CONCEPTION TO THREE YEARS: THE NATURE AND …library.bsl.org.au/jspui/bitstream/1/7093/1/MooreT_Conceptionto3_7May2015.pdfgenetic transmission, but genes do not determine development

Centre for Community Child Health

BROTHERHOOD OF ST. LAURENCE

LUNCHTIME SEMINAR

7th May 2015

CONCEPTION TO THREE YEARS: THE NATURE

AND SIGNIFICANCE OF EARLY DEVELOPMENT

AND THE IMPLICATIONS FOR PRACTICE

Tim Moore


Murdoch Childrens Research Institute

The Royal Children’s Hospital


INTRODUCTION AND OUTLINE

• Over the past few decades, there has been a growing

acceptance among scholars, professionals and policy makers of

the importance of the early years

• However, as we learn more about the way in which experiences

in the early years shape health, development and well-being,

and the extent of these influences over the life-course, the true

importance of these years becomes more and more apparent

• This presentation summarises recent evidence from nine

different sources


NEW RESEARCH EVIDENCE

• Evidence about the nature and significance of prenatal

development and experiences, and their effects over the life course

• Evidence about the nature and significance of postnatal learning

and development, and the impact of proximal environments

• Evidence regarding the long-term impact of early childhood

experiences on development, health and wellbeing

• Evidence regarding neurological development and plasticity

• Evidence regarding the neurobiology of interpersonal relationships

• Evidence regarding ‘social climate change’ and its effects

• Evidence from economic analyses of child development and the

benefits of investments in the early years

• Evidence regarding social inequalities and their effects

• Evidence from repeated measurement of key indicators of child

development and functioning

PRENATAL AND POSTNATAL DEVELOPMENT


1. PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT

• Until recently, there had been a scientific misconception that the

placenta provides a barrier for the growing fetus that protects it

from the mother's physical and emotional environment

• We now know this is not the case – there is a free exchange

between the embryonic and maternal blood systems, and the

placental wall (which is thinnest during the first trimester when

development is most rapid and fundamental) does not protect the

child against drugs, alcohol, smoking, environmental toxins or

maternal stress

• Moreover, instead of being a passive bystander in the womb during

the pregnancy journey, the fetus actively responds to changes

within the intrauterine environment

• This is an example of the biological mechanism of developmental

plasticity by which organisms, in response to cues such as nutrition

or hormones, adapt their phenotype to their particular environment


PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT

• According to the developmental origins of health and disease

(DOHaD) hypothesis, the fetus makes adaptations based on the

nutritional and hormonal signals that cross the placenta

• If the conditions are suboptimal, these adaptations can result in

permanent alteration of the structure, physiology and metabolism of

the offspring, thus laying a physiological basis for adult-onset disease

• This kind of prenatal programming has long-lasting effects on later

health (cardiovascular disease, type-2 diabetes, obesity and metabolic

syndrome) and fertility

• As a result, adult conditions such as coronary heart disease, stroke,

diabetes, and cancer that were regarded solely as products of adult

behavior and lifestyles are now seen as being linked to processes and

experiences occurring decades before, in some cases as early as

intrauterine life, across a wide range of impairments


DEVELOPMENTAL PLASTICITY

• Parents shape their children’s health and development through

genetic transmission, but genes do not determine development or

behaviour

• The way that genes are ‘expressed’ depends upon their

interaction with environmental factors: these interactions alter the

expression or function of genes without altering their DNA

sequence – these are known as epigenetic effects

• Epigenetic changes may also be inherited, so that the

experiences of mothers or even grandmothers can be transmitted

across generations

• Even the health and physiology of parents prior to conceiving a

child can affect the child’s health and development

• While these changes may, in time, be rectified, in the short term

they contribute to non-genomic transmission of risk

Babies are produced by

contributions from both

parents. More and more we

are beginning to realise that

such contributions go well

beyond mere genes, with

nurture, environment, and

even the parents' own

physiology and experiences

shaping offspring and their

preparedness for life ahead.

Science, 2014, 15th August

Lane, M., Robker, R.L. and

Robertson, S.A. (2014).

