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Competing Myths of Nationalist Identity: Ideological Perceptions of Conflict
in Ambon, Indonesia.
A dissertation presented to the Division of Arts
of Murdoch University in fulfilment of the requirements for the Degree of
Doctor of Philosophy
By Kathleen Therese Turner B. Asian St. (Hons) ANU
2006
For mum and dad
Table of Contents
Page
List of Illustrations iv Abstract v Publications vi Acknowledgments vii Glossary ix
Chapter 1: Introduction 1
1.1 Sources and Methodology 7
1.1.1 Interviews 10
Chapter 2: Nationalism in Indonesia and Constructivism 20
2.1 Approaches to Nationalism and Ethnic Conflict in Indonesia 20
2.1.1 Primordialism 24
2.1.2 Instrumentalism 29
2.1.3 Constructivism 33
2.2 Social Disruption 40
2.3 Displaced Elites and Insecure Individuals 43
2.4 Myth-Making 50
2.5 The Emotional Appeal of Nationalism 61
Chapter 3: Social Disruption in Ambon and the RMS 71
3.1 Introduction 71
3.2 Factors Contributing to Disunity in Ambon 74
3.3 Factors Generating Disruptions 77
3.3.1 Colonial Changes to Traditional Structures 78
3.3.2 Christianisation 83
3.3.3 Colonial Changes to Structure 89
3.4 Constructions of Identity: Loyalist versus Nationalist 99
3.5 The Construction of an Ambonese Identity 106
3.6 A New Construction of Ambonese Identity 115
i
3.6.1 Common Ancestry and Territorial Homeland 118
3.6.2 Language 124
3.6.3 Religion 125
3.7 Conclusion 129
Chapter 4: Social Disruption in Ambon 1950-2000 132
4.1 Introduction 132
4.2 Disruption of Authority Structures in the Old Order 133
4.3 Disruptions of Authority Structures in the New Order 138
4.4 The Disruptive Impact of Migration and the Financial Crisis 144
4.5 The Disruptive Impact of the 1999 Decentralisation Measures 152
4.6 Conclusion 159
Chapter 5: The FKM and the Construction of an Ambonese Identity 161
5.1 Introduction 161
5.2 The Scapegoating of Migrants 166
5.3 A Non-Separatist Religious Construction 169
5.4 A Racial Construction 175
5.5 A Claim to Human Rights, Self-Determination and Democracy 182
5.6 Support for the FKM 185
5.7 Conclusion 187
Chapter 6: The Laskar Jihad and the Construction of Ethnonationalism 189
6.1 Introduction 189
6.2 Pre-Laskar Jihad Perceptions 192
6.2.1 Muslims in Ambon 193
6.2.2 Muslims outside Ambon 196
6.3 An Ethnoreligious Construction 198
6.4 An Ethnonationalist Construction 204
6.5 Support for the Laskar Jihad 217
6.6 Conclusion 219
ii
Chapter 7: Conclusion 220
7.1 A Contribution to Ethnic Studies 220
7.2 The Process which Links Disruption to Ideologisation 226
7.3 A Case of Counterposed Nationalisms which Developed in
Response to Each Other 229
7.4 A Contribution to Indonesian studies of Post-Soeharto Conflict
and Violence 233
Appendices
1. Linguistic Map of Ambon-Lease 237
(Ambon, Haruku, Saparua, Nusa Laut)
2. Linguistic Map of West Seram 238
3. Linguistic Map of Central Seram 239
4. Linguistic Map of East Seram 240
5. Linguistic Map of Buru 241
6. 1950 RMS Declaration of Independence 242
from the Republic of Indonesia
7. Regional and Local Administration in Indonesia 243
8. 2000 FKM Declaration of Independence 244
from the Republic of Indonesia
9. 2002 Malino Peace Agreement 248
10. 2002 Declaration of War by Ja’far Umar Thalib 250
Bibliography 257
iii
List of Illustrations
Tables Page Table 1 Details of Interviewees 13 Table 2 The Total Number of KNIL Soldiers between 1927-1917 95 Table 3 Transmigration into Maluku between 1969-1999 146 Table 4 Changing Poverty Rates in Indonesia in 1996 and
Changes 1996-99, February 1996 and February 1999 (%) 149
Table 5 Poverty Incidence and Contribution to Poor in Indonesia by
Occupational Sector 150
Table 6 Regional Autonomy Laws of 1974 and 1999 155
Maps Map 1 Maluku Province xviii Map 2 Central Maluku xix
iv
ABSTRACT
This thesis examines the 1999–2003 case of political conflict in Ambon, in
Eastern Indonesia, in the context of political change in Indonesia from 1950-1998. It
is argued that political transformation during this period was closely influenced by a
much longer period of unprecedented social change preceding the politics of this
period. It is suggested that the ideologisation of ethnic identities is likely to occur
when structures of community are disrupted by changes in the contemporary world
such as economic fluctuations or state policy interventions. One result is to disrupt
traditional village communities so as to place individuals in stress situations making
them susceptible to new nationalist ideologies. The other impact is to dislocate
authority structures so that both incumbent and aspiring elites lose their power and
authority and thus search for new ways in order to re-establish their moral and
political legitimacy.
