolished when Hulagu, the Mongol ruler, capturedBaghdad in 1258, destroying much of the city including its incomparable libraries.

While the Abbasids ruled in Baghdad, a number of powerful dynasties such as the Fatimids,Ayyubids and Mamluks held power in Egypt, Syria and Palestine. The most important event inthis area as far as the relation between Islam and the Western world was concerned was theseries of Crusades declared by the Pope and espoused by various European kings. The purpose,although political, was outwardly to recapture the Holy Land and especially Jerusalem forChristianity. Although there was at the beginning some success and local European rule was set

up in parts of Syria and Palestine, Muslims finally prevailed and in 1187 Saladin, the greatMuslim leader, recaptured Jerusalem and defeated the Crusaders.

North Africa And Spain

When the Abbasids captured Damascus, one of the Umayyad princes escaped and made the longjourney from there to Spain to found Umayyad rule there, thus beginning the golden age of Islamin Spain. Cordoba was established as the capital and soon became Europe's greatest city notonly in population but from the point of view of its cultural and intellectual life. The Umayyadsruled over two centuries until they weakened and were replaced by local rulers.

Meanwhile in North Africa, various local dynasties held sway until two powerful Berberdynasties succeeded in uniting much of North Africa and also Spain in the 12th and 13thcenturies. After them this area was ruled once again by local dynasties such as the Sharifids ofMorocco who still rule in that country. As for Spain itself, Muslim power continued to waneuntil the last Muslim dynasty was defeated in Granada in 1492 thus bringing nearly eighthundred years of Muslim rule in Spain to an end.


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After the Mangol Invasion

The Mongols devastated the eastern lands of Islam and ruled from the Sinai Desert to India for acentury. But they soon converted to Islam and became known as the Il-Khanids. They were inturn succeeded by Timur and his descendents who made Samarqand their capital and ruled from1369 to 1500. The sudden rise of Timur delayed the formation and expansion of the Ottomanempire but soon the Ottomans became the dominant power in the Islamic world.

Ottoman Empire

From humble origins the Turks rose to dominate over the whole of Anatolia andeven parts of Europe. In 1453 Mehmet the Conqueror captured Constantinopleand put an end to the Byzantine empire. The Ottomans conquered much of eastemEurope and nearly the whole of the Arab world, only Morocco and Mauritania inthe West and Yemen, Hadramaut and parts of the Arabian peninsula remainingbeyond their control. They reached their zenith of power with Suleyman the

Magnificent whose armies reached Hungary and Austria. From the 17th centuryonward with the rise of Westem European powers and later Russia, the power ofthe Ottomans began to wane. But they nevertheless remained a force to bereckoned with until the First World War when they were defeated by theWestem nations. Soon thereafter Kamal Ataturk gained power in Turkey andabolished the six centuries of rule of the Ottomans in 1924.

Persia

While the Ottomans were concerned mostly with the westem front of their empire, to the east

in Persia a new dynasty called the Safavids came to power in 1502. The Safavids established apowerful state of their own which flourished for over two centuries and became known for theflowering of the arts. Their capital, Isfahan, became one of the most beautiful cities with its bluetiled mosques and exquisite houses. The Afghan invasion of 1736 put an end to Safavid rule andprepared the independence of Afghanistan which occured fommally in the 19th century. Persiaitself fell into tummoil until Nader Shah, the last Oriental conqueror, reunited the country andeven conquered India. But the rule of the dynasty established by him was short-lived. The Zanddynasty soon took over to be overthrown by the Qajars in 1779 who made Tehran their capital

and ruled until 1921 when they were in turn replaced by the Pahlavis.

India

As for India, Islam entered into the land east of the Indus River peacefully. Gradually Muslimsgained political power beginning in the early 13th century. But this period which marked theexpansion of both Islam and Islamic culture came to an end with the conquest of much of Indiain 1526 by Babur, one of the Timurid princes. He established the powerful Mogul empire whichproduced such famous rulers as Akbar, Jahangir, and Shah Jahan and which lasted, despite thegradual rise of British power in India, until 1857 when it was officially abolished.


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Malaysia And Indonesia

Farther east in the Malay world, Islam began to spread in the 12th century in northem Sumatraand soon Muslim kingdoms were establishd in Java, Sumatra and mainland Malaysia. Despitethe colonization of the Malay world, Islam spread in that area covering present day Indonesia,Malaysia, the southern Phililppines and southern Thailand, and is still continuing in islandsfarther east.

Africa

As far as Africa is concemed, Islam entered into East Africa at the very beginning of the Islamicperiod but remained confined to the coast for some time, only the Sudan and Somalilandbecoming gradually both Arabized and Islamized. West Africa felt the presence of Islam throughNorth African traders who travelled with their camel caravans south of the Sahara. By the 14thcentury there were already Muslim sultanates in such areas as Mali, and Timbuctu in WestAfrica and Harar in East Africa had become seats of Islamic leaming.

Gradually Islam penetrated both inland and southward. There also appeared major charismaticfigures who inspired intense resistance against European domination. The process of theIslamization of Africa did not cease during the colonial period and continues even today withthe result that most Africans are now Muslims carrying on a tradition which has had practicallyas long a history in certain areas of sub-Saharan Africa as Islam itself.

Islam in the United States

It is almost impossible to generalize about American Muslims: converts, immigrants, factoryworkers, doctors; all are making their own contribution to America's future. This complexcommunity is unified by a common faith, underpinned by a countrywide network of a thousand

mosques.

