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shells


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Shells are lovely natural objects, equals in beauty to any flower or butterfly, they are

more than just pretty baubles found on beaches. They are the exterior skeletons(exoskeletons) of a group of animals called mollusks. The word "mollusk" means "soft-

bodied;" an exterior skeleton is very important to these creatures, providing them withshape and rigidity, and also with protection, and sometimes camouflage, from predators.


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Mollusks are classified into major groupings according to the characteristics of their shells.

Snails (Gastropoda) have a single shell which spirals outward and to one side as it grows.

Most Cephalopoda (octopi and squid) have no shell, but the Chambered Nautilus of thatgroup has a shell. This shell does coil, but it coils flatly, in a single plane. Tusk shells

(Scaphopoda) also have a single shell, but it does not coil at all; it grows in a narrow andvery slightly curved cone shape. Bivalves (Bivalvia), including oysters, clams, scallops and

mussels, have two parts to their shells that enclose their tender bodies like the two halvesof a hinged box. Chitons (Polyplacophora) are little armored tanks, with a row of eight

overlapping plates protecting them. The Neopilina (Monoplacophora), are deep-sea "livingfossils;" they have a single shell which hardly coils at all, but fits over their bodies like a

protective cup. (Some gastropods (the limpets) have shells like this too, but their body

structure is very different.) Last are the deepsea worm-like Aplacophora, with no shell at all,but little calcareous spines on their bodies.

Mollusks make their shells from calcium they derive from their environment, either the food

they eat or the water they dwell in. When a tiny mollusk hatches from its egg, it comes intothe world equipped with a tiny shell. This shell is actually a part of the animal, growing as it

grows, accommodating its needs. Each different species of mollusk makes a shell that is, inmost cases, unique to it alone. Indeed, this uniqueness of form is partly what allows

amateur shell collectors (conchologists) and professional scientists who study mollusks(malacologists) to determine a mollusk's species. Each species is destined genetically to

develop the same type of shell its progenitors did. But, just as with humans, there are manydistinct differences. Food, climate, environment, accident, and the mollusk's particularheredity all play their parts in making each shell an individual.

Just as important as protection and rigidity, is the assistance a shell renders its maker inpursuit of the necessities of its life. Some shell shapes are streamlined for ease of burrowing

through mud or sand. Some bivalves are heavily ridged in ways that help them stay

anchored in the bottom where they live. Others are assisted in burrowing by special shellsculpture. There are shells that grow long spines to entrap and encourage growth of

camouflaging seaweed and corals. Others, like cowry shells, are smooth and polished and

highly glossy with bright interesting patterns on their shells. Often the animals themselvesare patterned as well. When a predator disturbs the animal, it withdraws inside its shell,

revealing a surface that is very different in color and pattern than the one the hungrypredator had its eye on. It is speculated that quick change artistry has a startle effect onthe predator. (And still other mollusks, like the slugs, squid and octopi, and those lovely

creatures, the nudibranchs, have given up building a shell altogether, relying wholly onother defenses.)

Indeed, a great deal may be learned about a mollusk's individual life by examining its shell.

Many bear old healed-over breaks and chips that speak of a battle won with some predator.

Others show color change which testifies to a change in diet or water chemicals. Mollusks

that are very old in snail-years may become greatly thickened and dulled in color. Rough

water conditions discourage the growth of long spines on normally spiny species, while quiethabitats allow extravagant spiny extensions. (It is now believed that this effect may have to

do with a mollusk's different diet in rough water.) Sometimes a shell may have so great an

encrustation of marine organisms on its shell that locomotion becomes impossible and theanimal starves to death.

And shells aren't found only on beaches. They can be found anywhere mollusks live. Bothgastropods and bivalves inhabit rivers and streams and lakes, where they have made

adaptations to freshwater living. Many species have also adapted to life on land, and can be


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observed in leaf litter, in trees, on plants, under rocks and buried in loose dirt. In the ocean,

mudflats and mangrove areas are homes to hundreds of mollusk species. Some live on the

tree roots and branches just at water line. Others bury themselves in the mud or sandbottom, emerging to feed, often at night or at low tide. There are mollusks which live only

on coral reefs, and those which inhabit the ocean depths. Some, like the slit shell and theNeopilina, were thought to be extinct until they were rediscovered in these depths. Shells

live on seaweed, on coral holdfasts, under rocks, buried in the roots of undersea grass beds.Some shells even float throughout their entire lives on a raft of bubbles. Each has aspecialized habitat and an ecological niche.

