1Comparative Analysis of the Effectiveness of Oral vs. Podcasting 2Reviewing Techniques345By67Misty L. Rhoads89B.S., Eastern Illinois University, Charleston, 200510M.S., Eastern Illinois University, Charleston, 200511121314151617181920212223A Dissertation 24Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements of 25Doctor of Philosophy Degree in Education26272829Health Education 30in the Graduate School31Southern Illinois University Carbondale323334353637383940141Table of Contents42Table of Tables.........443CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION.......644Background.........645Statement of Problem.......1246 Need for the Study........1347Purpose of the Study........1348Research Hypotheses. .......1449Sample.........1450Data Collection........1451Research Design........1452Data Analyses ........1553Limitations.........1654Delimitations. ........1755Assumptions.........1756Definitions.........1857Summary.........2158CHAPTER 2 REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE.....2259Purpose of the Study........2260Overview.........2261History of Technology in the Classroom.....2262Mobile Learning........2463 2Why Use Mobile Learning.......2564Podcasting.........2765Mechanics of Podcasting.......2866Health Education & Podcasting......3167Advantages and Disadvantages of Podcasting....3168Podcasts in Higher Education ......3369Schools Using Podcasts.......3770Podcasting Research........3871Learning Styles........4272Theory .........4673Constructivism........4674Social Constructivism .......4975Learning Objects........5176Constructivism, Teaching, & Technology.....5277Evaluation.........5578Summary.........6079CHAPTER 3 METHODS........6280Introduction.........6281Hypotheses.........6282Description of Population.......6283Pilot Study.........6584Sample Selection........6985Research Design........7386 3Instrumentation........7487Data Collection........7588Data Analysis........7789Summary.........7890CHAPTER 4 RESULTS........7991Overview.........7992Purpose.........7993Research Hypotheses. .......7994Sample Demographics.......7995Hypothesis 1.........8596Hypothesis 2.........8897Summary.........9298CHAPTER 5 SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, DISCUSSION, AND99RECOMMENDATIONS........93100Overview.........93101Purpose.........93102Summary of the Study.......93103Conclusions.........95104Discussion.........96105Limitations to the Study.......99106Recommendations For Future Research.....100107Recommendations for Health Education.....101108Summary.........102109 4References.........104110 APPENDIXES.........111111Appendix A Health Studies Concepts for Teachers (HST3000) 112Pretest/Posttest........112113Appendix B HST 3000 In-Class Test Review Scripts ...130114Appendix C HST 3000 Pilot Study Podcast Qualitative Responses.139115Appendix D HST 3000 Podcasts Qualitative Responses...141116Table of Tables117Table 1 Progression of Technology in Schools.....23118119Table 2 Pros and Cons of Podcasting......33120121Table 3 Schools Using Podcasts.......38122123Table 4 Evaluation Findings of Previous Studies.....59124125Table 5 Demographics of Pilot Study Participants.....66126127Table 6 Measures of Tendency for Pilot Study Likert Scale Questions..68128129Table 7 Sample Sizes for Interval Data Using Two-Tailed Tests with Varying 130Effect Sizes and Levels of Power......69131132Table 8 Quasi-Experimental Design. ......74133134Table 9 Statistical Analysis Summary......78135136Table 10 Demographics of Total Participants.....80137138Table 11 Demographics of Experimental Group Participants...81139140Table 12 Demographics of Control Group Participants....83141142Table 13 Descriptive Statistics for Control Group Pretests, Posttests, and143 Gain Scores. .......84144145Table 14 Descriptive Statistics for Experimental Group Pretests, Posttests, and146 Gain Scores. ........85147148 5Table 15 Independent Sample t-tests Results Comparing Group Means149 for Pretests, Posttests, and Gain Scores....86150151Table 16 One-Way Analysis of Covariance (ANCOVA) Results Comparing152 Mean Posttest Scores Among Groups.....86153154Table 17 One-Way Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) Results Comparing155 Mean Posttest Scores Among Groups.....88156157Table 18 Measures of Central Tendency for Likert Scale Questions..89158159160161162163164165166167168169170171172173174175176177 6CHAPTER 1178INTRODUCTION179Mobile Learning180The development of the Internet has created new ways for faculty to communicate181withstudents.Manyuniversitieshaveadoptedtheuseofvirtuallearningand182incorporatedmobilelearning(m-learning)intotheirtraditionalteachingmechanismsas183partofablended-learningapproach(Evans,2008).Mobilelearningisatermcreatedto184coveracomplexarrayofpossibilitiesopenedupbytheconvergenceofnewmobile185technologies, wireless infrastructures, and electronic learning (e-learning) developments.186M-learning,inparticular,referstotheuseofanymoveableormobileandhandheldIT187devices, such as personal digital assistants (PDAs), mobile phones, laptops, and personal188computers in teaching and learning (Riva & Villani, 2005; Evans, 2008). M-learning also189is seen as allowing learners to move away from the stand-alone computer and to interact190withotherdeviceswithinformationbeingaccessiblethroughawirelessconnection191(Walton, Child, & Blenkinsopp, 2005). Mobile considers the independence dimensions192from three points of view: location (in terms of physical context), time, and space when193consideredindifferentareasoflife(Riva&Villani,2005).Mobilelearningisone194obvious solution to the learning needs of an increasingly mobile society (Rushby, 2005).195Mobile learning is helpful to people, such as instructors and students who need196access to information. Mobile learning matters because todays learners increasingly are197mobile and consumer expectations of engaging mobile experiences continue to rise as198wireless networks expand and the processing power of portable devices increases199(Wagner & Wilson, 2005). In many respects, mobile learning simply represents the next200 7wave of strategies and resources that will take advantage of the ubiquitous networks that201allow for anytime anywhere learning (Wagner & Wilson, 2005). With mobile202learning, faculty can connect informal learning experiences that occur throughout the day203with formal learning experiences and it provides an opportunity to use the technology204that most people already carry, depend on, and is a part of their social practice (Wagner205& Wilson, 2005). In terms of m-learning, podcasting has emerged as a major technology206and is a method of publishing audio broadcasts via the Internet (Walton, Child, &207Blenkinsopp, 2005; Evans, 2008). Podcasting shares its salient characteristics with the208field of mobile learning, which can be spontaneous, personal, informal, contextual,209portable, ubiquitous, and pervasive (Kukulska-Hulme, 2005, p.2). In recent years, due to210the salient characteristics of podcasting, we have seen at all levels of educational211institutions, the deployment of many innovative e-learning products and service such as212lectures and test reviews on podcasts, students creating informational podcasts, and the213creation of iTunes U (Dutton & Loader, 2002).214Podcasting215 Apodcastissimilartoaradioprogramtowhichonecansubscribeoverthe216Internet(Brooks-Kirkland,2006),downloadtoacomputerandcopyontoahandheld217device (Evans, 2008) to be watched or listened to at ones own leisure. Podcasts have the218advantageofbeingdirectlydeliveredfromtheInternetsourcetothedevice,ratherthan219thelearnerhavingtosearchoutanddownloadthematerial(Evans,2008).While220maximumconveniencecomesfromdownloadingthematerialtoaportabledevice,it 221also is possible to listen to or watch on a personal computer. The ability to be viewed on222 8a personal computer or portable player makes podcasts a versatile educational tool, since223learners without portable devices can still have access to the material (Evans, 2008). 