Muslims were early arrivals in North America. By the eighteenth century there were manythousands of them, working as slaves on plantations. These early communities, cut off from theirheritage and families, inevitably lost their Islamic identity as time went by. Today many Afro-American Muslims play an important role in the Islamic community.

The nineteenth century, however, saw the beginnings of an influx of Arab Muslims, most ofwhom settled in the major industrial centers where they worshipped in hired rooms. The earlytwentieth century witnessed the arrival of several hundred thousand Muslims from EastemEurope: the first Albanian mosque was opened in Maine in 1915; others soon followed, and agroup of Polish Muslims opened a mosque in Brooklyn in 1928.

In 1947 the Washington Islamic Center was founded during the term of President Truman, andseveral nationwide organizations were set up in the fifties. The same period saw theestablishment of other communities whose lives were in many ways modelled after Islam. Morerecently, numerous members of these groups have entered the fold of Muslim orthodoxy. Todaythere are about five million Muslims in America.


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Aftermath of the Colonial Period

At the height of European colonial expansion in the 19th century, most of the Islamic world wasunder colonial rule with the exception of a few regions such as the heart of the Ottoman empire,Persia, Afghanistan, Yemen and certain parts of Arabia. But even these areas were under foreigninfluence or, in the case of the Ottomans, under constant threat. After the First World War withthe breakup of the Ottoman empire, a number of Arab states such as Iraq became independent,others like Jordan were created as a new entity and yet others like Palestine, Syria and Lebanonwere either mandated or turned into French colonies. As for Arabia, it was at this time thatSaudi Arabia became finally consolidated. As for other parts of the Islamic world, Egypt whichhad been ruled by the descendents of Muhammad Ali since the l9th century became moreindependent as a result of the fall of the Ottomans, Turkey was turned into a secular republic byAtaturk, and the Pahlavi dynasty began a new chapter in Persia where its name reverted to itseastern traditional form of Iran. But most of the rest of the Islamic world remained undercolonial rule.

Arab

It was only after the Second World War and the dismemberment of the British, French, Dutchand Spanish empires that the rest of the Islamic world gained its independence. In the Arabworld, Syria and Lebanon became independent at the end of the war as did Libya and theshaykdoms around the Gulf and the Arabian Sea by the 1960's. The North African countries ofTunisia, Morocco and Algeria had to fight a difficult and, in the case of Algeria, long andprotracted war to gain their freedom which did not come until a decade later for Tunisia andMorocco and two decades later for Algeria. Only Palestine did not become independent but waspartitioned in 1948 with the establishment of the state of Israel.

India

In India Muslims participated in the freedom movement against British rule along with Hindusand when independence finally came in 1947, they were able to create their own homeland,Pakistan, which came into being for the sake of Islam and became the most populated Muslimstate although many Muslims remained in India. In 1971, however, the two parts of the statebroke up, East Pakistan becoming Bengladesh.

Far East

Farther east still, the Indonesians finally gained their independence from the Dutch and theMalays theirs from Britain. At first Singapore was part of Malaysia but it separated in 1963 tobecome an independent state. Small colonies still persisted in the area and continued to seektheir independence, the kingdom of Brunei becoming independent as recently as 1984.

Africa

In Africa also major countries with large or majority Muslim populations such as Nigeria,Senegal and Tanzania began to gain their independence in the 1950's and 1960's with the resultthat by the end of the decade of the 60's most parts of the Islamic world were formed intoindependent national states. There were, however, exceptions. The Muslim states in the Soviet


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Union failed to gain their autonomy or independence. The same holds true for Sinkiang (calledEastem Turkestan by Muslim geographers) while in Eritrea and the southern PhilippinesMuslim independence movements still continue.

National States

While the world of Islam has entered into the modern world in the form of national states,continuous attempts are made to create closer cooperation within the Islamic world as a wholeand to bring about greater unity. This is seen not only in the meetings of the Muslim heads ofstate and the establishment of the OIC (Organization of Islamic Countries) with its ownsecretariat, but also in the creation of institutions dealing with the whole of the Islamic world.Among the most important of these is the Muslim World League (Rabitat al-alam al-Islami )with its headquarters in Makkah. Saudi Arabia has in fact played a pivotal role in the creationand maintenance of such organizations.

Revival and Reassertation of Islam

Muslims did not wish to gain only their political independence. They also wished to assert theirown religious and cultural identity. From the 18th century onward Muslim reformers appearedupon the scene who sought to reassert the teachings of Islam and to reform society on the basisof Islamic teachings. One of the first among this group was Muhammad ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab,who hailed from the Arabian peninsula and died there in 1792. This reformer was supported byMuhammad ibn al-Sa'ud, the founder of the first Saudi state. With this support Muhammad ibn'Abd al-Wahhab was able to spread his teachings not only in Arabia but even beyond its bordersto other Islamic lands where his reforms continue to wield influence to this day.

In the 19th century lslamic assertion took several different forms ranging from the Mahdimovement of the Sudan and the Sanusiyyah in North Africa which fought wars against

European colonizers, to educational movements such as that of Aligarh in India aiming toreeducate Muslims. In Egypt which, because of al-Azhar University, remains to this day centralto Islamic learning, a number of reformers appear, each addressing some aspect of Islamicthought. Some were concerned more with law, others economics, and yet others the challengesposed by Western civilization with its powerful science and technology. These included Jamalal-Din al-Afghani who hailed originally from Persia but settled in Cairo and who was the greatchampion of Pan-Islamism, that is the movement to unite the Islamic world politically as well asreligiously. His student, Muhammad 'Abduh, who became the rector of al-Azhar. was also veryinfluential in Islamic theology and thought. Also of considerable influence was his Syrianstudent, Rashid Rida, who held a position closer to that of 'Abd al-Wahhab and stood for thestrict application of the Shari'ah. Among the most famous of these thinkers is Muhammad Iqbal,

the outstanding poet and philosopher who is considered as the father of Pakistan.

