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COMPUTER ASSISTEDEXERCISES ANDTRAINING
A Reference Guide
ERDAL ÇAYIRCI
University of Stavanger
DUSAN MARINCIC
NATO Joint Warfare Center
A JOHN WILEY & SONS, INC., PUBLICATION
InnodataFile Attachment9780470498613.jpg
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COMPUTER ASSISTED EXERCISES ANDTRAINING
-
COMPUTER ASSISTEDEXERCISES ANDTRAINING
A Reference Guide
ERDAL ÇAYIRCI
University of Stavanger
DUSAN MARINCIC
NATO Joint Warfare Center
A JOHN WILEY & SONS, INC., PUBLICATION
-
DisclaimerDefinitions, views, and opinions expressed in this
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reflects the personal view and
opinion of the authors on generic requirements and architectures
not tailored for a national or an
international organization.
Copyright r 2009 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights
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Published by John Wiley & Sons, Inc., Hoboken, New
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data:
Çayirci, E. (Erdal)
Computer assisted exercises & training : a reference guide /
Erdal Çayirci, Dusan Marincic.
p. cm.
‘‘Published simultaneously in Canada’’–T. p. verso.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978-0-470-41229-9 (cloth)
1. Military education. 2. Drill and minor
tactics–Computer-assisted instruction. 3. Military
maneuvers–Computer-assisted instruction. 4. Drill and minor
tactics–Computer simulation.
5. Military maneuvers–Computer simulation. 6. Computer war
games. I. Marincic, Dusan.
II. Title. III. Title: Computer assisted exercises and
training.
U405.C39 2009
355.5078u5–dc22 2009011949
Printed in the United States of America
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
http://www.copyright.comhttp://www.wiley.com/go/permissionhttp://www.wiley.com
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To Tülin, Ertuğ, Cemre, Lara, and TuanaErdal C- ayırcı
To Jelka, Andrea, and SebastianDušan Marinčič
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CONTENTS
PREFACE xiii
ABOUT AUTHORS xv
PART I FUNDAMENTALS AND THEORY 1
1 Introduction 3
1.1 Contemporary Security Environment 3
1.2 Exercises 7
1.2.1 Military and Civilian Exercises 8
1.2.2 Live Exercises 9
1.2.3 Command Post Exercises 9
1.2.4 Computer-Assisted Exercises 10
1.3 Military Simulation 12
1.4 Scope of the Book 14
1.5 Structure of the Book 15
1.6 Electronic Resources for the Book 17
1.7 Review Questions 17
2 Conflict and Warfare 19
2.1 Paradigms of War 21
2.2 Evolution of Warfare 23
vii
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2.2.1 First, Second and Third Generation of Warfare 24
2.2.2 Fourth and Fifth Generation of Warfare 25
2.3 Operations 27
2.3.1 Conventional Operations 28
2.3.2 Special Operations 31
2.3.3 Crises Response Operations 33
2.3.4 Peace Operations 35
2.3.5 Network-Centric Warfare 38
2.3.6 Logistics 39
2.3.7 Information Operations 40
2.3.8 Psychological Operations 41
2.3.9 Effect-Based Approach to Operations
(EBAOs) 43
2.4 Comprehensive Approach to Operations 44
2.4.1 Civil Military Cooperation 47
2.4.2 Economical and Social Aspects 48
2.4.3 Comprehensive Approach and Its Application 51
2.5 Review Questions 55
3 Statistics and Probability 57
3.1 Descriptive Statistics: Population, Sample, Central
Tendency, and Dispersion 58
3.2 Probability 64
3.2.1 Counting Techniques 66
3.2.2 Independence, Multiplication Rule, and
Conditional Probability 70
3.2.3 Mutually Exclusive Events and Addition
Rule 73
3.2.4 Total Probability and Bayes’ Theorem 74
3.3 Random Variable 76
3.3.1 Discrete Distributions 763.3.1.1 The Uniform Distribution
793.3.1.2 The Binomial Distribution 793.3.1.3 The Geometric
Distribution 793.3.1.4 The Negative Binomial Distribution 803.3.1.5
The Hypergeometric Distribution 813.3.1.6 The Poisson Distribution
81
3.3.2 Continuous Distributions 82
viii CONTENTS
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3.3.2.1 The Continuous Uniform (Rectangular)Distribution 85
3.3.2.2 The Exponential Distribution 853.3.2.3 The Normal
(Gaussian) Distribution 86
3.4 Inferential Statistics 89
3.4.1 Confidence Interval 89
3.4.2 Hypothesis Test 92
3.4.3 Goodness of Fit 96
3.5 Review Questions 101
4 Simulation 103
4.1 Pseudorandom Number Generation and Realization of
Random Variables 105
4.1.1 Pseudorandom Number Generation 105
4.1.2 Realization of Random Variables for a
Simulation 110
4.2 Static Simulation 114
4.3 Dynamic Simulation 115