224Podcasting for Health Education225Podcasting has become a commercial phenomenon, with many major newspapers,226radio and television stations, and religious groups using podcasting technology. In 2005,227Appleannouncedthatmorethanonemillionpeoplesubscribedtopodcastsduringthe228first two days iTunes was made available (Descy, 2005). In November 2005, the Agency229forHealthcareResearchandQuality(AHRQ)launchedaseriesofpodcastscalled411230HealthSeriesonvarioustopics,suchasqualityofhealthcareandpersonalizedhealth231records.TheprestigiousjournalNatureofferedweeklypodcastsbyDr.ChrisSmith,a232virologyresearcherandradiopresenterattheUniversityofCambridgeintheUnited233Kingdom (Skiba, 2005). The University of California television system is offering video234podcastsofprogramsforhealthcareprofessionalsneedingtimelydisasterpreparedness235information (Cox, 2006) and the American Public Health Association (APHA) has a new236series in conjunction with the associations Get Ready Campaign. Podcasts are accessible237on the Get Ready Web site and discuss the need for preparedness, the threat concerning238thepandemicflu,andotheremerginginfectiousdiseases(AmericanPublicHealth239Association, 2006). 240Pedagogical Podcasting241Manyuniversitiesarereportingusingthistechnologyformorethandisseminationof242lectures.HECParisinFrancecustomizesvideoiPodstoitsMBAstudentstoshare243campusinformation,tutorials,andcourserevisionmaterials(Puttingpodcaststowork,2442006).DrexelUniversitysSchoolofEducationofferedinterviewswithguestspeakers245 9andtheuniversitypresident(Read,2005).TheUniversityofMissouriusespodcastsfor246recording and distributing broadcasts, recording and uploading foreign language lessons,247developing audio/video recruiting, recording teachers notes and conference and meeting248notesforon-demanddistribution(Meng,2005).TheStanfordGraduateSchoolof249Businesshasapodcastingchannel,SocialInnovationConversations,thatoffersfree250audioofconferences,lectures,andexpertinterviewsthataddresstheworldsmost251pressing social and environmental issues (Putting podcasts to work, 2006). At the Merage252School of Business at the University of California, Irvine, McKenzie created 52 podcasts253in economics, including videotaped portions of his course and audio selections from his254new textbook (Putting podcasts to work, 2006). Georgia College and State University are255two examples of universities that have included a number of study abroad courses that are256iPod-enhancedtoincludematerialsrangingfromlecturestoaudiobookstolanguage257studymaterialandmusic(Lee,McLoughlin,&Chan,2008).DukeUniversity(2006)258conductedthelargestiPodstudytodatebydistributing20-gigabyteiPodstoits1650259incoming freshman students. The iPods were preloaded with orientation information, and260administrative,andacademicmaterialsinmp3formatandweremadeavailablefor261studentstodownloadviatheDukeWebserverandAppleiTunes(Lee,Mcloughlin,&262Chan,2008).TheprimarypurposeofthisevaluativeresearchwastoassistDuke263UniversityindeterminingwhatiPodusesweremostsuccessfulintermsofacademic264employmentandtohelpshapethefutureoftechnologyattheuniversity(Duke,2006).265DukefoundthattheuseofiPodsfellintofivedifferentcategories:coursecontentand266dissemination, classroom recording tool, field recording tool, study support tool, and file267storage and transfer of electronic information. 268 10Basedonobservationsandsurveyswithfacultyandstudentsthebenefitsofthe269iPodwereconvenienceforbothfacultyandstudentsofportablecontent,flexible270location-independent access to digital multi-media course materials, effective and easy to271use tool for recording, greater student engagement and interests in class discussions, labs,272fieldresearch,independentprojects,andenhancedsupportforindividuallearning273preferencesandneeds(Duke,2005).Thebarriersandproblemsencounteredwiththe274academicuseoftheiPodwerechallengesintegratingmultiplesystemsforcontent275storage,access,andsharingfileswithexistingtechnologyinfrastructure,difficultiesin276locatingcommercialsourcesandobtaininglicensesforcontent,inherentlimitationsof277thedevice,lackofinstructortoolsforcombiningtextandaudio,limitedpre-existing278documentationandtrainingresources,lackofawarenessoraccurateknowledgeofiPod279functionality, and some recordings made on iPod were not sufficient quality for academic280use(Duke,2005).OthermajoruniversitiestofollowDukeinofferingpodcastsinclude281theUniversityofCalifornia,Berkley(2006),PrincetonUniversity(2005),andStanford282University (n.d.) (Lee, McLoughlin, & Chan, 2008). 283Theory284The role of the teacher has two important components. The first is to introduce285new ideas or cultural tools to provide support and guidance of students. The second is to286listen to and diagnose ways in which instructional activities will aid in informing and287building knowledge (Murphy, 2008). The constructivist theory is a foundation for both of288these components. Constructivism is a philosophical position that views knowledge as the289outcome of experience mediated by ones own prior knowledge and experience (Ryder,2902008). Human cognitive development is a continually adaptive process of assimilation,291 11accommodation, and correction (Piaget, 1973). Constructivism has roots in philosophy,292psychology, sociology, and education. Constructivisms central idea is that human293learning is constructed and that learners build new knowledge upon the foundation of294previous learning (Hoover, 1996).295Agreement on a constructivist theory of learning is not widespread, but the296outstanding consideration according to Ernest (1995) is to accommodate the297complimentary between individual construction and social interaction (p.483). Social298constructivists suggest that it is through the social process that reality takes on meaning.299Socialization informs our understanding of science and it shapes the technology that we300invent and continually adapt to our changing realities. Humans are shaped by their301interactions with machines (Ryan, 2008). No classroom environment is an isolated box as302it is part of a wider community, which has cultural practices and social norms. Therefore,303activities happen because they are a part of this socio-cultural setting. Lave and Wenger304(1991) talk of a community practice to encompass the cultural aspects of a community305and how it operates. The wider culture or influences from the outside, such as306technology, interacts with the classroom in ways often unnoticed because students are so307familiar with them. Social interactions within the learning environment are an essential308part of knowledge construction. Learning takes place within a socio-cultural setting in309which social action and social interactions are thought to take