It is argued that nationalism is able to offer a resolution to social disruption and thus
to the community in search of social cohesion, while also functioning to rebuild elite
authority. In ethnic nationalist ideology, insecurities and feelings of isolation are
ameliorated by subsequent constructions of ‘us’ and ‘them’ where members of one
distinct community are demarcated from other communities. It is suggested that
myths of ancestry and homeland together with counterposed moral dichotomies
appealed to the Ambonese who needed this form of ideological support. It is the
insecurities and fear experienced by disrupted communities which promote this
powerful ideological formula.
It is asserted that conflict on the island has been characterised by this trend towards
ideological absolutism where two conflicting ideological constructions have translated
the conflict into a non-negotiable confrontation between opposing national rights. It is
argued that these two ideological constructions have remained internalised on the
island and embedded within the mindsets of both Ambonese Christians and Muslims,
thereby rendering setbacks to conflict resolution.
v
Publications
Kathleen Turner, ‘The Construction of Identities in Ambon, Indonesia’ in Vivienne
Wee (ed), Political Fragmentation in Southeast Asia: alternative nations in the
making”, RoutledgeCurzon: London, 2005.
Kathleen Turner, ‘Myths and Moral Authority in Maluku: The Case of Ambon’, Asian
Ethnicity, vol.4, no.2, June 2003, pp.241-264.
Kathleen Turner, ‘Utopian Visions and Kinship Divisions: Ideological Perceptions of
Ethnic Conflict in Ambon, Indonesia’, Harvard Asia Quarterly [online], vol.6, no.3,
Summer 2002.
Kathleen Turner, ‘Myths of Inviolability: Ethnic Themes in the Dynamics of Conflict
in Ambon, Eastern Indonesia’, Asia View, vol.12, no.1, July 2002, p.7.
vi
Acknowledgments
The work of completing this dissertation has been furthered and supported by many
people. I owe a special debt of gratitude to the Ambonese who willingly shared their
time and thoughts with me during what was clearly a period of immense social
upheaval and trauma. I can only sincerely hope that their beautiful homeland finds
stability and peace.
I am grateful to David Hill for his help during the initial stages of the dissertation and
to David Brown, my supervisor, who amongst his heavy engagements, managed to
find some time to read, correct and give insightful suggestions. I also appreciate the
friendship and support of colleagues and staff at the Asia Research Centre, Murdoch
University, and outside academics. These included Greg Acciaioli, Sidney Adams, Ed
Aspinall, Emita Astami, Del Blakeway, David Bourchier, Nils Bubandt, Toby Carroll,
Fay Davidson, Tamara Dent, John McCarthy, Michael Jacobsen, Yvonne Haigh,
Tauel Harper, Julia Hobson, Stuart Latter, Nigel Little, Jae Hyon Lee, Jim
Meckelburg, Frank Murray, Karen Olkowski, Anne Randall, Garry Rodan, David
Savat, Bernard Swan, Tsukasa Takamine, Miyume Tanji, Bev Thiele, Donna Turner,
and Vivienne Wee.
I would like to express my gratitude to Muhammadiyah University in Malang,
Indonesia for sponsoring my research application to undertake fieldwork. Pak Habib
from Muhammadiyah University gave valuable counsel and I am in debt for his
assistance. The Asia Research Centre, Murdoch University and the Australian
Federation of University Women (AFUW) all provided financial assistance, which
allowed for the completion of my PhD and the opportunities to conduct fieldwork and
attend an international conference in Hong Kong.