Reform Organizations

Moreover, as Western influence began to penetrate more deeply into the fiber of Islamic society,organizations gradually grew up whose goal was to reform society in practice along Islamic linesand prevent its secularization. These included the Muslim Brotherhood (Ikhwan al-muslimin)founded in Egypt and with branches in many Muslim countries, and the Jama'at-i Islami of


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Pakistan founded by the influential Mawlana Mawdudi. These organizations have been usuallypeaceful and have sought to reestablish an Islamic order through education. During the last twodecades, however, as a result of the frustration of many Muslims in the face of pressures comingfrom a secularized outside world, some have sought to reject the negative aspects of Westernthought and culture and to return to an Islamic society based completely on the application of

the Shari 'ah. Today in every Muslim country there are strong movements to preserve andpropagate Islamic teachings. In countries such as Saudi Arabia Islamic Law is already beingapplied and in fact is the reason for the prosperity, development and stability of the country. Inother countries where Islamic Law is not being applied, however, most of the effort of Islamicmovements is spent in making possible the full application of the Shari'ah so that the nation canenjoy prosperity along with the fulfillment of the faith of its people. In any case the widespreaddesire for Muslims to have the religious law of Islam applied and to reassert their religiousvalues and their own identity must not be equated with exceptional violent eruptions which doexist but which are usually treated sensationally and taken out of proportion by the mass mediain the West.

Education and Science in the Islamic WorldIn seeking to live successfully in the modern world, in independence and according to Islamicprinciples, Muslim countries have been emphasizing a great deal the significance of the role ofeducation and the importance of mastering Western science and technology. Already in the 19thcentury, certain Muslim countries such as Egypt, Ottoman Turkey and Persia establishedinstitutions of higher learning where the modem sciences and especially medicine were taught.During this century educational institutions at all levels have proliferated throughout theIslamic world. Nearly every science ranging from mathematics to biology as well as various fieldsof modern technology are taught in these institutions and some notable scientists have beenproduced by the Islamic world, men and women who have often combined education in theseinstitutions with training in the West.

In various parts of the Islamic world there is, however, a sense that educational institutionsmust be expanded and also have their standards improved to the level of the best institutions inthe world in various fields of leaming especially science and technology. At the same time thereis an awareness that the educational system must be based totally on Islamic principles and theinfluence of alien cultural and ethical values and norms, to the extent that they are negative, bediminished. To remedy this problem a number of international Islamic educational conferenceshave been held, the first one in Makkah in 1977, and the foremost thinkers of the Islamic worldhave been brought together to study and ponder over the question of the relation between Islamand modern science. This is an ongoing process which is at the center of attention in many partsof the Islamic world and which indicates the significance of educational questions in the Islamic

world today.

Influence of Islamic Science and Learning Upon the West

The oldest university in the world which is still functioning is the eleven hundred-year-oldIslamic university of Fez, Morocco, known as the Qarawiyyin. This old tradition of Islamiclearning influenced the West greatly through Spain. In this land where Muslims, Christians andJews lived for the most part peacefully for many centuries, translations began to be made in the


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11th century mostly in Toledo of Islamic works into Latin often through the intermediary ofJewish scholars most of whom knew Arabic and often wrote in Arabic. As a result of thesetranslations, Islamic thought and through it much of Greek thought became known to the Westand Western schools of learning began to flourish. Even the Islamic educational system wasemulated in Europe and to this day the term chair in a university reflects the Arabic kursi

(literally seat) upon which a teacher would sit to teach his students in the madrasah (school ofhigher learning). As European civillization grew and reached the high Middle Ages, there washardly a field of learning or form of art, whether it was literature or architecture, where therewas not some influence of Islam present. Islamic learning became in this way part and parcel ofWestern civilization even if with the advent of the Renaissance, the West not only turnedagainst its own medieval past but also sought to forget the long relation it had had with theIslamic world, one which was based on intellectual respect despite religious opposition.

WESTERN CIVILIZATIONWestern culture is a body of knowledge derived from reason.

This foundation of reason has made possible a vast accumulation of understanding related toreality or nature, including human nature.

This understanding is represented in several core ideals and values, whichincludeindividualism, happiness, rights, capitalism, science and technology.Western culture can also be referred to as advancedculture; this is because its ideas and valuespromote the development and sustainment of advanced civilization.

Brief History

Western culture began in Ancient Greece. There and in the Roman civilization it developeduntil the start of the Middle Ages when it largely vanished from Europe. During the MiddleAges, Western culture resided, instead, in the Arab / Persian world to a modest degree.Then the rediscovery of Western culture in Europe in the Late Middle Ages prompted theRenaissance. Western cultures continuing development then led to the Scientific Revolution,the Enlightenment, the American Revolution, the Industrial Revolution and to what is

considered today as modern civilization.Where Western Culture Is

Today, Western culture has at least some presence in nearly all nations of the world. It does notcurrently exist, however, anywhere in a perfect and complete form. Wherever Western cultureexists, it is at least partially mixedand often largely mixedwith non-Western culture.


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Western culture currently dominates in many Western and Central European nations andseveral nations settled by Europeans and their descendants. Western culture also significantlyexists in many Asian nations, such as Japan, South Korea, Taiwan and Singapore, and it isincreasingly influential in India and China.