place (Jaworski, 2008).310Von Glasserfeld (1984 p.14) argues, From the constructivist perspective, learning is not311a stimulus-response phenomenon. Knowledge is the result of active learning which has a312generative process. Learners constantly relate new information to what they already know313resulting in the social construction of new personalized meanings (Bellefeuille, 2005).314 12Learning is a process of constructing meaningful representations, of making sense of315ones experiential world. Because of the prior learning, constructivist instructional design316approaches promote a more open-ended, cumulative learning experience that allows for317different learning styles, personal values, and cultural variables (Bellefeuille, 2005).318Computer-mediated instructional design and its web-based interactive option offer319environments that are more inherently constructivist in nature (Bellefeuille, 2005). The320relationship between computer-mediated learning and constructivist instruction design is321based on the fact that technology is an expanding tool box of options to provide students322with enhanced access to information to develop knowledge and skills (Bellefeuille,3232005). 324Emerging technologies support students construction of knowledge by allowing325enable customization of content (Beldarrain, 2006). Despite such optimism, it appears326that m-learning strategies (e.g. podcasts) are still rather patchy, underdeveloped, and327lacking evaluation leading to this study regarding the effectiveness of podcasting, an m- 328learning application (Lee, 2007).329Statement of the Problem330Podcastshaveevolvedatarapidpace.In2005,podcastingwaslimitedtoaudio331filesand,by2007,therewasawiderangeofmultimediacontentavailable.Whilethe332main content available is still audio (mp3 files), some podcasts include images, portable333documentfiles(pdfs),andvideo.Videoisusuallyanm4vformat,whichcanbeplayed334through iTunes, Quicktime, or some video portable media players (Rosell-Augilar, 2007).335Thereareseveraladvantagestopodcasting,besidesaccesstooriginalandspoken336materials.Podcastsareportable,convenient,andeasytouse(Blaisdell,2006;Clark&337 13Walsh,2005;Rosell-Aguilar,2007).Oncedownloaded,thefilescanbetakenand338listenedtoanywhere,asmanytimesasnecessary,andataconvenienttime.339Functionalitiesonhandhelddevicesandpersonalcomputers,suchaspause,forward,or340skip give the learner control of the pace (Sloan, 2005). The content also can be played on341a computer if the student does not have access to portable media devices (Rosell-Aguilar,3422007).343Withthecreationofpodcasting technology and its increasingprevalence within344theeducationalsystemaquestionmustbeasked;doesthistechnologyreallyaidinthe345learningprocess?Giventhatanincreasingnumberofstudentsarevisualandauditory346learners, podcasts need to be created and disseminated in a manner which better serves to347aid students and teachers alike in creating a more well rounded learning experience. 348Need for the Study349350With the increasing use of podcasting and m-learning in higher education, a351research question that needs to be answered is: does the use of podcasts actually352increase knowledge retention? Podcasting is such a recent phenomena that there appears353to be little scientific and research literature that have sought to examine if podcasts are354effective learning tools. Although a considerable collection of literature has addressed the355creation and use of podcasts in higher education, experimental research regarding the356actual increase in knowledge is virtually nonexistent.357Purpose of the Study358Thepurposeofthisstudywastocomparetheuseofpodcaststotraditional359deliveryofinformationinclassrooms.Fourpodcastswerecreatedonthetopicsof360asthma, diabetes, seizure disorders, and acute infections such as head lice, conjunctivitis,361 14scabies,impetigo,herpessimplexI,ringworm,colds,andtheflu,toaidstudentsin362reviewingforquizzes.Knowledgeretainedofstudentsusingpodcastswascomparedto363the knowledge retained of those using traditional in-class review. 364Hypotheses365366H0 Students in the experimental (podcast) group will not score significantly higher on 367the post tests than those students who receive traditional classroom review.368H0 Students experiencing podcast will not report more positive learning experiences than369those from traditional, in-class review.370Sample371The sample of this study consisted of students from university teacher certification372courses at a Midwestern midsized universityduringtheFall2009semester.This 373samplewascomposed of predominantly sophomore, junior, and senior students. 374DataCollection 375During the spring 2009 semester, permission was obtained from the department376chair and faculty to conduct this study.The four podcasts and pretest/posttest were377created for and piloted in the summer 2009 classes. Classes that participated in this study378were randomly assigned to experimental and control groups. To achieve the needed379response rate for a representative sample of the population under study, seven teacher380education classes were used. 381Research Design/Instrumentation382Apretest/posttestwascreatedonthetopicsofasthma,diabetes,seizure383disorders, and acute infections such as head lice, conjunctivitis, scabies, impetigo, herpes384simplexI,ringworm,colds,andtheflu.Aquasi-experimentaldesignwasimplemented385 15withsevenclassroomsrandomlyassignedtoexperimentalandcontrolgroups.The386experimental groups received podcast test reviews only while the control groups received387traditionaloralin-classreviews.Alloftheclasseswereadministeredthesame388pretest/posttestonthefourtopicsofasthma,diabetes,seizuredisorders,andacute389infections.390Both the podcasts and traditional instruction units were identical. The391pretest/posttests were answered on scantron sheets. The podcasts were shown in the392selected classes during class time allowing only the experimental groups to access the393podcasts. Tests were automatically graded by the universitys testing department and394recorded by the faculty. Students were asked additional questions on the content value of395the podcasting segments.396The pretest/posttest questions were selected from the book and lectures and397created solely by the researcher. An in-class oral review was written about each podcast398for the faculty. The researcher did work in conjunction with faculty members to ensure399conformity between the traditional in-class and podcasting reviews. 400Data Analysis401Descriptive statistics were used to organize and summarize data. Demographic402data was collected in addition to the data supplied by the test scores from the health403classes. Upon receipt of test scores independent two-tailed t-tests were conducted to find404if there were any significant differences between the two pretest groups (control and405experimental), between the two posttest groups (control and experimental), and between406the control and experimental groups gain testing scores. An ANCOVA was also407conducted. The ANCOVA is a pretest/posttest randomized experimental design to aid in408 16reducing noise in an experiment. The use of an ANOVA allows the researcher to409reduce within-group error variance and to eliminate variables that confound, or influence410the dependent variable (Field, 2008). The pretest and gain scores were used as one of the411covariates. This analysis examined posttest performance after removing the effect the412pretest and group placement had on the students. Likert scale questions and open-ended413questions were used to assess hypothesis two in order to discover what kind of414experiences the experimental groups. Content analysis was conducted on the open ended415questions (Bogden & Bilken, 2007) and descriptive statistics were used for the Likert416scale answers.417Limitations418The limitations of this study will be as follows:4191.The study participants may or may not be representative of undergraduate420students at other universities.4212.The participants for this study were of a sample of convenience consisting of422university undergraduate classes whose faculty agrees to participate. 