The encouragement and kindness of my friends is gratefully remembered. I would
especially like to thank Brian Pontifex, Jeannie Yeong, Danny Marr, Anne Ryan,
Klaus Langer, Rob Richardson and Roberto Soria.. To my wonderful friend Adrian
vii
Luck who will never be forgotten even in passing, thank you for everything. A special
mention also to Bernard Swan, Bernard Flood, Donna Thomas, Sue Taylor and
Regina Gaujers for their support and understanding. To Sam Thomas who I met along
the way. To have waited three long years has been certain anguish but to have given
me such enduring love and support from so far away has truly been a special gift.
Greatest of all, my debt of love and appreciation goes to my strongest supporters, my
parents, in whom I could always find consolation in the desperate times and the
inspiration to keep on working. I would not have made it this far without you.
viii
Glossary
ABS Ambonsche Burgerschool
A ‘European’ school set up in Ambon in the 1850s and 1860s
for the children of Ambonese burgers
Adat Customary law, custom, customary authority system
Alifuru A generic term for the hill tribes in Maluku, traditionally
having derogatory connotations of someone uncouth,
uncultured and uncivilised
Anak Negeri Village member
BAKIN Badan Koordinasi Intelijen Negara
Coordinating Body for State Intelligence
Batalyon Gabungan Joint Battalion
BBM Bugis, Buton, Makassar
A reference to three of the major ethnic groups from South and
Southeast Sulawesi known for their inter-island trading and
settlement outside their homeland. It also denotes a certain
antipathy towards these people as having their rights and
privileges usurped from those whom they have traded and
settled.
Brimob Brigade Mobil
Mobile Brigade
Bupati District (Kabupaten) head, the chief official in the district
ix
Burger A group of Ambonese known as free citizens (orang bebas)
who, in return for services rendered to the Dutch East Indies
Company (VOC), they and their descendents were declared to
be free citizens, that is, free of the compulsory services for the
VOC and the obligations of the spice monopoly
Camat Leader of sub-district head (sub-regency or kecamaten)
Desa Induk Head Village, Governing Village
Dewan Kekaryaan Functional Service Board
DMS Dewan Maluku Selatan
South Moluccan Council
DPD Dewan Pemerintah Daerah
Regional Executive Council
DPR Dewan Perwakilan Rakyat
Indonesian Legislative Assembly
DPRD Dewan Perwakilan Rakyat Daerah
Assembly at provincial, regional, or municipal level
FKM Forum Kedaulatan Maluku
Moluccan Sovereignty Front
FKAWJ Forum Komunikasi Ahlus Sunnah Wal Jama’ah
Sunni Communication Forum
Fortaleza Fortresses built by the Portuguese in Maluku
F-Penegak Fraksi Pembela Negara Kesatuan
Parliamentary faction of the Defenders of a Unified State
x
FPI Front Pembelaan Islam
Islam Defenders Front
FPIM Front Pembelaan Islam Maluku
Moluccan Chapter for the Islam Defenders Front
GAM Gerakan Aceh Merdeka
Free Aceh Movement
GDMS Gerakan Demokrasi Maluku Selatan
Democratic Movement of the South Moluccas
HMI-MPO Himpunan Mahasiswa Islam – Majelis Penyelamat Organisasi
Splinter group of the Association of Islamic Students
HRW Human Rights Watch
ICG Indonesia Crisis Group
ICMI Ikatan Cendekiawan Muslim se-Indonesia
Indonesian Association of Muslim Intellectuals
IMF International Monetary Fund
JI Jemaah Islamiyah
Kafir harbi Infidel
KAMMI Kesatuan Aksi Mahasiswa Muslim Indonesia
Indonesian Muslim Students Action Group
Kampung Village
Kapitan Military Commander
xi
Kepala Daerah Regional Head
Kepala Kewang Head of Land Affairs
Kepala Soa Head of a collection of kin-groups
Kiai Title or reference for a teacher of Islam
KISDI Komite Indonesia untuk Solidaritas Dunia Islam.