It has only a modest presence in most of the rest of Asia as well as Latin America and EasternEurope. In much of both Africa and the Middle East, Western culture currently has littlemeaningful presence.Western Culture Transcends Geography and Race

Since Western culture is based on objective reality and universal human nature, it is open toeveryone, transcending both geography and race.In other words, Western culture is humanitys culture. Contrary to conventional belief, one doesnot need to be Caucasian or of European descent to admire Western culture or, indeed, evenhelp to build it. Any individual or society on earth can adopt it and thereby becomeWesternized.Indeed, millions of people each year with no ancestral ties to Europe recognize the universalappeal of Western culture. They do so by immigrating to and immersing themselves in nationswhere Western culture has meaningful presence. Or they personally embrace and promoteWestern culture in the nations where they live.

These adopters of Western culture understand that truth is truth, ideals are ideals and values are

valuesand it does not matter from where such things come or who originally discovered oridentified them. In other words, adopters of Western culture know, on some level, that cultureis an intellectual matter, not an issue of geography or raceor, for that matter, an issue ofethnicity, language, class, national origin or gender.Race and Culture No Connection

The fact that Europeans or Caucasians largely developed Western or advanced culturedoes notmean that they are innately superior or only they are capable of creating it.

One needs simply to know that North African, Near Eastern and Middle Eastern individualsdeveloped the first civilizations or civilized cultures. And while these cultures flourished,Europeans or Caucasians had generally not yet developed beyond savagery.Further, significant elements of Western culture came from other parts of the world, includingthe first civilizations and Asia. Also, individuals of all races, ethnicities and many nationalorigins have contributed to the development of Western culture over the centuries and continueto do so today.


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CULTURE DIFFERNCE BETWEENISLAMIC AND WESTERN WORLD

Culture is defined as a peoples complete way of life. It consists of all the ideas, objects and waysof doing things created by the group. Culture includes beliefs, customs, language and traditions(World Book Encyclopaedia).

While there are numerous cultures and subcultures present in the world, of primary concern tous in this discussion are the two main opposing cultures in present-day society. One is theculture of Islam the complete way of life set forth in the Quran and Sunnah. On the otheropposing end is the Western culture. Both cultures present a complete way of life. However,both ways of life differ drastically.

The difference in the two cultures stems primarily from the source of the cultures. Islamicculture the way of life of a Muslim is defined by the Quran and Sunnah. It is the culture ofRasulullah (Sallallahu Alaihi Wasallam). It is that way of life upon which he established theSahaaba (R.A.) after having turned them away from the culture of jahiliyyah (ignorance).

On the other hand, Western culture is fashioned by a host of people; Capitalists, atheists, peoplewho believe in same-gender marriages and others of a similar nature. Such people determine thedecadent culture of the West.

NO FLIRTATIOUS INTENT

The cornerstone of Islamic culture is morality (hayaa)and simplicity. Hayaa (morality /

modesty) and simplicity are both qualities of Imaan. Thus the true Islamic society upholds thehighest levels of morality and maintains simplicity in every aspect. Some of the salient features ofthis society are:

No free intermingling between non-mahram (those who are not forbidden to marry) males andfemales. The laws of Hijaab will be observed.

Modest dressing. Clothing will truly cover the body (also loose enough to cover the shape) andhave no flirtatious intent.

Men and women will fulfil the separate roles that have been apportioned to them thehusband as breadwinner and the wife as mother and one who fulfils the householdresponsibilities, etc. This is the foundation to a stable Islamic family which together with othersuch families forms a stable Islamic community.

Contrary to this, the cornerstone of Western culture is immorality and extravagance. The live-in culture where a couple live like man and wife but never marry is almost the norm. Whilethere are numerous aspects that highlight the immorality of Western culture, perhaps the mostvisible and marked expression of this culture is in its dressing. Shorter, tighter and morerevealing is the rule by which the dress code keeps changing. Western clothing, instead of


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covering and distracting any wrongful glances, is by and large designed for flirting, attractingand arousing.

As for simplicity in Western culture, it is almost a kind of tragedy. Since the poor fellow cannotafford to indulge in anything extravagant, hence merely due to circumstances, he is forced to

adopt a simple lifestyle. Fashion-slavery is part of western life. If one does not have a brandedgarment, it is tragic. If the real thing is not available, a fake will also do. If it is not a brandedproduct, it is then only for the have-nots even if it is of a better quality and lesser cost.

While the above are some of the serious core differences between Islamic and Western culture,the most important aspect is the difference in the mindset of both cultures.

PURPOSE OF LIFE

The mindset of the Islamic culture stems from the conviction that Allah Taala is our Creator andSustainer. Hence in this short stay on earth, we are to serve Him alone in the manner taught by

His beloved Rasul (Sallallahu Alaihi Wasallam). Thus the Islamic culture revolves around thefirm belief that our mission in life is to establish complete Deen in ourselves and on the face ofthis earth. With this mindset, one will sacrifice ones wealth, energies and time as much aspossible for the purpose of life. Indeed one will acquire the necessities of life as well, but Deenwill be the guiding light and driving force. Deen will dictate and all else will follow. Thepurpose of life will demand and all else will submit. As a result if one does not acquire manycomforts and luxuries, it will not matter. Rather, life will be regarded as a journey wherein thetraveller is not too concerned about the luxuries and comforts en-route. The traveller is focusedtowards his destination. Yet, as a result of ones obedience to Allah Taala, one will be blessedwith true peace, serenity and contentment.