4.3.1 Discrete Event Simulation 116
4.3.2 Continuous Simulation 116
4.4 Phases in a Simulation 117
4.5 Review Questions 118
5 Distributed Simulation 121
5.1 Distributed Interactive Simulation 124
5.2 High-Level Architecture 127
5.2.1 HLA Interface Specification 129
5.2.2 Object Model Template (OMT) 132
5.2.3 FEDEP 137
5.2.4 HLA Rules 139
5.3 Base Object Model (BOM) 140
5.4 Review Questions 140
6 Experimentation and Analysis 143
6.1 Design of Experiment 144
6.2 Execution of Experiments 147
CONTENTS ix
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6.3 Data Analysis, Reporting, and Presentation 150
6.4 Review Questions 152
PART II COMBAT MODELING, COMPUTER-ASSISTEDEXERCISES, AND
PRACTICE 153
7 Computer-Assisted Exercise (CAX) Architectures 155
7.1 Distributed Exercises and Distributed Simulation 155
7.2 Multilevel and Multiresolution Exercises 160
7.3 Cross-Level, Joint, and Combined Exercises 163
7.4 Excon Structure 167
7.5 Response Cells 169
7.6 Training Audience 170
7.7 Review Questions 170
8 CAX PROCESS 171
8.1 Exercise Specification 171
8.2 Planning and Preparation 174
8.2.1 Scenario Development 176
8.2.2 MEL/MIL Development 177
8.2.3 CAX Databases and Database Management
Process 178
8.3 Execution 180
8.4 Analysis 183
8.5 Review Questions 188
9 Combat Modeling 189
9.1 Terrain Modeling 193
9.1.1 Environmental Data Representation 194
9.1.2 Data Coding Standard (DCS) 197
9.2 Attrition and Movement 201
9.2.1 Lanchester Equations 203
9.2.2 Stochastic Processing 206
9.3 Challenges in the Quantification for Nonkinetic Warfare
207
x CONTENTS
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9.4 Automated Forces 214
9.5 Challenges and Approaches in the Implementation 220
9.5.1 Complex Systems and Fuzzy Trees 220
9.5.2 Minimalist Modeling Methodology 2239.5.2.1 Structural
Simplicity 2249.5.2.2 Behavioral Simplicity 2249.5.2.3 Mathematical
Elegance 2259.5.2.4 Statistical Analysis 2259.5.2.5 Organic Units
226
9.6 Combat Model Data 227
9.6.1 Organizational Data 227
9.6.2 Equipment, Weapons, and Ammunition Data 227
9.6.3 Terrain Data 227
9.6.4 Environmental Data 228
9.7 Verification and Validation of Combat Models 228
9.8 Experimentation and Analysis of Operational Plans 230
9.9 Review Questions 231
10 Computer-Assisted Exercise Support Tools 233
10.1 Military Constructive Simulations and Ancillary Tools
234
10.1.1 High-Resolution Constructive Simulations 235
10.1.2 Highly Aggregated Constructive Simulations 239
10.1.3 Constructive Simulations for Nonkinetic Warfare 242
10.1.4 Federations 243
10.1.5 Ancillary Tools 245
10.2 Planning and Management Tools 246
10.2.1 Exercise Management Tools 247
10.2.2 Scenario Management Tools 249
10.3 Mediation-Ware 252
10.4 Review Questions 253
11 Communications/Information System Issues, Technical Risks,and
Risk Mitigation 255
11.1 Hardware and Software Requirements 255
11.2 Communications and QoS Requirements 256
11.3 Security Issues and Challenges 260
CONTENTS xi
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11.4 Game Crashes, Checkpoints, and Crash Recovery 262
11.5 Shadow/Run Ahead Games 263
11.6 Backups and Archives 264
11.7 Networking Service Outages and Other Reasons for Failure
264
11.8 Review Questions 265
12 Exercise Centers and Facilities 267
12.1 Organization of a Training/Exercise Center 269
12.1.1 Operational Staff in a Training/Exercise Center 269
12.1.2 Technical Staff in a Training/Exercise Center 272
12.1.3 Support Staff in a Training/Exercise Center 274
12.1.4 Number of Teams and Staff in a Training/Exercise
Center 274
12.2 Design Principles for Training/Exercise Center Facilities
276
12.3 Review Questions 280
REFERENCES 281
ACRONYMS 287
INDEX 293
xii CONTENTS
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PREFACE
Contemporary security threats, warfare paradigms, composition of
headquar-ters, and the complexity of operations introduce new
challenges for thedecision-making and operational planning
processes and operating proceduresof headquarters. Operational
headquarters are often composite organizationsmade up of
international military staff augmented by governmental
andnongovernmental, national or international, organizations. This
fact exacer-bates new challenges introduced by the new generation
of warfare, whichmakes the training of headquarters more and more
complex. Emerging combatmodeling and information technologies offer
effective approaches that cantackle the complexities of this task.