4233.No random selection process was used to put students in each of the classes.4244.The podcasts was shown to the entire class by using classroom technology and425not downloaded by the student for anytime/anywhere review.4265.Knowledge on the test topics may be gained elsewhere through class, media,427or life circumstances.4286.The classes mainly consisted of female students.429430431432433 17Delimitations434435This study was delimited to:4361.This study was delimited to undergraduate teacher education students in a437Midwestern midsized university.4382.The podcast was enhanced in nature, which may or may not be the primary439learning style of the students involved in the study.4403.Participation in the study was limited to those students who were present in441the classes who were selected for the study.4424.Only students participating in the school health classes were allowed to443participate.4445.Class meeting times were different therefore possibly affecting student445alertness.4466.Possible differences in lecturing styles of the two professors.447Assumptions448449For the purposes of this study it was assumed that:4501.The faculty in the experimental groups did not do an additional in-class451review for the podcasts topics.4522.Faculty showed all of the podcasts according to the directions given.4533.Students were present for the in-class or podcast reviews.4544.Students did not cheat on the exam.455456457458 18Definition of Terms459Ancillary: Something that serves in an assisting capacity: slides, records, and other460ancillaries can be used with the basic textbook (American Heritage Dictionary, 2008).461Apples Message Pad: The iPhones antecedent and was an early line of personal462digital assistants developed by Apple computers for handwriting recognition software463(Pen Computing Magazine, 1998).464Audacity: Software that can be used for post-processing of all types of audio,465including podcasts. It can be used for finishing podcasts by adding effects such as466normalization, trimming, and fading in and out (Podcasting with Linux, 2008).467Blackboard: An online proprietary virtual learning environment system that is sold to468colleges and other institutions and used for e-learning (Stephens Web, 2008).469Blogs: Web logs, or blogs, are Web sites where someone can post content including470messages and images. Readers can respond to postings in the form of a threaded471discussion (Frauenheim, 2007, p. 23).472Course Compass: A virtual learning environment to promote e-learning used on473college campuses and owned by Blackboard (Stephens Web, 2008).474Electronic (e) Learning: Any form of learning that utilizes a network for delivery,475interaction, or facilitation. The network could be the Internet, a University Local Area476network or a corporate network. The learning could take place individually or as part of a477class (Gulf University, 2008).478Enhanced Podcast: A podcast that contains separate chapters which can contain479separate images and even web links (Wire World Media, 2009).480 19Garageband: A software application that allows users to create music or podcasts481developed by Apple Computers (Apple, 2008).482iPod: A combination portable digital media player and hard drive from Apple computer483(Tech Target, 2008).484iPodcast Creator: The first complete software podcasting package designed485specifically to provide the beginning podcaster with all the tools needed to create, edit,486and upload podcast (PR Leap, 2007).487iTunes U: Is a section of the iTunes store where users c an download educational488content from many universities (About.com. 2008).489Mobile (m) Learning: Mobile learning is defined as the delivery of training by means of490mobile devices such as mobile phones, personal digital assistants, digital audio players,491digital scanners, voice recorders, iPods, and other mobile devices (Evans, 2008).492Mp3: Is a file containing a song or other audio data that is encoded using a specially493digital transmitting music file over the Internet (American Heritage Dictionary, 2008).494MPEG-4 (mv4): A low bit rate standard for encoding and compression intended for495application in broadcasts television, videophones, mobile phones, and other small496handheld devices. MPEG-4 deals with the coded representation of audiovisual objects,497both natural and synthetic for playback and storage (Your Dictionary, 2008).498Newton Technology: Apples name for the operating system used for the Apple499Message pad (Pen Computing Magazine, 1998).500PDF: Portable Document Format developed by Adobe systems for ease of document501sharing on the Internet and for easy printing of documents (PDF-file Conversion502Software, 2005).503 20Podcasts: These are audio or video files that can be downloaded onto portable digital504media players, such as iPods (Frauenheim, 2007, p.23).505Podcast Producer: a complete, end-to-end software solution for encoding, publishing,506and distributing high quality podcasts for playback on iTunes and on iPod, iPhones, and507Apple TV (Apple, 2008).508QuickTime: A video and animation system developed by Apple Computers that509supports most encoding formats, including Cinepak, JPEG, and MPEG (Webopedia,5102008).511Smart Phone: The term used to characterize a wireless telephone that has special512computer-enhanced capabilities such as email, Internet, fax, and remote control of513computers (Tech Target, 2009).514WIFI: Name of a popular wireless networking technology that uses radio waves to515provide wireless high-speed Internet and network connections (Webopeidia, 2008).516WIKIS: A collaborative website that is comprised of the work of many authors and allows517for the original postings to be edited by any user (Webopedia, 2008). Like blogs, they can518be kept within a companys internal computer system or located on the public Internet.519Changes made the site can be tracked (Frauenheim, 2007, p. 23).520Windows Sound Recorder: An audio recording program included in Microsoft521Windows that allows recorded audio to be saved in .wav or .mp3 formats (Windows522Visa Help, 2007).523WLAN: Wireless Local Area Networks allows a mobile user to connect to a local area524network through a wireless connection (Search Mobile Computing, 2008).525 21WMA File: Stand for Windows Media Audio and is the format used in Windows Media526Player (About.com, 2008).527528529530531532533534535536537538539540541542543544545546547548549550551552553554555556557558559560561562563564565566567568569 22Summary and Overview570571The development of the Internet and podcasting has created new