Parenting from before

conception. Science, 345

(6198): 756-760.

At fertilization, the egg and sperm endow

the embryo a set of genes, the integrity of

which is affected by the age and

environmental exposures of both parents.

Parental history and experiences also

exert effects through epigenomic

information not contained in the DNA

sequence, including variations in sperm

and egg cells.

Transgenerational epigenetic effects

interact with conditions at conception to

program the developmental trajectory of

the embryo and fetus, ultimately affecting

the lifetime health of the child.

This means we need to revise our notions

of parenting, and recognise that biological

parenting commences well before birth,

even prior to conception.


2. POSTNATAL DEVELOPMENT

• Previously, infants were thought of as needing loving care and

protection but not as active learners or social partners

• We now know that children come out of the womb primed to engage

with their caregivers, and that the parents are primed to engage with

them

• We now know that learning starts from birth and that learning and

development are cumulative, with later development building upon

earlier development.

• The proximal environments in which young children spend their time

– physical, relational and learning environments – provide

opportunities and experiences that shape development.

• Children adapt to these environments – another example of

developmental plasticity – in ways that optimise their functioning in

the particular environment, but that may have long-term

consequences for development, health and wellbeing


POSTNATAL DEVELOPMENT

(cont) • The stressful experiences endemic to families living in poverty alter

children's neurobiology in ways that undermine health, social

competence, and ability to succeed in school and life

• When children are born into a world where resources are scarce

and violence is a constant possibility, neurobiological changes may

make them hypervigilant

• While this adaptation helps in the short term, in the long term it

makes it harder for them to control their emotions, focus on tasks,

and form healthy relationships, all disadvantages in situations, such

as school and work, where they must concentrate and cooperate to

do well.

• An added complication is that children are differentially susceptible

to environmental experiences: while most children are ‘dandelion’

children who do well in most environments, a minority are ‘orchid’

children who flourish in positive environments but react particularly

badly to negative environments


3. LONG-TERM IMPACT OF EARLY YEARS EXPERIENCES

• Key longitudinal studies – eg. Adverse Childhood Experiences

Study, Christchurch Health and Development Study, British Cohort

Study, and the Longitudinal Study of Australian Children

• These studies provide strong evidence of the way in which life-long

effects of early experiences impact on the later achievements,

social adjustments, mental health, physical health and longevity of

individuals

Three key ways in which early childhood experiences can have long-

term effects have been identified:

• biological embedding,

• accumulation processes, and

• developmental escalations of risk over time

Although they are distinguishable from one another, these pathways

are not mutually exclusive.


BIOLOGICAL EMBEDDING

• Biological embedding refers to a developmental process whereby

prenatal and early childhood experiences influence physiological

and neurological development in ways that have long-term

consequences

• Early life social and environmental stressors, such as childhood

abuse, neglect, poverty, and poor nutrition, become deeply

embedded in the child’s neurobiology

• These changes have been associated with an increased risk of

common metabolic and cardiovascular diseases later in life, the

emergence of mental and physical illness (such as anxiety, mood

disorders, poor impulse control, psychosis, and drug abuse) and

increased risk for psychopathology (depression, conduct

disorders, and schizophrenia)

• Inadequate diet in early life can permanently change the structure

and function of specific organs or homoeostatic pathways,

thereby ‘programming’ the individual’s health status and longevity


ACCUMULATION EFFECTS

• The cumulative effect of adverse experiences during childhood

and the toxic stress they cause influences every aspect of health

and well-being in childhood and beyond

• Adverse experiences include abuse (emotional, physical and

sexual), neglect (physical and emotional) and household

dysfunction (family violence, parental illness or drug abuse,

parental separation and divorce)

• These effects cascade across all areas of developmental

functioning thereby altering the course of development

• The greater the number of adverse experiences in childhood, the

greater the risks of a range of adult health problems (including

heart disease, liver disease and lung cancer) and psychological

problems (depression, suicide attempts, alcoholism and drug

abuse)

Dong et al (2004)


ACCUMULATION EFFECTS (cont)

• Over time, the cumulative wear and tear caused by exposure to

chronic stress results in physiological changes to the body with long

term adverse consequences for health and wellbeing

• This cumulative wear and tear on the body is known as allostatic

load, and is caused by repeated mobilisations of multiple

physiological systems over time in response to environmental

stressors

• The longer the children have been exposed to stressors such as

poverty, family violence or child abuse, the higher their allostatic

load

• Childhood stressors may actually ‘reset’ the immune system in a

manner that increases stress-related impairments in immune

function, rates of infectious and chronic diseases, or blood pressure

and cardiovascular disease incidence

McEwen, B.S. (1998). Protective and damaging effects of stress mediators.