Therefore, computer-assisted exercises(CAX) aim to immerse the
training audience in an environment as realistic aspossible and to
support exercise planning and control personnel in such a waythat
they can steer the exercise process toward the exercise objectives
aseffectively as possible. It has become the main tool for the
headquarters’training.
The book is designed as a comprehensive teaching material for a
course oncomputer-assisted exercises. Basic prerequisite knowledge
on military opera-tions and exercises is not required but can be
helpful. The book is self-containedon the fundamental probability
theory and statistics-related issues, and itprovides advanced
information on military simulations and CAX. The readersof this
book are either exercise planners or technical support personnel,
whostudy to plan a CAX or perform CAX support, CAX system design,
andimplementation tasks.
This textbook is organized for 14–18 week (3 hours a week)
courses. It is alsoaimed to be a reference book for practitioners,
i.e., CAX planners and
xiii
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engineers in industry or in military organizations. The book has
two parts. Thefirst one introduces fundamentals and key issues
related to the militarysimulation. In the second part, combat
modeling, military simulation, CAXplanning, and execution-related
issues and technologies are elaborated.
A contemporary security environment demands interdisciplinary
studies andresearch. Most examples described in the chapters are a
result of thoroughresearch and discoveries made by both authors in
the last 10 years. Thesituational complexity in the areas of
complex emergency request well-trained,flexible, knowledgable, and
sustainable operational elements from the Interna-tional Community.
To achieve that, it is of utmost importance to
providestate-of-the-art educational and training methodology with
the poolingof findings from computer science, natural science,
science of mathematics,social science, and military science. With
the permanent monitoring of securitydevelopments in the globalized
world, it is possible to establish and maintaincommon security data
bases. Accessible and updated information allowsrealistic
preparation, organization, and execution of functional training
forthe designated forces, which becomes closer and closer to the
real-world crisisresponse operations.
The secondary objective of this book is to create conditions for
a chainof events, from formation of exercise centers, to education
and training ofplanners and technical personnel for CAX, followed
by proper preparation ofoperational elements for certain crisis
situations and ending with the crisisresponse operations. A
structured and timely feedback from the field can thanimprove the
overall training process in the future. With this chain of
desiredevents, authors would like to contribute to improve the life
of the affectedpopulation in the areas of complex emergency. The
authors amalgamatetechnical standards with the societal security
discoveries to make the trainingmethodologies compatible and
applicable in a real-world crisis. With that said,they would like
to make their humble contribution to the global security andassist
in ushering in a brighter future for humanity.
xiv PREFACE
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ABOUT AUTHORS
Erdal Cayirci graduated from the Army Academy in 1986 and from
the RoyalMilitary Academy, Sandhurst in 1989. He received his
Master of Science degreefrom Middle East Technical University in
1995 and a PhD degree fromBogazici University in 2000, both in
computer engineering. He retired fromthe Army when he was a colonel
in 2005. He was an associate professor at theIstanbul Technical
University, Yeditepe University, and Naval Sciences andEngineering
Institute between 2001 and 2005. Also in 2001, he was a
visitingresearcher for the Broadband and Wireless Networking
Laboratory and avisiting lecturer at the School of Electrical and
Computer Engineering at theGeorgia Institute of Technology. He is
currently Chief, CAX Support Branchin NATO’s Joint Warlare Center
in Stavanger, Norway, and he is a professor inthe Electrical and
Computer Engineering Department at the University ofStavanger. His
research interests include sensor networks, mobile communica-tions,
tactical communications, and military constructive simulation.
Professor Cayirci has acted as an editor of the journals IEEE
Transactions onMobile Computing, AdHoc Networks (Elsevier Science),
and ACM/KluwerWireless Networks, and he has guest edited four
special issues of ComputerNetworks (Elsevier Science), AdHoc
Networks (Elsevier Science), and KluwerJournal on Special Topics in
Mobile Networking and Applications (MONET).