CHASING FUNConversely, the mindset of Western culture is that the purpose of life is worldly enjoyment.Every comfort and luxury that can be acquired must be attained at all costs. Everything centresaround entertainment, chasing fun and chasing more fun. There is no mission in life. Noobjective. Merely the pursuit of temporal pleasure permeates every cell of the mind. And yesindeed! The constant pursuit of greater comfort and luxury and continuously chasing fundemands loads of money. Thus life revolves around making money from early morning till lateat night and having fun. If anything comes in the way of this fun, it must be removed. Iflooking after elderly parents spoils the weekends and holidays they should be dispatched tothe old-age homes. If children come in the way of earning extra money to afford the betterquality of life, they can be entrusted to day-care centres where they are treated almost likemechanical objects. There is no concern for proper upbringing. In order to enhance the qualityof life (which means making more money to have more luxuries and more fun) anything can besacrificed parents, children and even religion. It is an extremely hollow existence without anypeace or contentment which only stops when one is placed in the hollow of the grave!

It is thus evident that Islamic culture and Western culture are worlds apart. The problem is thatwhen people of different cultures live together in the same community, the process of


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enculturation takes place where people from one culture adopt traits, customs, habits and ideasfrom the other culture. There is no doubt that this enculturation has occurred in ourcommunities. Many Muslims have tragically become greatly Westernised in their mindset, inadopting a very extravagant lifestyle, in their dressing, in making life revolve mainly aroundchasing money and fun, etc. Deen for such people has become a side-line.

Why has this enculturation occurred? The answer is alarming! According to social scientists,people abandon their own culture and borrow from another culture when they regard aspects ofthe other culture as better (World Book). Encyclopaedia Britannica (CD version) highlightsthis aspect in the following words: To be sure, a culture trait must offer some advantage, someutility or pleasure to be sought and accepted by people. Allah forbid! Due to the weakness ofImaan and ignorance, the Sunnah culture is being abandoned by Muslims for some Western waywhich they regard as better or as having more pleasure and advantage than the Islamic culture!This is no different to a child who gives away a priceless diamond in exchange for aninsignificant shiny stone. He has no idea of the value of the gems he is abandoning and is dupedby the shine on the stone.

FOOLS

Western culture is being glorified and vigorously promoted by the media as the culture. Themedia message simply is: If you are not following the Western trend, you are old fashioned,backward and maybe dumb. However, these slogans should not make us lose our pricelessgems for worthless stones, rather, poisonous pebbles. Instead we should adopt the stance ofHazrat Huzaifa bin Yamaan (R.A.). While eating in the court of the Persians, a morsel of foodfell from his hand onto the floor. In emulation of the Sunnah, he picked it up to eat it. Somebodynext to him cautioned him that to pick up a fallen morsel was against the culture of the Persians.He should therefore follow their way and refrain from picking up the morsel. His spontaneousresponse was: Should I leave the Sunnah (culture) of my beloved Rasulullah (Sallallahu AlaihiWasallam) for these fools?

Adopting Western culture will bring along its severe negative consequences. Some of them are:

A materialistic society with no mission in life

Indulgence in drugs and immorality for fun

Break-down of respect for parents and elders

Disintegration of family structures

High divorce rate, etc.

Every effort must therefore be made to preserve the culture of the Quran and Sunnah. Thisrequires adopting the company of those who are sunnah conscious, learning about the varioussunnats and making an effort to bring them alive in ones home, community and the Ummah atlarge.


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If Western trends take root, besides harming ourselves, we will also lay the foundation for thedestruction of future generations. According to Encyclopaedia Britannica, once established,culture has a life of its own it flows down through time from one generation to another. It istherefore imperative that we guard against this.

The only success for us in this world and the Hereafter is in upholding the way of life of theQuran and Sunnah. May Allah Taala keep us steadfast on His Deen. Aameen.

Islamic v Western Economics

Islamic economics is based on Shariah, the Islamic law, which governs secular as well as

religious activity. The basic objective of Shariah is to ensure general human well-being andsocio-economic justice. It teaches that all wealth belongs to Allah and that humans are merelytrustees of this wealth, entrusted with it to realise the above-mentioned objectives (Quran: 57:7). The Islamic economic system is based on the teaching that "no-one should claim for himselfwhat is basically the creation of Allah, or the product of another man's efforts and skills" (Haqiqi& Pomeranz, 1987, p. 156). The system is therefore grounded heavily towards social justice. Thisis the basic difference between Islamic and Western economics.

In Western materialistic economies, the individual has unconditional and absolute rights overwealth and is allowed to use it as he or she pleases (Shafi, 1979). The individual's main aim is tomaximise this wealth, and the "bottom line" in a western profit-making enterprise ismaximisation of profit and minimisation of loss. In Islamic economics, on the other hand,individuals do not have absolute right over their wealth. Although they have been grantedownership over wealth, this is as trustees only, and they must use it only according to theinstructions given by Allah. They must not wastefully consume their wealth, and they must giveto others their due. For others also have a right to a person's wealth. The Holy Quran states: "Intheir wealth there is a known right for those who ask for it and those who have need for it."Thus, wealth maximisation is not the main objective of economics in Islam. The distinction hasbeen nicely summed up by Crane (1981):

"Western economists generally cannot conceive of any measure that extends beyond the material world, whereasMuslims generally cannot conceive of any measure that does not."