New England Journal of Medicine, 338 (3), 171-179.


ESCALATIONS OF RISK OVER TIME

• Development is also shaped by developmental

escalations in risk over time

• An exposure or experience at one stage of the life

course influences the probability of others later in the

life course, as well as associated health and

developmental outcomes

• Thus, these experiences form chains of risk whereby

a sequence of linked exposures that raise disease

risk because one bad experience or exposure tends

to lead to another and then another


4. NEUROLOGICAL DEVELOPMENT AND PLASTICITY

• Brains are built over time through an ongoing process that begins

before birth and continues into adulthood

• Both brain architecture and developing abilities are built from the

bottom up, with simple circuits and skills providing the scaffolding for

more advanced circuits and skills over time

• Early environments and experiences have an exceptionally strong

influence on brain ‘architecture’

• However, the brain is capable of rewiring itself in response to

significant changes in environments

• Our preferred metaphor for describing the early development of the

brain is to talk about the ‘architecture’ of the brain – this captures

well the importance of building firm foundations, but does not do

justice to neurological plasticity, for which there is no equivalent in

architecture

• Neurological plasticity as a two-edged sword

NEUROBIOLOGY OF INTERPERSONAL RELATIONSHIPS

http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.1254400

http://www.plosmedicine.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pmed.1001479


5. NEUROBIOLOGY OF INTERPERSONAL RELATIONSHIPS

• Healthy development depends on the quality and reliability of a

young child’s relationships with the important people in his or her

life, both within and outside the family

• Relationships are the medium through which young children learn

the skills that enable them to become fully participating members

of society – in effect, children use the brains of adults to develop

their own

• Sensitive and responsive care giving is a requirement for the

healthy neurophysiological, physical and psychological

development of a child

• The key qualities of effective relationships are attunement,

responsiveness and respect

• Brains are changed by relationships – they can do this because

our brains constantly communicate with each other through

unconscious or subconscious neurobiological pathways of which

we are unaware.


NEUROBIOLOGY OF INTERPERSONAL RELATIONSHIPS

• The subconscious pathways enable our brains to read the body

and facial signals of others, and detect their intentions and

emotional states.

• In effect, our (right) brains are able to communicate directly with

other people’s (right) brains independently of conscious

communication processes or awareness.

• The right brain limbic areas that enable this to occur grow rapidly

in the first two years of life and the nature of their development

can have long-term implications.

• The growth of a baby’s brain literally requires brain–brain

interaction, and occurs in the context of a positive affective

relationship.

• These interactions constitute a ‘social synapse’ that resembles the

synaptic connections between the neurons in our brains

Cozolino (2006)

Secure attachment and right brain development

(Allan Schore, adapted from Trevarthen, 1993)

INTER-BRAIN SYNCHRONISATION

Inter-brain synchronization in alpha (blue), beta (orange) and gamma (red)

frequency bands related to interactional synchrony during spontaneous imitation of

hand movements (Dumas, 2011)


6. ‘SOCIAL CLIMATE CHANGE’

• As a result of rapid social change, the world has become a more

challenging and complex place, and the conditions under which

families are raising children have changed

• Families who are relatively well-resourced are better able to meet

the challenges posed by altered social conditions. However,

poorly-resourced families can find the heightened demands of

contemporary living and parenting overwhelming

• Gaps in family functioning are cumulative: the more advantaged

families are initially, the better they are able to capitalise and build

on the enhanced opportunities available, so that the gap between

them and those unable to do so progressively widens

• There is also an increase in the numbers of families with complex

needs, and more pockets of intergenerational disadvantage,

underachievement and poor health and developmental outcomes

Human health in city environments is an expression of complex

social and environmental interactions not previously faced in our

long evolutionary history. The rising tide of 21st century public

health problems, such as obesity, cardiovascular disease and

depression, are different to past problems that could be directly

attributed to infectious agents, toxic chemicals, poor industrial

design and a lack of effective environmental management.