He received the ‘‘2002 IEEE Communications Society Best Tutorial
Paper’’Award for his paper titled ‘‘A Survey on Sensor Networks’’
published in theIEEE Communications Magazine in August 2002, the
‘‘Fikri Gayret’’ Awardfrom the Turkish Chief of General Staff in
2003, the ‘‘Innovation of the Year’’Award from the Turkish Navy in
2005, and the ‘‘Excellence’’ Award at ITEC2006.
xv
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Dusan Marincic has been studying constructive simulations since
1995. He wasthe Head of a National Centre for Operational Research,
Simulation, andAnalysis in Slovenia from 1999 until 2005. He
performed his master studieswith the Faculty of Social Science in
September 2002 and researched the topic‘‘CAX as a method for
preparation of Peace forces for Peace SupportOperation’’. He then
followed his passion for computer-assisted exercises byenrolling in
doctoral studies in same faculty and successfully defended
hisdoctoral dissertation in May 2005 with the topic ‘‘Simulation
and Analysis ofPeace Operation.’’ Marincic has written more than 70
articles on peaceoperations, crisis response operations, and the
qualitative and quantitativeanalysis of peace forces efficiency in
areas of complex emergency. All paperswere published in national
and international journals. He has been a permanentprofessor with
the Command and Staff College of Slovenia and has taught amethods
of military sciences, course which examines modern educational
andscientific methods. He was twice the general chair of
International Week ofSimulations in 2002 and 2005, where all of his
methodological scientific resultswere presented to the
international experts in the spirit of exchanging knowl-edge and
experience in the area of the computer-assisted exercises. He
currentlyserves as a subject matter expert at NATO’s Joint Warfare
Center in Stavanger,Norway, where he has been involved with the
training and education ofNATO’S joint force commands.
xvi ABOUT AUTHORS
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PART I
FUNDAMENTALS AND THEORY
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1INTRODUCTION
1.1 CONTEMPORARY SECURITY ENVIRONMENT
At the beginning of the 21st century, the global International
Community (IC)was dominated by the democratization of information,
technologies, andfinances. The key causes of this phenomenon are
undoubtedly the developmentand accessibility of information and
communication technology as well asdatabases on the World Wide Web.
Despite the comprehensive functionalcapabilities of computer
equipment, it has not been used enough as a tool forevaluation of
security threats to the fundamental values and norms in
theinternational community. Domestic conflicts represent most
contemporarysecurity crises in the world, and they often cause the
disintegration of politicalbalance in a certain region. The United
Nations (UN) Charter makes theSecurity Council of the United
Nations responsible to react to securitydeviations in the
world.
From a historical perspective, security has been the fundamental
value ofhuman interactions, which was institutionalized by the rise
of the sovereignstate and the systems of states on the global
level. Grizold [GRI99] emphasizedthe fact that security has been
related to the individuals, society/state, and theinternational
system. Contemporary security patterns involve dealing
withindividual security, national security, international security,
and global secur-ity. Møller [MOL00] was defining security, in an
objective sense, as a certain
Computer Assisted Exercises and Training: A Reference Guide, by
Erdal Çayirci and Dusan MarincicCopyright r 2009 John Wiley &
Sons, Inc.
3
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degree of absence of threats to the reached values, and in a
subjective sense asan absence of apprehension that these values
will be endangered.
Edmonds writes that the best security condition is the
prediction of thefuture events to execute appropriate preparations
[EDM88]. Security iscomprehending planning and decision making
about activities, which willensure, together with the available
sources, solutions for expected and un-expected threats.
Individuals and societies have been recognized with the
firmconfidence that they can deal with all challenges and threats
in the future, assafe and secure. The security system provides in
general to the individuals,groups, and society; the means to gain
the mastery over unexpected andprotection of internal values are
included.
Viotti asserted that security is more than just a military way
of thinking[VIO94]. It is a defense against external or internal
threats given the socio-economical welfare of society and
individuals. After the end of the Cold War,the political science
field holistically understands security as a whole spectrumof
political, economical, medical, environmental, criminal, and
military in-formation and other threats to the modern society.
Prezelj confirmed theprevious statement by writing that the worst
crises are a result of the extremeintensification of threats in one
societal dimension, which contributes to theintensification of
security threats on other societal dimensions, as depicted inFigure
1.1 [PRE02].