One of the main aims of Islamic economics is that wealth, instead of becoming concentrated inthe hands of a few, should be allowed to circulate in society as widely as possible, so that thedistinction between the rich and the poor is narrowed down as far as is natural and practicable(Shafi, 1979) . Certain institutions are put in place to achieve this aim, for example, theimposition of zakat, a kind of mandatory religious levy on the rich to give to the poor and needy,and the prohibition of riba, or f ixed interest. These institutions differ greatly from the prevailingpractice in Western countries, and are not well served by current accounting standards, as Ishall now discuss.


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Zakat

Zakat is one of the fundamental pillars of Islam: the second most important duty of Muslims. Theword zakat means, literally, purification. Those with a certain level of accumulated wealth areobliged to pay zakat to purify themselves from the sin of greed (Haqiqi and Pomeranz,

1987).Zakat has been described as the "cornerstone of the financial structure in an Islamic State"(Siddiqi, 1982, p. 8). Its purpose is to eradicate poverty, by redistributing wealth from therelatively well to-do to the poor and needy. It is not a charity, but something that rightly belongsto the poor and needy. Thuszakat keeps wealth constantly circulating in society. It creates asociety based on mutual assistance and, if properly developed, guarantees a minimum level ofliving to all people in the Islamic society (Alam, unpublished).

Only those with wealth above a certain limit (nisab, or threshold value, which is usually theequivalent of 85 grams of gold) must pay zakat, and it is payable mainly to those whoseaccumulated wealth is below the limit . This ensures that the distribution really is from therelatively rich to those who have less than that basic limit. It is payable only on surplus wealth,

not that wealth which is in use. It therefore penalises hoarding and idle cash balances andencourages investment (Alam, unpublished). Voluntary charity is also strongly encouraged inIslam.

In Western countries, tax is regarded as an evil, something to be avoided. Accountants arecharged with making the tax expense for their clients as low as possible without breaking thelaw. Paying zakat, on the other hand, is an important religious duty, an act of worship (Clarke etal., 1996). Trying to unproductively minimise the zakat payable is therefore considered sinful:Muslims are encouraged to be generous with their wealth.Zakat is to be regarded as a loan toAllah, which He will repay many times over in the world Hereafter (Quran, 2: 245).

How Zakat worksZakatapplies to businesses as well as individuals. Muslim sole proprietors and partners areobliged to pay zakat on both personal wealth and on business "articles of trade" (Faris, 1966, p.8).

Zakat is a levy on accumulated wealth, or the net stock of assets. In this, it is different to thepredominant form of taxation in the Anglo-American world, which is levied on selected wealthincrements, or income. But there is great debate in accounting over what constitutes income,and which wealth increments should therefore be taxable. A tax on accumulated wealth, incontrast, has a greater level of objectivity in its calculation and less room for discretion in terms

of interpretation or political manipulation. (Clarke et al., 1996).

The rate ofzakat is usually two and a half percent on the balance of accumulated wealth in excessof the nisab or threshold (see Appendix 1 for details). It is payable once a year The financial yearmay end at any time, but in practice most businesses end their financial year during Ramadan,the ninth month of the Islamic (lunar) calendar.Zakat is payable on "(1) genuinely owned, (2)productive, (3) surplus assets that have been (4) possessed for a full year" (Clarke et al., 1996).


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Genuine ownership means that the asset is free of claims by others. Productive assets areregarded to be:

y Cash in hand and at banky Stocks, shares, bonds and securitiesy Inventories of finished goods intended for saley Fixed industrial assets, not directly because they are not surplus assets, but indirectly,

based on output

y Earnings from rented buildings and landy Net receivables (accounts receivable less expected bad debts minus accounts payable).

Iqbal and Amerah (1990)

Assets which are being used or consumed, such as office fittings or delivery vehicles are exempt,provided they are not intended for trade.

Only surplus assets are subject to zakat. This means that if the sum of the zakat-able propertyowned by the business is below the nisab at the time zakat falls due, the business does not haveto pay zakat. For partnerships, zakat is due on the sum value of property owned by the partners.

The assets must have been possessed for a full year. This means that casual acquisitions andperishable goods are exempt from zakat.

How are assets valued for zakat purposes?

The valuation of the assets is based on the selling price prevailing at the time the zakat falls due.The zakat valuation is therefore parallel to the concept of continuously contemporaryaccounting (CoCoA), or current cash equivalent, which is the subject of much debate in Anglo-American accounting (Clarke et al., 1996).

The notion of "value-in-exchange" has been incorporated in the valuation method (see Appendix1). This refers to the power one exchangeable object has for obtaining a quantity of another(Clarke et al., 1996, see also Hicks, 1942). It is simultaneously the selling price of one asset andthe purchase price of the other.

Valuation is item-specific. This means that the person paying zakat should take into account theage, usefulness and depletion of the asset when valuing it.

What problems does this lead to when Anglo-American accounting procedures are applied?

The rules for zakat are inconsistent with the generally accepted accounting practice (GAAP) ofAnglo-American accounting. Problems arise from the valuation of inventories, the valuation ofaccounts receivable and the concept of conservatism.


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a. Valuation of inventories

According to GAAP, inventories should be valued at the lower of cost or market value. Marketvalue can be either replacement cost or net realisable value, although it is usually the latter. Inpractice, this rule almost always results in "cost" being the balance sheet valuation (Clarke et al.,

1996). For zakat purposes, only the selling price is relevant. This means that Muslim firms cannot follow GAAP valuation for inventories if they want to comply with the rules for zakat.

b. Valuation of accounts receivable

Zakat is payable on net receivables only, ie. on accounts receivable less expected bad debtsminus accounts payable. Thus, it is payable only on those receivables expected to be realised.But, unlike Anglo-American practice, there is no overall estimated provision for bad debts.Accounts are assessed one-by-one to determine whether and to what extent they are expectedto be collected. There is no such thing as "doubtful debts" - the debt is either good or bad.(Clarke et al., 1996).