The new diseases of urban living arise more from the complex

way we now live, eat, travel, build, play and work in urban

environments, rather than from any single agency.

Our health is now an expression of a complex web of interactions

that have not been previously faced during human evolution and

these interactions are more subtle and indirect in their action.

Kearns, Beaty & Barnett (2007)

MISMATCH

Evolution and

modern

environments


MISMATCH DISEASES (Lieberman 2013)

• Thanks to the genes you inherited, you are adapted to varying

extents for certain activities, foods, climatic conditions, and other

aspects of your environment.

• At the same time, because of changes to your environment, you

are sometimes (but not always) inadequately or poorly adapted for

other activities, foods, climatic conditions, and so on.

• These maladaptive responses can sometimes (but again, not

always) make you sick.

• There are many mismatch diseases, but all of them are caused by

environmental changes that alter how the body functions.

HYPOTHESIZED NONINFECTIOUS MISMATCH DISEASES

Daniel Lieberman (2013): The Story of the Human Body

Psychological

Anxiety

Depression

Obsessive-compulsive disorder

Neurological

Alzheimer’s disease

ADHD

Chronic fatigue syndrome

Multiple sclerosis

Immunological

Asthma

Allergies

Cardiovascular

Coronary heart disease

High blood pressure

Endocrinological

Diabetes (Type 2)

Metabolic syndrome

Fatty liver syndrome

Reproductive

Endometriosis

Preeclampsia

Polycystic ovarian syndrome

Sleep

Apnea

Insomnia (chronic)

Skin

Acne

HYPOTHESIZED NONINFECTIOUS MISMATCH DISEASES

(cont)

Daniel Lieberman (2013): The Story of the Human Body

Dental

Dental cavities

Impacted wisdom teeth

Malocclusion

Toxins

Emphysema

Cirrhosis

Sight

Glaucoma

Myopia

Dietary

Eating disorders

Iodine deficiency

Scurvy

Gut and bowel

Lactose intolerance

Irritable bowel syndrome

Stomach ulcers

Haemorrhoids

Constipation (chronic)

Crohn’s disease

Muscular-skeletal

Lower back pain

Osteoporosis

Rickets

Fibromyalgia

Athlete’s foot

Carpal tunnel syndrome

Flat feet

Plantar fasciitis


USE IT OR LOSE IT (Lieberman, 2013)

• Some mismatch diseases result from too much of a formerly

rare stimulus (such as sugar), while others result from too little of

a formerly common stimulus

• We evolved to ‘use it or lose it’: because bodies are not

engineered but instead grow and evolve, your body expects and

requires certain stresses when you’re maturing to develop

appropriately

• Many mismatch diseases occur when growing bodies fail to

experience as much stress as evolution geared them to expect

• Necessary stresses may be neurological, musculoskeletal,

immunological, dietary, and metabolic

• We have created environments that deprive us of necessary

stresses during development


7. INVESTING IN THE EARLY YEARS

• In this changed world, the stakes have risen: national prosperity

is seen as dependent upon the productivity of its citizens and

workforce, and improving productivity requires people to master

more complex skills.

• It is no longer acceptable to have children arriving at school

poorly equipped to benefit from the learning and social

opportunities schools provide, and therefore at risk of not

developing the skills and qualities needed in a modern economy.

• Moreover, economic analyses by James Heckman and others

show that investments in the early years are more cost effective

and beneficial than later investments

INVESTING IN THE EARLY YEARS

James J. Heckman (2013). Giving Kids a Fair Chance (A Strategy That

Works). Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press.

In short, to foster individual

success, greater equality of

opportunity, a more dynamic

economy, and a healthier

society, we need a major shift

in social policy toward early

intervention, with later

interventions designed to

reinforce those early efforts.