So a combination of crises exist in many security dimensions, or
a combina-tion of threats exist from the many dimensions. Military
engagements of highintensity have a direct or indirect impact on
the intensification of criminalactivities and terrorism, as well as
on environmental, economical, medical,political, identity,
information and other security threats, and vice versa. Acomplex
security threat to the society is in this case a threat with a
complex cause(from many dimensions) and with complex effects (on
other dimensions).
Security threats to contemporary society are not only military
but alsopolitical, economical, social, demographical and
environmental, which repre-sent fundamental societal security
dimensions. Since the end of the Cold War,global peace has been
interrupted by numerous conflicts that require interna-tional
intervention and the deployment of military, police, and civil
organiza-tions in peace operations to almost every region in the
world. At the same time,the media and the public are continuously
watching military leaders, politi-cians, and other decision makers
in whatever they do. Not a single day passesby in which the media
does not cover events in crisis areas, and often the focusis on the
IC in its attempts to improve the overall security situation.
Wherevercomplex emergency operations are employed, the IC’s efforts
are affected bymany internal and external influences, which vary
from local politics, media,population demands, different
international organizations (IOs), and nongo-vernmental
organizations (NGOs). Right or wrong, the IC sometimes
receivesblame for its failure to create a stable and secure
environment. Examples likeKosovo in the Balkans and more recently
Afghanistan and Iraq indicate thatdespite all efforts by the IC, a
permanent solution to the conflict situation has
4 INTRODUCTION
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not yet been achieved. Taking into consideration all the
different players andthe wide variety of agendas, peace and
security may never be achieved.
Rebuilding societies is one of the most complex and important
challenges theIC faces today. It is absolutely critical to identify
areas for improvement toreach the desired end-state of a return to
normalcy in a more efficient way andto ensure the future commitment
of the IC in assisting with difficult challengeselsewhere. Because
of security threats to the main societal security
dimensions,complex emergency operations (CEOs) are dynamic
nonlinear processes inwhich the IC, with the help of military
forces, rebuilds fundamental societalvalues and norms.
The official definition of a CEO used in this book is ‘‘an
operation to addressa humanitarian crisis in a country, region or
society where there is total orconsiderable breakdown of authority
resulting from internal or externalconflict and which requires an
international response that goes beyond themandate or capacity of
any single agency and/or the ongoing UN countryprogram.’’ Such
complex emergencies are typically characterized by
extensiveviolence and loss of life, massive displacements of
people, widespread damageto societies and economies, the need for
large-scale humanitarian assistance, the
Militarythreats
Politicalthreats
Criminal
Economicalthreats
Terrorism
Cyberthreats
Medicalthreats
Culturalthreats
Environmentalthreats
SOCIETY
Figure 1.1: Model of the complex security threats to
society.
1.1 CONTEMPORARY SECURITY ENVIRONMENT 5
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hindrance or prevention of humanitarian assistance by political
and militaryconstraints, and significant security risks for
humanitarian relief workers. Thebasic characteristics of CEOs are
strengthened military capacity, the need forcoordination between
different organizations, the fundamental requirementsfor military
forces during the creation and maintenance of a safe and
secureenvironment to allow for humanitarian help, and societal
rebuilding of theaffected area. Despite nonlinearity, each CEO has
a development cycle withspecific phases, which include identifying
root causes of conflict, decision-making process for intervention,
planning and execution, as well as assessmentof the effects of the
operation in the area of complex emergency. ContemporaryCEOs are
multisided, multidimensional, multinational, and multicultural.
Military forces play an essential role in complex emergencies,
not only forestablishing a safe and secure environment but also for
enabling other organiza-tions and institutions to fulfill their
duties as required. This effort demandsmutual understanding of each
other’s capabilities, strengths, and weaknesses.This task cannot be
performed by trial and error with the inherent risk ofalienating
the local population. So far, experience has shown that
cooperationamong different entities in a conflict area is not
effective. A distinction betweenroles, tasks, and responsibilities
does not exist, and an integrated body does notexist to enhance
cooperation before a conflict emerges. A more structuredapproach is
therefore essential to enhance a sustainable development for
anaffected society, based on a return to normality, which is the
desired end state.This normality includes a sustainable security,
reconciliation, and structuredsociety, which guarantees the basic
needs of the local population.