She sells sea shells in the sea shore, an all time favorite tongue twister. Ever wonderedwhat kind of sea shells she was selling? Could have been clam, oyster, snail, slugs, squids

or even octopus. These are all members of the same family known as mollusk, which give

us all those sea shells. The word mollusk is derived from the Latin word mollus, which

means soft. All mollusks are soft-bodied animals. An estimated 50,000 species of molluskshave been identified.

Unity in diversityThe family has representatives from all habitats, however it is the deep sea that is home to

several of them. Mollusks vary greatly in size too. While some are scarcely visible to thenaked eye some like the giant squid are huge and may weigh up to 900 kilograms.

One of the tiniest bivalve mollusks known to man is a type of clam the Pythina clam. It is

translucent and just about the size of a grain of rice. The giant Tridacna clam on the otherhand has two four feet long valves and may weigh up to 500 pounds. The shell of the giant

Tridacna is, in fact, the largest sea shell known to man. Oysters and scallops are also

bivalve mollusks.

Another well-known variety is the gastropods or univalve mollusks.

They have just one shell that varies in size and shape from speciesto species. Snails belong to this group and are the only member ofthe mollusk family to be living in both land and water.

Then there are the cephalopods with illustrious members like the

octopus and squid. Cephalopods are very active and have evolvedout of their need for shells for protection from predators.

A snail is a univalve

type of mollusk

How the shells are made

The mollusks blood is rich in calcium. The calcium is separated from blood to crystallize and

form calcium carbonate crystals. An organ called the mantle plays the main role in theformation of the shell. The crystals are deposited in layers that vary in thickness. This

layered formation adds to the strength of the shell. Various factors like water temperature,alkalinity, acidity, the mollusks diet, hormonal balance, etc. influence the process of shellformation.

You may have seen and wondered at shells of various hues. These hues are derived from


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certain pigments found in the mollusks food. Its glands act on these pigments and mixthem with the hardening layers of shell. Some beautiful color effects can also be seen dueto light being refracted of the various layers.

What the shells tell us

The shape, construction, color and ridges on a shell can tell us a lot about the shells owner.

A low and wide shell indicates that the mollusk is subject to strong waves. A thinnerspherical shell points out that the owner comes from deeper water or maybe from the poles.

Water in these areas is not so rich in calcium, the factor that accounts for the thin shells.Coiled or flat saucer-like shells indicate that the mollusk inhabits hard seafloors. Mollusks

that come from places with uneven jagged rocks will have expanded shell edges that makemoving in such areas easy. Some features give the mollusks a look that makes them look

more formidable than they really are Mother Natures camouflage kit. Mollusks that needto move around and even burrow into soft and sandy surfaces have smooth, long taperingshells.

Mollusks and manAnd what do you think is the main difference between mollusks and us? Our soft bodies

protect our skeletons whereas their skeletons protect their soft bodies!

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BASKET


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Background: This building is the home office

of the Longaberger Company, which sells baskets.

How It's Strange: The building looks like a basket. "There is a whole tradition of using supersize realistic

objects to draw attention," Israel says. "It's a fun way to catch a consumer's eye."