The Concept of Conservatism

Anglo-American accounting follows the concept of conservatism or prudence. This conceptrefers to the "need to exercise care when dealing with uncertainties" (Statement of Concepts,paragraph 6.9). It states that extra care should be taken to ensure that assets and revenues arenot overstated and liabilities and expenses are not understated. This means that given twopossible valuations for an asset, the Anglo-American accountant

would choose the lower. This, however, is inconsistent with the concept of zakat. Understatingassets would mean less zakat liability. But, as stated above, paying zakat is one of the mostimportant religious duties of Muslims, and Islam encourages Muslims to be generous with theirwealth. Therefore, they must be careful not to understate their assets or overstate theirliabilities, and thus the concept of conservatism is not applicable for assessingzakat.

It is clear, then, that there is much difference between accounting for zakat and generalaccounting practice in the West. Anglo-American accounting standards would not therefore beappropriate for zakat purposes.

Interest-Free Banking

Riba, or fixed interest, "reinforces the tendency for wealth to accumulate in the hands of a few,

and thereby diminishes man's concern for his fellow men", guarantees gain without risk of loss,and hampers investment and employment ("Islam and Financial Intermediation", 1982, pp. 110-111).

Interest is one of the main factors in creating an unequal distribution of wealth (Alam,unpublished). A fixed interest rate guarantees a profit on money contributed, regardless ofwhether the borrower has made a profit or a loss. Thus it is possible that labour and hard workmay go unrewarded while lending of capital, which entails no exertion or effort on the part of


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the lender, and is not eroded or reduced in value by its use, is guaranteed remuneration. (Shafi,1979). Those who already have money are provided with an easy way of increasing it, while thosewho are in need of money may not be able to break out of the poverty cycle, because they areobliged to make interest payments, whether they can reasonably afford to or not. Islamconsiders this to be unfair.

Other reasons for prohibiting interest have been outlined by Alam (unpublished). They include:

y Interest means the lender is getting guaranteed money without putting in any effort.Islam dislikes this. It leads to dependence on interest and thereby discourages peoplefrom working. This was especially evident in England in the early 19th century, when therich would live purely off the interest of their capital base, and considered it degrading towork to earn a living.

y Allowing interest discourages people from helping each other. For instance, lendingmoney to another without asking for anything in return is a way of helping others. Butthere is no motivation for doing this if the lender can just as easily get interest on the

loan.

y Taking interest means taking the property of another person without giving anything inreturn. This is prohibited.

y Taking interest involves oppression and exploitation, as those without money are forcedinto working harder to earn enough money to pay interest as well as supportingthemselves.

Islamic Profit & Loss System

Islam, instead of allowing fixed interest, places the risk of loss on the capital contributed ratherthan any other factor of production. Therefore any money lent in Islam will be either purely tohelp another person, foregoing any notion of profit, or on the basis of sharing in any profit or lossincurred by the borrower. In recent times, Islamic banks have emerged in Muslim countries suchas Saudi Arabia and Egypt. These banks work on the basis of such profit and loss sharing, andfunction without interest.

Haqiqi & Pomeranz (1987) describe some of the different profit and loss sharing arrangementswhich are used by Islamic banks:

i)Mudarabah(trust financing): The bank acts as a partner, providing cash to the borrower and

sharing in the net profits and net losses of the business. The loan is for an undetermined period,although the contract may be rescinded by either party.

ii)Murabaha(cost-plus trade financing): The bank, as a partner, provides the finance forpurchasing goods for a share of the profit once the goods are sold. The bank may or may notshare in any losses incurred. Repayment may be either in lump sum or in instalments.


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iii) Musharaka(participation financing): The bank provides part of the equity and part of theworking capital for the business, and shares in profits and/or losses.

iv)Ijara (rental financing): The bank purchases a piece of equipment and rents it to the business.Alternatively, for hire purchase contracts, the business partly purchases and partly rents the

equipment.

Accounting issues of interest free banking

Many banks in Muslim countries such as Saudi Arabia currently produce two sets of auditedstatements: one for the central bank and the other for shareholders and third parties (Tokungaet al., 1989). There has been pressure on Islamic banks in Saudi Arabia to improve adherence toaccounting and auditing standards (Abalkhail, 1991). But as yet there are no accounting orauditing standards or guidelines specifically for Islamic banking, as it is a relatively new area

(the first modern Islamic bank was formed in 1971). And in this sector also, as with zakat andgovernmental accounting, the adoption of Anglo-American accounting techniques can causeproblems.

For instance, Anglo-American accounting is based on the going concern principle, whichassumes that the business has an indefinite life. But this is not appropriate for the mudarabahbanking situation, where the contract (which makes the entrepreneur and the bank partners)may be rescinded at any time. So in this area also, Anglo-American accounting techniques areunsuitable for Muslims.

Conclusion

"O Mankind, We created you from a single (pair) of a male and a female and made you intonations and tribes, that you may know each other."

(The Quran 49:13).

It is hard for anyone to deny that Islam has captured more headlines, column inches and air timeover that past 4 years than ever before. A combination of political events, acts of inhumanity andsocial problems involving Muslims have seen a global shift towards anti-Islamic or Islamaphobicsentiments. One only has to think of events such as the World Trade Centre attack, bombings inSpain, London, Iraq, Tunisia, Turkey, Saudi Arabia, Morocco and Egypt, the invasions of


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Afghanistan and Iraq and riots on the streets of France and Australia to appreciate how thesesentiments have evolved.