Military forces are generally essential in the initial
stabilization phase,because other organizations might not be ready
for deployment or are notfunctioning effectively yet. A transition
to civil authorities, whether interna-tional or national, requires
a clear political decision on the required end state, aclear
prioritized list of essential functionalities to be established,
and above allan integrated approach through coordination, which has
to start well before theIC addresses conflict. This coordination
should take into account the strengthsand weaknesses of all parties
involved [IOs, governmental organizations (GOs),major NGOs, and the
military) as well as an open mind for possible
solutions,creativity, and lessons learned from the previous
operations. The key toeffective coordination lies in joint civil
military mission planning. One commonplanning platform for the
civil military cooperation (CIMIC) should beintelligence activity,
which could provide shareable and accessible databasesfor involved
civil and military components in the area of a complex
emergency.
Since 9/11, many nations have already addressed a need for
closer transna-tional cooperation; national police forces work
closer together in the interna-tional arena, and given time, it
should be possible to enhance intelligencesharing in CEOs to reach
the overall goals more efficiently and, ultimately, thedesired end
state.
Despite the global dimensions of contemporary security, the
national (state)dimension remains a key factor: The state ensures
security to its own citizens
6 INTRODUCTION
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with an active national security system. The effectiveness of
this state ismeasured not only by the level of protection of its
own fundamental societalvalues from external and internal threats,
but also by the ability to provideeconomic, political, scientific,
technological-technical, social, cultural, ecologi-cal, and other
well-being issues for the population. Above all, the
effectivenessof the state is measured by its ability to encourage
sustainable development.The fundamental structural elements of a
national security system are theoperational capabilities of the
society that can provide its own security.Contemporary political
science has recognized the municipality/province asthe main local
governance entity, which is needed to enable the overall
societalsecurity for its own population. Municipality/province
capability for providingcomprehensive security is inversely
proportioned to its vulnerability to assessand manage security
risks.
Holistic societal analysis requires the proper selection of
demographic,social, political, economic, and environmental
variables at the municipality/province level to measure the
potential of each security dimension and localcapability for
societal reconstruction as a whole.
A systemic approach toward a complex emergency situation has
enabled theIC to recognize the crisis area, gain and understand
root causes of the conflict,as well as implement the
decision-making process for intervention and planningfor execution
of the operation in a timely manner. The effort to build
anintegrated approach to CEOs requires a high-level approach among
all partiesinvolved. An integrated approach can be facilitated by
the establishment ofpermanent representation in each other’s
organizations without losing its ownidentities and values and by
respecting those of others. A better understandingbetween security
organizations is needed, which means each other’s strengthsand
weaknesses, before a conflict develops and materializes.
Recognizing thedifferent fields of expertise and coordinating an
integrated approach to acomplex emergency by permanent
representation within each other’s institu-tions will most
certainly be a major step forward in addressing complexemergencies.
The ever more complex crises demand a reconciled and timelyactivity
of security instruments, where the exercises offer ample
possibilities forensuring suitably trained components of
peacekeeping forces for the efficientimplementation of peace
operations.
1.2 EXERCISES
People want to be aware of and prepared for the incoming threats
existence,families, tribes, religious groups, districts,
municipalities, provinces, as well aswhole countries. It has always
been a question about their perception ofsecurity and readiness to
react properly to protect themselves as well as theirsociety and
societal values. The capability of each society could be described
bythe ability to protect a certain level of the main security
dimensions, whichare as follows: demography, economy, social,
environmental, and political
1.2 EXERCISES 7
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dimensions. A balanced interaction between these dimensions
ensures desirableand predictive societal development. In the case
of unexpected, unscheduled,unplanned, unprecedented, and definitely
unpleasant events [CRI01], societyhas to have appropriate
countermeasures in place to neutralize undesirableeffects. Forces
that must apply proper activities for protection of the popula-tion
and societal values represent the operational elements of the
nationalsecurity system in each country worldwide. Operational
elements consist ofmilitary, police, and civilian forces. All of
them have skills such as decisionmaking, communication, situational
awareness, team work, and stress manage-ment. Maintenance of these
skills requires constant exercise with differenttraining methods,
such as live exercise, command-post exercise (CPX),
crises-management exercise (CMX), and computer-assisted exercise
(CAX).
1.2.1 Military and Civilian Exercises
Society consists of the following structural elements: civil
society, militaryforces, and civilian elements of the state
national security system. Theseelements perform decision-making
functions, operational functions, intelli-gence functions, advisory
functions, and administrative functions. They allneed to have
proper education and training to provide timely and
appropriateresponses to the overall threats to the main societal
dimensions.
Military education is defined as the permanent process of
examining thestaff, units, and force components with regard to
their capabilities to conduct agiven mission or task effectively
and efficiently. It also investigates the validityand reliability
of systems, procedures, programs, and objectives. It
includesanalysis, assessment, feedback, and lessons learned.