Read more:The World's 18 Strangest Buildings - Basket Building - Popular Mechanics

Follow us:@PopMech on Twitter|popularmechanics on Facebook

http://www.schoolconstructionnews.com/articles/2011/11/30/two-in-one-building-concept-maximizes-

construction-funds

Brittle and basket stars are sea animals that have long, thin, flexible arms. The

bottom of the arms is covered with sucking tube feet. The arms of brittle starsare easily broken. The arms of both types of stars have a skeleton that lookslike a string of small bones. Most brittle and basket stars have five arms, but afew species of brittle stars have six or seven arms. The arms of basket starshave as many as twenty branches. Basket stars are larger than brittle stars,their arms reaching a length of 28 inches (70 centimeters) and the body beingas large as 6 inches (14 centimeters) across. The mouth of brittle and basket
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stars is on the bottom of the body and is framed by five jaws bearing spinyteeth. At the base of each arm are slits that are openings for pouches used forobtaining oxygen and, in some species, for releasing eggs and sperm.

http://animals.jrank.org/pages/1612/Brittle-Basket-Stars-Ophiuroidea-PHYSICAL-CHARACTERISTICS.html

Read more:Brittle and Basket Stars: Ophiuroidea - Physical Characteristics -

Arms, Body, Inches, and Bottom - JRank

Articleshttp://animals.jrank.org/pages/1612/Brittle-Basket-Stars-

Ophiuroidea-PHYSICAL-CHARACTERISTICS.html#ixzz2SdPMU92p Visit us atPopularMechanics.com

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ROTATING CONCEPT

A rotation is acircularmovement of an object around a center(orpoint)of rotation. Athree-dimensionalobject rotates always around an imaginarylinecalled a rotation axis. If the axis is within the

body, and passes through itscenter of massthe body is said to rotate upon itself, orspin.

A rotation about an external point, e.g. theEarthabout theSun, is called a revolution ororbital

revolution, typically when it is produced by gravity.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rotation

rotate (r t t)v.rotated, rotating, rotatesv.intr.

1. To turn around on an axis or center.2. To proceed in sequence; take turns or alternate: Interns will rotate through the variousdepartments.v.tr.1. To cause to turn on an axis or center. See Synonyms at turn.2.a. To plant or grow (crops) in a fixed order of succession.b. To cause to alternate or proceed in sequence: The coach rotates her players frequently nearthe end of the game.
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FLOWER

A flower is the reproductive part of a plant that produces seeds. Plants thatproduce flowers and fruit are called angiosperms. There are more than

300,000 species of angiosperms, and their flowers and fruits vary

significantly. Flowers and fruits are among the most useful features for

identifying plant species.

Read more:http://www.scienceclarified.com/Ex-

Ga/Flower.html#b#ixzz2SdVXXVDa

Study flowers throughout history

Many modern cultures consider flowers attractive, and scholars have been

fascinated with flowers for thousands of years. Dioscorides, a first-century

Greek physician, wrote the most influential early book on plants,De materia

medica. This was the first text about the medicinal uses of plants, and it

contained many diagrams of plants and their flowers. The book helped other

physicians identify the species of plant to prescribe to their patients for a

particular ailment.De materia medica remained an important reference on

botany (the study of plants) for more than 1,500 years.
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In the mid-1700s, Swedish botanist Carolus Linnaeus revolutionized the field

of botany. He classified plant species according to the morphology (form and

structure) of their flowers and fruits. Modern botanists continue to rely upon

his classification system.

Up until the late 1700s, people believed that flowers with beautiful colors and

sweet smells were created by God to please humans. However, German

botanist Christian Konrad Sprengel disputed this view. He held that the

characteristics of flowers (shape, color, smell) are related to their method of

reproduction. Sprengel published his theory of flowers in 1793 in The Secret of

Nature Revealed.Although not widely accepted in his own time, Sprengel'sviews were soon considered scientifically correct.

Words to Know

Angiosperm: Plant that produces flowers and seeds.

Anther: Top part of the stamen that produces pollen.

Filament: Stalk of the stamen that bears the anther.

Corolla: Layers of petals in a flower.

Morphology: Branch of biology dealing with the form and structure of living organisms.

Ovary: Base part of the pistil that bears ovules and develops into a fruit.

Ovule: Structure within the ovary that develops into a seed after fertilization.

Petal: Whorl of a flower just inside the sepals that is often colored.

Pistil: Female reproductive organ of flowers that is composed of the stigma, style, and ovary.


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Pollen: Powdery grains that contain the male reproductive cells of angiosperms.