ways for faculty572to interact with students. Many universities and faculty members are turning to573podcasting as a way to aid in disseminating information to students. Higher education574institutions need to know more about validity and reliability of the effects podcasting can575have on student learning. To address this need, a quasi-experimental study, using classes576with podcasts reviews (experimental groups) and classes with traditional oral reviews577(control groups), was conducted to determine the effectiveness of podcasts technology as578a test review tool.579580581582583584585586587588589590591592593 23CHAPTER 2594REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE595Purpose of the Study596The purpose of this study is to compare the use of podcasts to traditional delivery597ofinformationinclassrooms.Fourpodcastswillbecreatedonthetopicsofasthma,598diabetes, seizure disorders, and acute infections such as head lice, conjunctivitis, scabies,599impetigo, herpes simplex I, ringworm, colds, and the flu, to aid students in reviewing for600thepost-test.Performanceofstudentsusingpodcastswillbecomparedtothe601performance of those using traditional in class review. 602Overview603This chapter will provide an in-depth review of literature supporting the need for604thisstudy.Specifically,thischapterwilldiscussmobile(m)learning,thecreationof605podcasts,podcastsusesintheworld,podcastusesinhighereducation,learningstyles606and theories, and the evaluation of computer aided learning. 607History of Technology in the Classroom608In our present age of laptops, palm computers, Power Point presentations and609interactive whiteboards, it is easy to forget that the first technology to impact a610classroom was the blackboard. Prior to the early 1800s teachers had no means to visually611present information to a room full of students. In 1801 the blackboard made the first612appearance in a math class at the West Point Military Academy. Blackboards remained613the primary educational tool in classrooms for the next 200 years (Ergoindemand, 2009).614Technology in the classroom did not really take off until the 20th century when in 1922615Thomas Edison announced I believe that the motion picture is destined to revolutionize616 24our educational system and that in a few years it will supplant largely, if not entirely, the617use of textbooks (Cuban, 1986).618Table 1619Progression of Technology in Schools620YearTechnology621622 Film & Radio 6236241890Commercial films first used in schools6256261900sEducational films were being produced6276281920Radio Division of US Department of Commerce licensed629commercial 630and educational stations6316321928NBC broadcast Music Appreciation Hour- first attempt at633educational programming.634635194229 districts in 17 states provided radio instruction6366371945Well established use of radio in classrooms638639The Use of Instructional Television6406411940sTelevision was introduced to supplement shortage of teachers642643Mid 1950s-1981Ford Foundation underwrote Fund for the Advancement of 644Education to use television- by 1961 over $20 million in 250645schools and 50 colleges from the Ford Foundation646647The Promise of the Computer6486491982Forced by cultural forces to embrace the computer650Teachers and administrators are the primary users of 651computers6526531984Approximately 56,000 of the 82,000 schools had at least one 654Computer for every 92 students6556561987-1990Microsoft released Power Point for MAC OS and Windows6576581991SMART introduced the first Smart Board6596601993W.D. Graziadei introduced the first online computer-661delivered lecture6626632006Nearly 3.5 million students participated in on-line learning 664classes at universities across the nation 665 666Note: 1890-1984 source: Cuban, 1986, Power Point source: Jones, 2003,Smart Board source: Somekh667etal., 2007, First on-line computer lecture and on-line learning classes source: Nichols, 2008.668 25Mobile Learning669The development of the Internet has created new ways for faculty to communicate670withstudents.Manyuniversitieshaveadoptedtheuseofvirtuallearningand671incorporated e-learning and m-learning into their traditional teaching mechanisms as part672ofablended-learningapproach(Evans,2008).Mobilelearning(m-learning)isaterm673createdtocoveracomplexarrayofpossibilitiesopenedupbytheconvergenceofnew674mobiletechnologies,wirelessinfrastructures,andelectroniclearning(e-learning)675developments.M-learningspecificallyreferstotheuseofmobileandhandheldIT676devices, such as personal digital assistants (PDAs), mobile phones, laptops, and personal677computers in teaching and learning (Riva & Villani, 2005; Evans, 2008). Mobile learning678istheobvioussolutiontothelearning needs ofanincreasinglymobile society (Rushby,6792005). The concept of mobile learning has emerged in recent years to represent learning680thatoccurswheremobiletechnologieshaveacentralrole.Todifferentiatebetween681electronic(e-learning)andm-learningsomeconsiderm-learningasbeinge-learning682usingmobiledevicesandwirelesstransmission.Theyalsoseem-learningasallowing683learners to move away from the stand-alone computer and to interact with other devices684withinformationbeingaccessiblethroughawirelessconnection(Walton,Child,&685Blenkinsopp, 2005). Mobile considers the independence dimensions from three points686ofview:location(intermsofphysicalcontext),time,andspacewhenconsideredin687different areas of life (Riva & Villani 2005).688Thestillemerginguseofthetermm-learningreflectsthecomplexarrayof689possibilitiesopenedbytheconvergenceofnewmobiletechnologies,wireless690infrastructures, and e-learning developments (McLean, 2003, p.3) taking us much nearer691 26anytime,anywherelearning(Lee,2007).UdenandYapp(2004),citedinLee,2007692pointoutthate-learningandm-learningshouldnotbeseenassomethingdifferentto693learning. Even if m-learning and e-learning do facilitate developments in pedagogy that694havemovedusfromthetransmissivemode,togiveinformationwithoutstudent695interaction,ofteachingtowardsconstructivistorsocio-cognitivemodelsthatplacethe696learnerinanactiverole(MOBIlearn,2003).Mostdiscussionsfocusingonm-learning697emphasizetheall-to-oftenneglectedsocialcontextoflearningandthereshapingof698conceptsbytheindividuallearnersandgroupsoflearnersworkingtogether.Whatwe699know is that learning is as much about communication as it is about content (Lee, 2007)700andtheeffectofstudentshavingtobeactivelearnersandcommunicatingandlearning701through technology remains to be seen. 702Why Use Mobile Learning?703M-learningrespondstopeoplewhoneedaccesstoinformationandperformance704supportwhenoutinthefield.Mobilelearningmattersbecausetodayslearnersare705increasingly mobile and they are the ones who will pursue and demand mobile resources.706Inmanyrespects,mobilelearningsimplyrepresentsthenextwaveofstrategiesand707resourcesthatwilltakeadvantageoftheubiquitousnetworksthatallowforanytime,708anywherelearning(Wagner&Wilson,2005).Withmobilelearningfacultycan709connectnontraditionallearningexperiences,suchaswatchingapodcastreviewor710supplementalvideo,withtraditionalin-classlearningexperiences.Mobilelearning711provides an opportunity to use the technology that most people already carry, depend on,712andthatareapartoftheirsocialpractice(Wagner&Wilson,2005).Perhapsthemost713excitingopportunitiesformobilelearningwillbefoundamongthebroadbenefitsthat714 27pervasiveconnectednessenables:equalopportunityaccess,ubiquitousconnectivity,715multigenerational use and users, and services for the mobile learner (Wagner & Wilson,7162005).Whenlookingatequalopportunityaccess,thepricepointsofpersonaldigital717devices, iPods, and personal computers continue to drop as the adoption of these devices718continues to rise, which in turn brings more people with increasingly diverse interests to719themobilelearningarena(Wagner&Wilson,2005).Weareseeingmultigenerational720usesandusersastoddlerstoseniorsusepersonalmobiledevicesofallkinds.These721devices continue to be adopted at unprecedented rates (Wagner & Wilson, 2005). 