SOCIAL INEQUALITIES


8. SOCIAL INEQUALITIES

• Social gradient effects - in every society, regardless of wealth,

differences in socioeconomic status translate into inequalities in

child development

• Social gradients are evident across a wide range of developmental,

health and well-being indicators: inequalities in outcomes are not

concentrated exclusively at the bottom of the socioeconomic

spectrum in a small group of poor or problematic families, but are

distributed across the entire spectrum in a graded fashion

• Outcomes for children and families improve progressively the

further up the socioeconomic spectrum they are, and worsen

progressively the further down they move

• Discrepancies between children from advantaged and

disadvantaged backgrounds emerge early, and progressively

widen, with advantages and disadvantages accumulating

throughout life

Sharon Goldfeld and Sue West (2014). Inequalities in early childhood outcomes: What lies

beneath. Insight Issue 9. Melbourne, Victoria: Victorian Council of Social Services

http://apo.org.au/files/Research/VCOSSInsight_InequalitiesInEarlyChildhoodOutcomesWhatLiesBene

ath_Jan_2014.pdf

Child health inequalities exist in all

western countries including Australia

and constitute a significant and

potentially preventable public health

problem.

The increasing evidence from

developmental health research

suggests that inequities emerging in

early childhood are maintained into

adulthood as higher rates of mortality

and physical, social and cognitive

morbidity across the social gradient.

WIDENING INEQUALITIES

Andrew Leigh (2013). Battlers and Billionaires: The Story of

Inequality in Australia. Collingwood, Victoria: Redback.

Since the 1980s, inequality in Australia

has been growing.

While inequality can fuel growth, it also

poses dangers to society. Too much

inequality risks dividing us into two

Australias, occupying fundamentally

separate worlds, with little contact

between the haves and the have-nots.

And the further apart the rungs on the

ladder of opportunity, the harder it is for

a kid born into poverty to enter the

middle class.


0

200

400

600

800

1000

1200

1400

1600

1800

2000

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Number of services by SEIFA Australia-wide (2012)

Source: MyChild data extract 2012 (accessed online).

Services comprise Long Day Care, Occasional Care, Family Day Care, Vacation

Care, In Home Care and Outside School Hours Care

SEIFA

Odds ratios by socioeconomic position quintile for socio-emotional difficulties, & poor

communication, vocabulary & emergent literacy skills

Socioeconomic inequality profiles in physical and

developmental health from 0-7 years: Australian national study (Nicholson, Lucas, Berthelsen & Wake, 2010)


9. MEASUREMENTS OF KEY INDICATORS

SOCIO-ECONOMIC

STATUS

The results of the Australian Early Development Census (formerly AEDI)

show that significant numbers of children are arriving at school poorly

equipped to benefit from the social and learning opportunities that schools

offer, and schools struggle to make up the gap between those children and

their peers.


VARIATIONS IN DEVELOPMENTAL VULNERABILITY


VARIATIONS IN DEVELOPMENTAL VULNERABILITY (cont)

GEOGRAPHY


CONCLUSIONS RE THE EARLY YEARS

• What happens during the early postnatal years can also have life-

long effects on the later achievements, social adjustments, mental

health, physical health and longevity of individuals

• Adult conditions that were previously regarded solely as products

of adult behavior and lifestyles are now seen as being linked to

processes and experiences occurring in pregnancy or infancy

• The nature of the environments in which children spend their time

– their relational and physical properties, and the learning

opportunities they provide – shape children’s development for

better or worse

• Infants and young children adapt physiologically and neurologically

to these environments in ways that help them survive and even

thrive in the short term, but may have long-term adverse

consequences for later development, health and wellbeing


CONCLUSIONS (cont)

• These early learnings and adaptations are critical because learning

and development are cumulative, with later development and

learning building upon earlier development, with the gaps between

those doing well and those not doing well progressively widening

• The brain is not a stand-alone bodily system, but is intricately

connected to other major bodily systems, including the immune,

endocrinal, cardiovascular and metabolic systems – these systems

shape and are shaped by each other.