Military exercises preparecommands and forces for operations in
peace, crisis, and conflict. Therefore,the aims and objectives of
military exercises must mirror current and antici-pated operational
requirements and priorities [NOR06].
The civilian side of the security system has a similar approach
with differenttraining objectives, different means, different
procedures, and different re-sources. The most valuable methodology
for all security elements is to have acommon exercise with the
scenario, which can provide realistic trainingconditions for the
acceptable and achievable exercise objectives. A
commonunderstanding of possible security threats, outcomes, and
overall proceduresinvolves increasing the situational awareness
among all participating securityelements and strengthening the
ability of the national and global securitysystems to manage
threats to modern society. States and security organizationsplan
and conduct exercises at strategic, operational, and tactical
levels toachieve the following:
� Enhance operational capabilities, readiness, standardization,
and effective-ness of command structure and force structure, as
well as assigned forces
� Demonstrate capabilities and ensure the effective integration
of assignedforces
8 INTRODUCTION
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� Enhance civil–military cooperation� Enhance the production of
operationally effective, interoperable, andcapable forces for
crisis response operations (CROs)
� Complement the internal training programs� Support the
evaluation process [NAT07]
1.2.2 Live Exercises
Live exercise is a training method, which is planned and
conducted on a tacticallevel for individuals, teams, military
units, and their staffs. This typicalsituational training involves
real tools, weapons, and a real training area;here, collective
training overlaps individual training. If the participants belongto
a civil security element or units, then the normal training events
are linked toa crisis situation as follows: search and rescue,
fires, earthquakes, floods, spreadof diseases, tsunami, and big
traffic accidents. All of these events happenedalready, so
different teams have an opportunity to learn, train, and
evaluatetheir knowledge and skills. Similar events occur with
military units, whichprepare themselves for engagements in combat
missions and for peace-supportactivities. Combat missions primarily
deal with the tactics and procedures todefeat the adversaries;
peace-support activities are more connected to tasks ofmaintaining
peace by patrolling, establishing check points, protecting
convoys,helping the affected population, and giving military
assistance to the hostnation. Because real weaponry systems and
equipment are used, the planners ofmilitary exercises need to be
aware of environmental risk management.
1.2.3 Command Post Exercises
CPXs have been designed primarily for training of headquarters
(HQ) asfollows:
� Efficient execution of operational missions and tasks�
Development of knowledge and procedures, which will allow for
trainingthe audience to participate in real operations
� Handling with computer and information systems� Evaluation and
improvement of operational procedures
Most CPXs are dedicated to military commands. For example, the
NorthAtlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) has been using a system
approach totraining (SAT) model [NAT07], which was designed to
provide a moreeffective, efficient, and economical approach to
training by focusing onmission-essential tasks, their respective
requirements, and necessary trainingobjectives. The SAT model
encompasses four major steps: analysis, design,conduct, and
evaluation (Figure 1.2).
1.2 EXERCISES 9
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This first SAT step for the commander and staff is to analyze
the missionsand essential tasks as well as, the necessary
capability requirements to achievethem. The Design step should
ensure the required training objectives are met.Training design
should address, inter alia: objectives to achieve; contents
todeliver; methods to use; audience(s) to consider; resources
required; establish-ment of schedules; requisite evaluation; and
determination of costs. TheExercise Process Operational Conduct
Stage corresponds to the SAT ConductStep and includes the four
phases of the NATO Exercise Training Model asfollows: individual
and collective training, crisis response planning, execution,and
assessment. The first phase is preparing and training the audience,
staff,and command group, in terms of theoretical preparation for
planning phase.Crisis response planning is a process in which
create staff create, with thecommander’s direction and guidance, a
mission analysis and course of actionproposal, a desirable concept
of operation, and an operational plan for theexecution. The
execution of the operation is driven by injection of
differentincidents in the decision-making process. Sometimes,
vignettes have been usedfor these purposes. The CPX process could
be used on a tactical or operationallevel, with pure military
participation or in a civil-police-military trainingenvironment.
The last phase in the process is the assessment of the
execution,where designated evaluators assess the quality of the
training audienceperformance in accordance with overall accepted
criteria. CPX could beexecuted on the real training areas with a
combination of the live exercise, inlaboratory conditions using
only military maps or geographical informationsystem (GIS) tools,
or with the help of a simulation model on the CAX.