722Justasitisimportanttoknowwhatmobilelearningis,itisalsoimportantto723knowwhatmobilelearningisnot.Mobilelearningisnotlimitedtoasmartphone.A724studyconductedbyEDUCASECenterforAppliedResearchfoundthatcloseto85725percentofallcollegestudentscarryacellphone,with19%ofAmericansusinga726smartphonethatallowedfordownloadinglearningmaterial(EDUCAUSE,2008).727Todays mobile learning is more likely to depend on a handheld device such as an iPod, 728PDA, or laptop computers (Wagner & Wilson, 2005). 729Recent years have seen at all levels of educational institutions, the deployment of730manyinnovativee-learningproductsandservices(Loader&Dutton,2002)evenif731educationpractitionershaveatendencytooverestimatethepotentialintransforming732educationandtheinherentinterestlearnersmighthaveindigitalmodelsthatlearning733delivers.Earlym-learningprojectshaveincludeddevelopingnewwaysofimproving734numeracyandliteracy,offeringbothsubjectspecificandgenericsupportforuniversity735students,andhavedemonstratedhowmobileandwirelesstechnologiescanmore736realistically become a part of learning (Lee, 2007). 737 28Intermsofm-learning,podcastinghasemergedasamajortechnologyandisa738method of publishing audio broadcasts via the Internet (Walton, Child, & Blenkinsopp,7392005; Evans, 2008). Podcasting shares its salient characteristics with the field of mobile740learning, which can be spontaneous, personal, informal, contextual, portable, ubiquitous,741andpervasive(Rushby,2005,p.2).Thoseofusinhighereducationoweittoour742studentstobringpodcastingandotherrichmediaintoourcoursesso thattheycantake743their learning to a whole new level (Campbell, 2005, p.44). The drive for podcasting and744m-learningshouldcomenotonlyfromenthusiasm,butalsofromthecurriculum.745Institutionsshouldprovidethenecessarytrainingforallinvolvedinpodcasting746developmentanduse(Rosell-Aguilar,2007).Despitesuchoptimismitappearsthate- 747learningandm-learningstrategiesandapplicationsarestillratherpatchyand748underdeveloped (Lee, 2007) leading to this study and the effectiveness of podcasting.749Podcasting750ThereisadebateastowhetherMTVsAdamCurryorjournalistBen751Hammersley first coined the term podcast, but regardless the term derives from Apples752iPod, the portable music player, and the term broadcast (Copley, 2007; Lee, McLoughlin,753&Chan,2008).ApodcastisamediafilethatisdistributedovertheInternetandis754available for playback on personal computers and portable media players (Copley, 2007).755There are also vodcasting (the vod stands for video on demand) and can be used to756refertopodcastswithvideoratherthanjustaudiocontent(Rosell-Augilar,2007).In757December2005,theeditorsoftheNewOxfordAmericanDictionarydeclaredpodcast758the2005wordoftheyearanddefinedthetermasadigitalrecordingofaradio759 29broadcastorsimilarprogram,madeavailableontheInternetfordownloadingtoa760personal audio player (Skiba, 2005).761 WhenmostpeoplehearthewordiPodtheythinkofmusic.TheiPodisquickly762becomingknownasaportableleaningtoolthatallowscontinuousaccesstotext,audio763books,learningobjects,digitalflashcards,speeches,images,lectures,videos,and764curriculumcreateddownloads(Todaro,2005).RobertSchoble,asquotedinTodara,7652005,suggestedthatpodshouldbethoughtofaspersonalondemandinsteadof766iPod.TheiPodalsoallowsuserstodesigntheirownnews/informationfeedsfromtheir767owntoothersblogs/webenvironments,taketheirownphotosandimages,recordtheir768classlecturesandpresentations,createtheirowndigitalrepositoriesofnotes,study769foreign languages, and experience curriculum related music (Todaro, 2005). While other770hardware and technology has come and gone, the iPod has the potential to remain an ever771increasing resource for education due to its flexibility of storage, transmittal capabilities,772and delivery of content created by faculty, staff and students (Todaro, 2005). 773Mechanics of Podcasting774Whyispodcastingsopopular?Theansweristhatpodcastingtechnologyallows775anyone the ability to post commentary, music, or videos to the web and on subscription776podcasts.Thesubscriptionpodcastingfeatureallowsautomaticupdatingofinformation777on a personal computer when new information is posted (Descy, 2005). Podcasting relies778ontechnologythatanyonecanuseandthepodcastingsoftwareisoftenfree(Descy,7792005).780Podcastsarerecordedaudioandvideofiles,usuallyinmp3format,thatare781distributedviatheInternetandstoredonacomputerorportablemediaplayertobe782 30replayedwheneverthelistenerchooses(Descy,2005).Podcastingisbasicallyathree- 783stepprocess(Will,2006).Togetstartedapodcasterneedsamicrophoneandsome784podcast recording software. Software such as Windows Sound recorder or Audacity can785be used on Windows, Mac and Linux users. Mac users can also use Garage Band (Will,7862006). For more sophisticated podcasts iPodcast Creator or iPod Producer can be used for787a fee (Descy, 2005). Once the podcast is recorded to an mp3 format one can upload it to788aserverthathasaccesstotheworld-wideweb(Descy,2005).Whatmakesapodcast789uniqueistheabilityforthelistenertosubscribetoaregularofferingusinganRSS790feed. The easiest way to get an RSS feed is to use a free service such as Feedburner.com791(Will, 2006). People need to be encouraged to subscribe to a podcast. The easiest way for792aprofessortoencouragesubscriptionistocreatealinkfromtheschoolshomepageor793use BlackBoard or WebCT (Will, 2006). One of the easiest ways to register a podcast for794facultyistouseiTunesUbygoingtoAppleswebsiteandhittingSubmitaPodcast795(Will, 2006). 796NewdeliveryframeworkssuchasiTunesUhaveincreasedthefeasibilityof797content generation and management at the institutional level. These delivery frameworks798increasestudentsabilitytoaccesscontentsuchaslectures,narrations,andgroup799presentations within the institution and with peers (Molina, 2006). Podcasts have evolved800atarapidpace.In2005podcastingwaslimitedtoaudiofilesandin2007therewasa801wide range of multimedia content available. While the main content available is usually802mp3files,somepodcastsincludeimages,pdfs,andvideo.Videoisusuallyanm4v803format,whichcanbeplayedthroughiTunes,Quicktime,orsomevideoportablemedia804players (Rosell-Augilar, 2007).805 31Audiofilesarewhatmostfacultiesareusingandconsistofamonologueor806lecture on a specific point. Some faculty are very talented and manage to communicate807both the content and their passion for the subject. Some faculty have very flat voices and808styles that do not aid in learning from an environment where the auditory channel is the809onlychannelforintakeofinformation(Rossell-Augilar,2007).Therehavebeenmany810discussionsonhowlongapodcastshouldlastwithpreferencesfor2minutestousers811who prefer up to 30 minutes (Rosell-Aguilar, 2007).812Video podcasts are becoming more