Pollination: Transfer of pollen from the male reproductive organs to the female reproductive organs of

a plant.

Sepal: External whorl of a flower that is typically leaflike and green.

Stamen: Male reproductive organ of flowers that is composed of the anther and filament.

Stigma: Top part of the pistil upon which pollen lands and germinates.

Style: Stalk of the pistil that connects the stigma to the ovary.


Ga/Flower.html#b#ixzz2SdVav4vo

Pollination

In angiosperms, pollination is the transfer of pollen from an anther to a

stigma. Pollen grains land on the sticky stigma, where they begin to germinate

or grow. A pollen tube then forms down the style, sperm is delivered to the

ovules, and fertilization takes place.

If the transfer of pollen occurs between an anther and the stigma of the same

plant, it is known as self-pollination. Complete flowers are able to self-

pollinate. When the transfer of pollen occurs between an anther and the

stigma of different plants, it is known as cross-pollination. Of the two

methods, cross-pollination produces stronger and healthier off-spring since it

mixes up the genetic make-up of plants. Cross-pollination can be brought

about by wind, rain, mammals, birds, and insects.
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Pollination by wind. Many angiosperms are pollinated by wind. Wind-

pollinated flowers, such as those of corn and all grasses, tend to have a simple

structure lacking petals. The anthers dangle on long filaments, allowing the

light pollen grains to be easily caught by the wind. The stigma are freelyexposed to catch the airborne pollen. Large amounts of pollen are usually

wasted because they do not reach female reproductive organs. For this reason,

most wind-pollinated plants are found in temperate regions, where members

of the same species often grow close together.

Pollination by animals. In general, pollination by insects and other

animals is more efficient than pollination by wind. Many times flowers


Ga/Flower.html#b#ixzz2SdVfvWQT

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e-public-buildings&docid=yxKr6tJkNa6GMM&imgurl=http://3-

ps.googleusercontent.com/x/www.trendhunter.com/cdn.trendhunterstatic.com/thumbs/xgimpo-art-

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c.jpg&w=450&h=450&ei=llGJUa3yHYLirAfd8IC4Dg&zoom=1&ved=1t:3588,r:93,s:0,i:363
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MOLECULES CONCEPT

ORGANIC MOLECULES

Organic compounds are generally covalently bonded. This allows for unique structures such as

long carbon chains and rings. The reason carbon is excellent at forming unique structures and

that there are so many carbon compounds is that carbon atoms form very stable covalent bonds

with one another (catenation). In contrast to inorganic materials, organic compounds typicallymelt, boil, sublimate, or decompose below 300 C. Neutral organic compounds tend to be less

soluble in water compared to many inorganic salts, with the exception of certain compounds

such as ionic organic compounds and low molecular weight alcohols and carboxylic acids where

hydrogen bonding occurs.

Organic compounds tend to dissolve in organic solvents which are either pure substances like

ether or ethyl alcohol, or mixtures, such as the paraffinic solvents such as the various petroleum


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ethers and white spirits, or the range of pure or mixed aromatic solvents obtained from

petroleum or tar fractions by physical separation or by chemical conversion. Solubility in the

different solvents depends upon the solvent type and on the functional groups if present.

Solutions are studied by the science of physical chemistry. Like inorganic salts, organic

compounds may also form crystals. A unique property of carbon in organic compounds is that

its valency does not always have to be taken up by atoms of other elements, and when it is not,a condition termed unsaturation results. In such cases we talk about carbon carbon double

bonds or triple bonds. Double bonds alternating with single in a chain are called conjugated

double bonds. An aromatic structure is a special case in which the conjugated chain is a closed

ring.

The mass of a moleculethe molecular mass (sometimes called the molecular weight)is

simply the sum of the masses of its atoms. As with formula masses, it is important that you

keep track of the number of atoms of each element in the molecular formula to obtain the

correct molecular mass. (For more information about formula masses, seeChapter 3 "Ionic

Bonding and Simple Ionic Compounds",Section 3.5 "Formula Mass".)--------------------

http://2012books.lardbucket.org/books/the-basics-of-general-organic-and-biological-

chemistry/section_07_05.html

The physical properties of molecular substances

Molecules are made of fixed numbers of atoms joined together by covalentbonds, and can range from the very small (even down to single atoms, as inthe noble gases) to the very large (as in polymers, proteins or even DNA).