1.2.4 Computer-Assisted Exercises
The execution of training, which demands the movement of bigger
units, ismore expensive not only because of transportation costs
but also because ofcosts for military activities on the training
area, consumption of fuel, and
Analyze Design Conduct Evaluate
System approach to training (SAT)
Stage 1exercise
specification
Stage 3conduct
Exercise process
Stage 2planning
Stage 4analysis and
reporting
Tasks Objectives Internal and external
Figure 1.2: SAT model steps and inter-relationships among
exercise process stages.
10 INTRODUCTION
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maintenance of the training equipment. The need for response
forces is oftengiven on short notice, which is a critical factor of
a quick response. This factoris especially important for the
countries that are sending forces to areas withcomplex emergencies.
Military, police, and civil components can use the sameinformation
technology (IT) and communication techniques to decrease train-ing
costs and support unity of preparation for the peace operation. All
thesereasons contribute to the decision for using simulation models
to support CPX.Whenever computer simulation modeling is included in
the exercise process,planners are conducting CAX, which does not
deal with environmental riskmanagement. The main training area is a
synthetic environment where allplanned units are displayed by a
simulation model.
A CAX can be defined as a type of synthetic exercise (SYNEX)
where forcesare generated, moved, and managed in a simulation
environment based on thecommands from the exercise participants.
Therefore, CAX support is oftenthought to be limited to installing
and running a military constructivesimulation during a CPX. In this
example, CAX support is used to replaceor to help response cells,
higher level commands (HICON), and lower levelcommands (LOCON) to
evaluate the possible outcomes of the decisions orrequests coming
from the training audience (TA) by running a set of
stochasticprocesses. However, CAX is in essence a CPX where
electronic means are usedas follows:
� To immerse the TA in an environment as realistic as possible�
To help the exercise planning group (EPG) and the exercise
control(EXCON) staff to control the exercise process (EP) so that
it achievesthe objectives as effectively as possible
Therefore, the definition of CAX should not be limited only to
the usage ofmodeling and simulation. CAX ensures the high quality
of individual andcollective training on decision-making processes
on tactical, operational, andstrategic levels.
The application of simulation models on CAX represents an
educationalmethod, which dynamically introduces the operational
conditions of realsystems in a synthetic environment. A dynamic
training system consists ofdigital terrain and equipment that
allows the exercise participants to gain newknowledge, skills, and
behavior. Each CAX is also a research method, becauseit introduces
and instructs the following lessons:
� Novelty of the problem� Importance and applicability of
solutions for the practice� Level of interest in problem-solving
processes� Available equipment and other research conditions�
Actuality of research results� Possibility to find solutions for
the decision-making problems by research
1.2 EXERCISES 11
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Through the process of CAX, we are undoubtedly optimizing
current staffprocedures and decision-making processes in
synchronization with all otherstakeholders in the area of
responsibility.
1.3 MILITARY SIMULATION
Simulation justifies itself, perhaps the best for military,
because it reduces thecost of training considerably. Simulation is
also the only way to test and trainfor some special environments,
such as nuclear events, biological and chemicalcontamination, and
operations that require large-scale mobilization and move-ment.
Creating and maintaining such environments is simply impractical in
reallife without interfering with natural life. These hostile
environments also implycasualty risks even within training.
Therefore, simulation is not only a cost-effective approach for
military training but also is the only practical and safeway for
testing and training in special and hazardous environments.
Therefore,military simulation systems have been used extensively.
They can be categor-ized into three broad classes as shown in Table
1.1.
� Live simulation refers to a simulation that involves real
people in realsystems. For example, two pilots can be trained for
dog fighting by usingreal aircrafts in the air. In this case, the
aircrafts and the pilots are real, butthe interactions between the
aircrafts are simulated, and the simulationdecides how effective
the pilots and the aircrafts are against each other.Similarly, all
the weapon systems can be equipped with emitters, and allthe
equipment and personnel can be equipped with sensors. If the
weaponsare aimed and fired correctly, the emission by the emitters
can be sensed bythe sensors, which indicates a hit and a kill based
on some stochasticprocesses. By using such a technology, troops can
exercise in a veryrealistic environment. Both of these are examples
for live simulation.Civilian applications of live simulations are
also available. For example,fire fighters, personnel in oil rigs,
nuclear power plants, and cruise vesselscan also be trained with
live simulation systems.
� Virtual simulation refers to a simulation that involves real
people insimulated systems. The best examples for these are
aircraft and tanksimulators, where a simulator and not a real
system is used to train a pilotor tank crew. Airplane simulators
are also widely used to train airline
Table 1.1: Military simulations.
Category People Systems
Live Real Real
Virtual Real Simulated
Constructive Simulated Simulated
12 INTRODUCTION