popular with some video materials consisting813of a faulty member talking to a camera, much like audio lectures, but aided by graphics814orsubtitles.Thepodcastermusttakethesizeofthescreenintoconsiderationandhave815subtitlesandinformationthatareasuitablesizetobereadonaniPodscreen(Rosell- 816Aguilar, 2007).817Music podcasts begin and end with a snippet of music, but this can become quite818tiresome when doing repeated listening and when listening to several episodes. Music can819alsobekeptinthebackground,butcanbedistractingandimpedecomprehension820(Rosell-Aguilar,2007).AncillarymaterialssuchasPDFformatsofvocabularysheets,821images,andexerciselogscanbeprovided,butsomechoosetomaketheseresources822supplementary and available only to subscribers (Rosell-Aguilar, 2007).823A newer podcast format is enhanced podcasts, which can be divided into chapters824(whichoffertheopportunitytoskiptothewantedsection),andcancomewithlyrics,825transcripts,andimagesorphotosimbeddedintothepodcaststobeusedforillustrating826points.Apointtorememberisthatenhancedorvideopodcastscanonlybeplayedon827 32personal media players with video capabilities or a computer with iTunes or QuickTime828(Rosell-Aguilar, 2007).829Health Education and Podcasting830Podcasting has become a commercial phenomenon with many major newspapers,831radio and television stations, and religious groups using podcasting technology. In 2005,832Appleannouncedthatmorethanonemillionpeoplesubscribedtopodcastsduringthe833first two days iTunes was made available (Descy, 2005). In November 2005, the Agency834forHealthcareResearchandQuality(AHRQ)launchedaseriesofpodcastscalled411835HealthSeriesonvarioustopics,suchasqualityofhealthcareandpersonalizedhealth836records.TheprestigiousjournalNatureoffersweeklypodcastsbyDr.ChrisSmith,a837virologyresearcherandradiopresenterattheUniversityofCambridgeintheUnited838Kingdom (Skiba, 2005). The University of California television system is offering video839podcastsofprogramsforhealthcareprofessionalsneedingtimelydisasterpreparedness840information(Cox,2006)andtheAmericanPublicHealthAssociation(APHA)offersa841newseriesinconjunctionwiththeassociationsGetReadyCampaign,discussingthe842need for preparedness, threat of the pandemic flu, and other emerging infectious diseases843(American Public Health Association, 2006). The APHA has two new influenza podcasts844focusingonseasonalandpandemicfluthatserveasa101primeronthetopic845(American Public Health Association, 2007).846Advantages and Disadvantages to Podcasting in Pedagogy847There are several advantages to podcasting besides access to authentic and spoken848materials.Podcastsareportable,convenient,andeasytouse(Blaisdell,2006).Once849downloaded the files can be taken and listened to anywhere, as many times as necessary,850 33and at a convenient time. Functionalities such as pause, forward, or skip give the learner851controlofthepace(Sloan,2005).Thecontentcanalsobeplayedonacomputerifthe852student does not have access to portable media devices (Rosell-Aguilar, 2007). iPods are853attractiveandintermsofdesign,marketing,andconsumerappeal,arehardtobeat854(Clark&Walsh,2005,p.11).Whilethereislittleempiricaldata,thefactthatportable855media players are widely owned and podcasts are easy to obtain increases use (attracting856students who might not otherwise access learning material such as replaying lectures and857accessinghandoutsandothervisuals)andmakeslisteningtoaneducationallearning858objectfeellesslikestudying(Rosell-Aguilar,2007).Podcastscangivevisibilitytothe859individuals and institutions that provide them and allow free publicity for institutions as860wellasagoodreputationforusingthelatesttechnologies.Podcastswillalsoallow861facultytoshiftclassroomattentionfromlecturingtointeractionintheclassroom862(Blaidsell, 2006) by faculty requiring students to download podcasts of lectures allowing863for more in-class participation activities and discussions.864Thereareafewchallengestopodcasting.Sloan(2005),Menzies(2005),and865Blaisdell (2005) highlight the possibility of an increase in faculty workload for those that866createthecontentasitcantakethreetofourhourstocreateoneminuteofavideo867podcasts. There may not be an increase in time and workload for those who use or access868thepodcastsunlesstheyaretechnologicallychallenged.Thereisalsoabarrierfor869students and faculty who are technologically challenged (Rosell-Aguilar,2007). Providing870podcasts lectures may require rethinking course objectives and learning outcomes, as the871classroom focus will no longer be on lecturing, but on class interaction, discussions, and872 34projects.Copyrightissuesandlackoftechnicalsupportmayalsocomeintoquestion873(Blaisdell, 2005).874Table 2875Pros and Cons of Podcasting876ProsCons877878Portable Increased faculty workload to create content879880ConvenientBarrier for students and faculty that are technologically881challenged882883Easy to useFaculty must rethink course objectives and learning884outcomes885886Listen to anywhereCopyright issues887888Listen as many times as necessaryLack of technical support889890Functionalities (pause, forward, skip)Challenges integrating multiple systems for storage of891content892893Content can be played on a computer Lack of instructor tools for combining audio and text894895Media players are widely ownedSome recordings made will not be sufficient quality for 896academic use897Podcast are easy to obtain898899Makes listening to an educational object 900less like studying901902Give visibility to individuals and institutions903904Allow faculty to shift classroom attention 905from lecturing to interaction906907908Podcasting in Higher Education909Thebroadercontextofinformationtechnologyneedstobeunderstoodbefore910podcasting in higher education can be discussed. Podcasts are considered to be a part of911whatiscalledGlobalization3.0,wheretheworldisflatteningandinformationison912steroidsbybeingdisseminatedthroughdigital,mobile,personal,andvirtualmeans913(Skiba,2005).Podcastingisapartofthenotionofcollectiveintelligence,wherethe914 35combinedintelligenceofmanyoffersmorethanonepersonsknowledge,anditis915important for faculty to remember that their next generation students are very accustomed916topodcasting.Itishowstudentsgettheirentertainmentandeventheirnews(Skiba,9172005).Infact,theiPodtoppedthelistofthemostinthingsoncampusin2006,918accordingtotheStudentMonitorsLifestyle&MediaStudy.TheiPodknockedbeer,919whichhadruledthechartssince1998,tothesecondspaceonthelistby73percentof920students polled (Windham, 2007). College-age students make up the largest proportion of921iPodownersintheadultrange,accordingtoa2005studybythePewInternet&922American Life Project. One in five of those aged eighteen to twenty-eight owned an iPod923or mp3 player (Windham, 2007). It is not surprising, therefore, to learn that this class of924podcastingnewcomersquicklyadoptedandembracedtheuseofpodcastingtotransfer925lectures and course material (Windham, 2007).926Modernlearnershaveincreasingdemandsontheirtimeandareoftenforcedto927studyduringlunchbreaks,intheevening,onweekends,orwhiletraveling.Theuseof928portable mp3 players and laptops makes it easier for learners to study when they want by929makingitsimpleforstudentstotransporttheirmaterials.Thistypeoftechnologyalso930facilitates just-in-time learning where learners can often take advantage of unexpected931free time since they