The covalent bonds holding the molecules together are very strong, but theseare largely irrelevant to the physical properties of the substance. Physicalproperties are governed by the intermolecular forces - forces attracting onemolecule to its neighbours - van der Waals attractions or hydrogen bonds.

Melting and boiling points

Molecular substances tend to be gases, liquids or low melting point solids,because the intermolecular forces of attraction are comparatively weak. Youdon't have to break any covalent bonds in order to melt or boil a molecular

substance.

Note: This is really important! You can make yourself look extremelystupid if you imply in an exam that boiling water, for example, splits it intohydrogen and oxygen by breaking covalent bonds. Exactly the same watermolecules are present in ice, water and steam.
http://2012books.lardbucket.org/books/the-basics-of-general-organic-and-biological-chemistry/gob-ch03#gob-ch03http://2012books.lardbucket.org/books/the-basics-of-general-organic-and-biological-chemistry/gob-ch03#gob-ch03http://2012books.lardbucket.org/books/the-basics-of-general-organic-and-biological-chemistry/gob-ch03#gob-ch03http://2012books.lardbucket.org/books/the-basics-of-general-organic-and-biological-chemistry/gob-ch03_s05#gob-ch03_s05http://2012books.lardbucket.org/books/the-basics-of-general-organic-and-biological-chemistry/gob-ch03_s05#gob-ch03_s05http://2012books.lardbucket.org/books/the-basics-of-general-organic-and-biological-chemistry/gob-ch03_s05#gob-ch03_s05http://2012books.lardbucket.org/books/the-basics-of-general-organic-and-biological-chemistry/section_07_05.htmlhttp://2012books.lardbucket.org/books/the-basics-of-general-organic-and-biological-chemistry/section_07_05.htmlhttp://2012books.lardbucket.org/books/the-basics-of-general-organic-and-biological-chemistry/section_07_05.htmlhttp://2012books.lardbucket.org/books/the-basics-of-general-organic-and-biological-chemistry/section_07_05.htmlhttp://2012books.lardbucket.org/books/the-basics-of-general-organic-and-biological-chemistry/section_07_05.htmlhttp://2012books.lardbucket.org/books/the-basics-of-general-organic-and-biological-chemistry/gob-ch03_s05#gob-ch03_s05http://2012books.lardbucket.org/books/the-basics-of-general-organic-and-biological-chemistry/gob-ch03#gob-ch03http://2012books.lardbucket.org/books/the-basics-of-general-organic-and-biological-chemistry/gob-ch03#gob-ch03


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The size of the melting or boiling point will depend on thestrength of the intermolecular forces. The presence of hydrogenbonding will lift the melting and boiling points. The larger the

molecule the more van der Waals attractions are possible - andthose will also need more energy to break.

Solubility in water

Most molecular substances are insoluble (or only very sparinglysoluble) in water. Those which do dissolve often react with thewater, or else are capable of forming hydrogen bonds with thewater.

Why d oesn' t methane, CH4, dissolve in w ater?

The methane itself isn't the problem. Methane is a gas, and soits molecules are already separate - the water doesn't need topull them apart from one another.

The problem is the hydrogen bonds between the watermolecules. If methane were to dissolve, it would have to force itsway between water molecules and so break hydrogen bonds.That costs a reasonable amount of energy.

The only attractions possible between methane and watermolecules are the much weaker van der Waals forces - and notmuch energy is released when these are set up. It simply isn'tenergetically profitable for the methane and water to mix.

http://www.chemguide.co.uk/atoms/structures/molecular.html
http://www.chemguide.co.uk/atoms/structures/molecular.htmlhttp://www.chemguide.co.uk/atoms/structures/molecular.htmlhttp://www.chemguide.co.uk/atoms/structures/molecular.html


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