As a result, the view of Muslims as a whole has darkened. Many countries are now questioningthe identity and loyalty of their Muslim citizens whilst stereotypes and general opinions of

'Islamic' nations and their populations are fuelled by media stereotypes. Muslims living inEurope and North America are feeling alienated and misunderstood whilst those in the Muslimworld are suffering due to the actions of a misguided minority within their ranks.

It would be fair to generalise that the 'West' and the 'East' seem to have become more polarizedof late. The future does not look very bright. Yet, the Islamaphobic backlash, althoughunfortunate, is providing one community with a challenge that if met will both demonstrate itslofty intentions and raise their profile as essential voices within future world discourse. Thiscommunity is that of the interculturalists.

Recent events have recalled in many people's minds the theory penned by Samuel Huntingdonin the early 1990's predicting that in the future there would be a "clash of civilisations." Thistheory suggested that post-Cold War global divides would occur between civilisations and thatthere would inevitably be a clash as one tries to get the upper hand over the other. In it he statesthat, "a central focus of conflict for the immediate future will be between the West and severalIslamic- Confucian states."

For many the West vs. Islam element of his hypothesis seems to be coming true. However, thetheory has been cited here for one reason only - to demonstrate how Western-Muslim relationscould develop if the correct action is not taken soon. What we are witnessing is not a clash ofcivilisations. The political aspects of recent events have been presented in such a way to peoplethat it forces them into an "either you are with us against us" mentality. The polarisation ofpeoples has increased the mistrust and suspicion of 'the other', the unknown. It is the simple

fact that if the unknown element of the equation were to be removed, there is a fair chance thereverse effect could ensue. Simply stated, if the West is educated about what Islam really is andvice-versa, it would not be so easy to polarize populations.

At present what we are dealing with can be described as a "Clash of Cultures" and as all goodintercultural academics and trainers know, cultures can be reconciled.

Those in the intercultural field stand in a privileged position of having the insight,understanding and knowledge to look at human interaction and decipher what is going wrongin terms of communication, behaviours and assumptions. The cultural clash we see today issimply an extension of this and can be overcome using the same principles. The most prominent

principle, and therefore the one that shall be solely focused on, is that of 'awareness of others'.

As a Muslim and an Englishman I constantly see bigotry from both sides of the imaginary linethat are founded on ignorance. One side receives their information from British tabloids, theother from an arms length experience of the society they live in. One is fixated on the covering ofwomen's hair as a sign of male oppression while the other tuts at a set of loose morals. Onebelieves the other's mission in life is to wage war in order to reach paradise while the other is


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perplexed by the fact that paradise is not even on the agenda. Of course in truth none of theseassumptions reflect reality.

If we are to move towards a greater understanding of one another, awareness is crucial. Peopleneed to be educated as to what is truth and what is stereotypical nonsense. Once people move

beyond this basic level of knowledge there is more room to discover similarities, shared points ofview and common goals of which there are plenty. Although it is true that each side may look tothe other with distaste, they do also occasionally look with respect and wonder. Muslims'strong sense of community, spirituality and hospitality are oft cited qualities of virtue. SimilarlyMuslims worldwide regularly praise the West's technological achievements, respect for equalitybefore the law and queuing (yes queuing!). In addition, both sides also share similar principles,ideas, wants and aspirations.

And herein lies the optimism that the future is promising for Western-Islamic relations - wehave more in common than we do differences. The reason for this goes back to the verse of theQuran quoted at the beginning of this article. It clearly states that man was created from thesame pair (Adam and Eve), meaning mankind is ultimately one in terms of their make-up, traits,needs and desires. Yet in the same sentence it also explains that there are differences.

Few in the intercultural field would have realised that the quintessence of their training,education and research was captured in a Quranic verse some 1400 years ago. The verse tells usthat we were created with differences (nations and tribes) in order for man to gain a betterunderstanding of himself, i.e. to realise the essence of humanity. How do we understand heatwithout cold or happiness without sadness? What is day without night or peace without war?We come to know the world around us through comparisons. Our fellow human beings act asmirrors. Through looking at that cross cultural reflection we appreciate who we are, what wevalue and how we act and most importantly the common threads that stitch the quilt of humanexperience together.

The intercultural field stands in an ideal position to spearhead initiatives and effectiveinterventions. Within the current Western-Islamic state of affairs there is enormous potential tochallenge the strangling discourse that is suffocating real cross cultural dialogue. Theintercultural voice, which on the whole is one of understanding, tolerance and flexibility, mustrise above the babble that we constantly hear. At the end of the day those with positions withinthe field, the reason they do what they do, is to help people understand one another whether atwork or in the community. As professionals there is a responsibility to apply research and workinto making a real difference to the evolution of global relations.

As stated at the beginning of this article, Western-Islamic relations pose the intercultural field

with a challenge that must be overcome collectively. The initial rung up the ladder in order toachieving this is to educate people beyond stereotypes and misunderstandings. If this issuccessful the process of finding common ground and appreciating why we differ on certainissues will manifest naturally.

The question now is how the field responds. How is research applied? What plans can itimplement? Who can it collaborate with? Who is available from both the Islamic and Westernmind-sets with a real appreciation and understanding of the other? How does it demonstrate its


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worth on the global stage? Experience of the field mixed with an eternal optimism leads me tobelieve that interculturalists will exceed expectations and demonstrate the invaluable nature oftheir endeavours.

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conflict/clash between western and Islamic civilization