Indonesian Committee for International Islamic Solidarity
KNIL Koninklijk Nederlands Indische Leger
Dutch East Indies Army
KONTRAS Komisi untuk Orang Hilang dan Korban Tindak Kekerasan
The Commission for Disappearances and Victims of Violence
KOSTRAD Komando Strategi Reserve Command
Army Strategic Reserve Command
Kota Ambon Ambon City
Krismon Krisis Moneter
Monetary Crisis
Laskar Jihad Java-based paramilitary group established in early 2000 who
intervened on behalf of local Muslims in the conflict in Maluku
LIPI Lemaga Ilmu Pengetahuan Indonesia
Indonesian Institute of Sciences
LKMD Lembaga Ketahanan Masyarakat Desa
Village Social Activities Group
xii
LMD Lembaga Masyarakat Desa
Village Assembly
Marinjo The soa messenger and minor police officer
Masjumi Modernist Muslim Party
Mata rumah Household, patrilineage
Negri Village
Negri Lama Village of origin
New Order Soeharto, early in his tenure as President of Indonesia,
described his regime as the ‘New Order’ as opposed to the ‘Old
Order’ government of Indonesia’s earlier and first President
Soekarno.
NIP Insulinde / Nationaal-Indische Partij
Insulinde was founded in 1907 as an organisation to promote
the social and political aims of Europeans and Eurasians in the
Indies
NIT Negara Indonesia Timoer
State of East Indonesia. Part of a Dutch federal strategy for the
creation of the State of East Indonesia in 1946-1947
NTT Nusa Tenggara Timur
Easter Lesser Sundas
NU Nahdlatul Ulama
Association of Muslim scholars, a Muslim political party of the
1970s
xiii
Nunusaku A human rights organisation based in Ambon. Also the name of
the legendary mountain in West Seram and the source of the
Three Rivers, the Eti, the Tala, and the Sapalewa. It is
traditionally regarded as the beginning and the end that is, the
source and the destiny of life.
Nusa Island
Old Order A reference to the ‘Old Order’ government of Indonesia’s
earlier and first President Soekarno as opposed to Soeharto’s
subsequent ‘New Order’regime
OPM Organisasi Papua Merdeka
Free Papua Organisation, secessionist movement of West
Papua
Pancasila The five basic principles of the Republic of Indonesia: the
belief on one God Almighty, humanity that is just and civilised,
the unity of Indonesia, democracy guided by the wisdom of
representative deliberation, social justice for all Indonesians
Parindra Partai Indonesia Raya
Greater Indonesia Party
Parkindo Parti Kristen Indonesia
Indonesian Protestant Party
Partai Katolik Roman Catholic Party
Pela Traditional ceremonial bonds of friendship and mutual
obligation established between two or more villages often
encompassing both Christian and Muslim villages in a single
alliance. It is conceived of as an enduring and inviolable
xiv
brotherhood; an alliance that has to be renewed regularly
through important ceremonies and solemn oaths.
PDIP Partai Demokrasi Indonesia Perjuangan
Indonesian Democratic Party of Struggle
PIM Partai Indonesia Merdeka
A political party formed in August 1946, the major pro-
Indonesia party on Ambon at the time
PNI Partai Nasional Indonesia
Indonesian Nationalist Party
PTB Persatoean Timoer Besar
Association of the Great East
Radicale A gathering of Indonesian and radical Dutch Concentratie representatives in the Volksraad
Raja Village Ruler
Reformasi Reformation
Repelita Rencana Pembangunan Lima Tahun
Five-Year Development Plan
RIA Republik Islam Aceh
Islamic Republic of Aceh
RMS Republik Maluku Selatan
Republic of the South Moluccas
RUU Rencana Undang-Undang
xv
Draft of a law
STAIN Sekolah Tinggi Agama Islam Negeri
National Islamic Academy
TNI Tentara Nasional Indonesia
Indonesia’s National Army
Transmigrasi Transmigration
Tuan Tanah The Lord of the Land
Saniri Council
SARA Suku, Agama, Ras, Antar-Golongan
Matters pertaining to ethnic, religious, and racial relations.
Sarekat Ambon Ambonese Association
A political party established by A.J.Patty in 1920
SMERU Social Monitoring and Early Response Unit
Soa Kin-Group
SPMM Suara Perjuangan Muslim Maluku
Voice of the Maluku Muslim Struggle – Radio Station based in
Ambon
Swatantra Self-governing unit, autonomous
Tetek-Nenek-Mojang Ancestors
TNI Tentara Nasional Indonesia
Indonesian National Armed Forces
xvi
UKIM Universitas Kristen Indonesia Maluku
The Christian University of Indonesia in Maluku
Uli A federation of family settlements
Ummat Members of a religious community
UNPO Unrepresented Nations and Peoples Organisation
VOC Verenigde Oostindeische Compangnie
Dutch East Indies Company
Volksraad People’s Council
Walikota Mayor
xvii