• Thus, what is ‘learned’ in the prenatal and first two to three years of

life affects not only the neurological system but also the other

bodily systems to which the brain is connected, with potentially

profound consequences over the life course.


IMPLICATIONS

• This accumulation of new knowledge about the impact of

prenatal and early childhood experiences on health, wellbeing

and development in later childhood and over the life-course

must change how we view the early years.

• It is now becoming apparent that it is no longer sufficient to think

of this period as being about keeping children healthy and safe

while allowing development to take its course until they become

old enough to educate formally

• Instead, we need to be taking steps to ensure that children are

provided with early childhood environments and experiences

that build attachments, competencies and skills from birth, and

protect them from escalating chains of adverse experiences

• Children learn from every encounter with their physical and

social environments – therefore, in every environment, a

curriculum of sorts is operating, and we need to ensure that

what children learn benefits them over the life course


IMPLICATIONS (cont)

• As a society, we have long-standing commitments to the public

funding of hospitals and schools – but, as yet, no corresponding

commitment to some form of early childhood provision, or even

an agreement across society as to what that provision should be

• The contested issues surrounding child care provision illustrate

these dilemmas well: What exactly are its aims? How can we

ensure it is of high quality? Should it be publically funded?

• We are at a transitional point in our understanding of the nature

and significance of the early years – we are much more aware

of their importance but not yet committed to a course of action

that will ensure that children’s experience of this period is

optimal

• In moving forward, it is crucial that we base whatever we do on

the developmental evidence summarised here

PREVENTION AND ‘DYSEVOLUTION’

Although we often treat the disease’s symptoms with

varying degrees of success, we fail to or choose not to

treat the disease’s causes. When we pass on these

environmental conditions to our children, we set in

motion a feedback loop that allows the disease itself to

persist increase in prevalence and intensity from one

generation to the next.

‘Dysevolution’ is not a form of biological evolution,

because we don’t pass on mismatch diseases directly

from one generation to the next. Instead it is a form of

cultural evolution, because we pass on the behaviours

and environments that promote mismatch diseases.

Lieberman (2013)


WHAT DO WE NEED TO DO

Moore, T.G. and McDonald, M. (2013). Acting Early, Changing Lives: How prevention

and early action saves money and improves wellbeing. Prepared for The Benevolent

Society. Parkville, Victoria: Centre for Community Child Health, Murdoch Childrens

Research Institute, The Royal Children’s Hospital.

In order to reduce the likelihood of poor

long-term outcomes for children

experiencing significant disadvantage, a

multilevel, ecological approach to early

intervention is required that involves

programs, community and service system

level changes as well interventions to

address the structural (e.g. government

policy) and wider social factors (e.g.

societal attitudes and values) that impact

either directly or indirectly on children

and families.


WHAT DO WE NEED TO DO?

To achieve better outcomes for children and families, we

need to take action on three levels:

• ECEC and early intervention service level

• Community and system level interventions

• Societal and structural level interventions

Interventions targeted at one level only are unlikely to be

successful at achieving significant and sustainable change

amongst children and families experiencing significant

disadvantage – we need to intervene at multiple levels

simultaneously.

Moore & McDonald (2013)

http://www.rch.org.au/uploadedFiles/Main/Content/ccch/PCI_Tim-

Moore_Understanding-nature-significance-early-childhood.pdf

http://www.rch.org.au/uploadedFiles/Main/Content/ccch/PCI_Tim-Moore_Understanding-nature-significance-early-childhood.pdf












Dr. Tim Moore

Senior Research Fellow

Centre for Community Child Health, Murdoch Childrens Research Institute, The Royal Children’s Hospital, Flemington Road, Parkville, Victoria, Australia 3052 Phone: +61·3·9345 5040 Fax: +61·3·9345 5900 Email: [email protected]

Website: www.rch.org.au/ccch

Documents

CONCEPTION TO THREE YEARS: THE NATURE AND …library.bsl.org.au/jspui/bitstream/1/7093/1/MooreT_Conceptionto3_7May2015.pdfgenetic transmission, but genes do not determine development