have the technology with them (Evans, 2008).932Somearguethatthereis a partitionbetween the technology of everyday life and933the technology used in a classroom due to the fact that technology used in classrooms is934oftenyearsbehindthatofthenonacademicworld.Teachersneednewskillsand935understandingtobettersupportandengagetwenty-firstcenturystudentsasthese936millenniallearnersareheavilyinfluencedbyinformationtechnology.Thesestudents937 36maybetaughtmoreeffectivelyusingthetechnology,suchasiPodsandpodcasting,to938whichtheyareaccustomed(Kervin&Vardy,2007).Ontheotherhand,facultyare939becoming more comfortable with technology, according to a Thomason Learning survey940fromahighereducationpublisherinConnecticut.Intheirsurvey677professorsfrom941disciplinesofbusiness/economicsandhumanities/socialsciencesrevealedagrowing 942interest in social networks, blogs, and podcasting (Thomson Learning, 2007). There is a943need for faculty wishing to incorporate technology into their classrooms, but they need to944consider the educational goals they are trying to meet by using podcasts (Copley, 2007).945Facultywishingtoincorporate podcasts in their classroom need to ask themselves these946questions: Why use the technologies? How can meaningful connections be made through947the technologies to the curriculum? How will specific learning opportunities connect with948my students? By answering these questions, students will be given opportunities to learn949ininnovative,challenging,andcreativewayswithtechnologyasatooltosupporttheir950learning rather than as a one-way source of information (Kervin & Vardy, 2007).951EDUCAUSE,theEvolvingTechnologiesCommittee,isanonprofitassociation952whosemissionistoadvancehighereducationbypromotingtheintelligentuseof953informationtechnology.Eachyearthisgroupidentifiesandresearchestheevolving954technologiesthatmostdirectlyimpacthighereducation.In2005,thecommittee,under955theleadershipofcommitteechairPabloG.Molina,selectedfiveevolvingtechnologies956with one being podcasting (Molina, 2006). According to Molina (2006), podcast content957canincludeaudioandvideorecordingoflectures,interviews,narrations,andgenerally958anytypeofcampusactivitysuchasStanfordUniversity,whichoffersnotonlylecture959material,butalsovideoofcampussportingevents.Ishizuka(2005),feelstechnology960 37should be practical, empowering, and even enjoyable. Technology should help us connect961withothersmoreeffectivelyandallowustobetterexpresswhoweare,whatwevalue,962and what we want to share with others. Ishizuka also follows the belief that school should963befullofwonderanddiscovery for both the students and the teachers (Ishizuka, 2005).964Useofpodcastinganditscommunicationswithotherhardwareandsoftwareistaking965place at all levels of education and all types of educational settings with students bringing966their own iPods into educational settings or schools loaning/giving out iPods to students967(Todaro,2005).Facultymembersarechallengingstudentstodesigntheirownusesfor968the technology and create their own podcasts for educational programs (Todaro, 2005).969Podcasting and iPods are not groundbreaking technologies, but they are cool.970Their humanized and stylish approach allows students to easily manage vast amounts of971multimedia content and this changes a paradigm of learning and retaining information972(Molina, 2006). Campus technologies have had the primary role of leading their973communities in the intelligent use of technology by adapting whatever resources were974thought to be appropriate. Now universities need to scout and adopt technologies students975are already using. Universities must now consider not only the official uses of these976technologies, but the effects of the impromptu bursts of collaboration among groups of977researchers, faculty, and students engaged with these technologies (Molina, 2006). The978podcasting movement has provided an excellent delivery medium for instructors,979students, and staff. Students have been able to unleash their creativity in many ways and980learning has found the perfect ally to create on-demand, anytime-anywhere delivery of981instructional content (Molina, 2006). 982983 38Schools Using Podcasts984Many universities are reporting using this technology for more than dissemination985oflectures.HECParisinFrancecustomizesvideoiPodstoitsMBAstudentstoshare986campusinformation,tutorials,andcourserevisionmaterials(Puttingpodcaststowork,9872006). Drexel Universitys School of Education offers interviews with guest speakers and988theuniversitypresident(Read,2005).TheUniversityofMissourilistsrecordingand989distributingbroadcasts,recordinganduploadingforeignlanguagelessons,developing990audio/videorecruiting,recordingteachersnotes,conferenceandmeetingnotes,oral991historyarchiving,andon-demanddistribution(Meng,2005).TheStanfordGraduate992SchoolofBusinessinCaliforniahasapodcastingchannelandSocialInnovation993Conversations,thatoffersfree audio of conferences, lectures, and expert interviews that994addresstheworldsmostpressingsocialandenvironmentalissues(Puttingpodcaststo995work,2006).AttheMerageSchoolofBusinessattheUniversityofCalifornia,Irvine,996Richard McKenzie has created 52 podcasts in economics, including videotaped portions997ofhiscourseandaudioselectionsfromhisnewtextbook(Puttingpodcaststowork,9982006).Since2002,GeorgiaCollegeandStateUniversityhaveincludedanumberof999study abroad courses that are iPod-enhanced to include materials ranging from lectures to1000audiobookstolanguagestudymaterialandmusic(Lee,McLoughlin,&Chan,2008).1001DukeUniversity(2006)conductedthelargestiPodstudytodatebydistributing20- 1002gigabyteiPodstoits1650commencingstudents.TheiPodswerepreloadedwith1003orientationinformationandadministrativeandacademicmaterialsinmp3formatwere1004madeavailableforstudentstodownloadviatheDukeWebserverandAppleiTunes1005(Lee,Mcloughlin,&Chan,2008).Othermajoruniversitiestoofferpodcastsatan1006 39institutional level include University of California, Berkley (2006), Princeton University1007(2005),andStanfordUniversity(n.d.)(Lee,McLoughlin,&Chan,2008).Skiba(2005)1008sees the most potential in accessing information and knowledge that is not bound by time1009andstudentswillbeabletoconnectwithexpertsintheirownfieldsfromalloverthe1010world.1011Table 31012Schools Using Podcasts1013SchoolsPodcasting Uses101410151) HEC Paris in France Share campus information,1016Tutorials1017Course revision materials1018 10192) Drexel UniversityInterviews with guest speakers and the university president102010213) University of MissouriDistributes broadcasts1022Recording and uploading of foreign language lessons1023Recruiting1024Recording of teachers notes and conference notes102510264) Stanford Graduate School of BusinessOffers a podcasting channel1027Social innovation conversations1028Lectures, 1029Conferences1030Expert interviews103110325) Merage School of BusinessPodcasts of economics lectures1033Excerpts of textbooks103410356) Georgia College and State University iPod enhanced study abroad courses1036 Lectures1037 Audio books1038Music classes103910407) Duke UniversityMarketing1041Lectures1042Expert interviews1043Orientation information1044Administrative information for students1045Academic materials10461047Podcasting Research1048There is an ever-growing body of literature regarding the use of audio and video1049players(iPods)foracademicpurposes,butmostofthematerialtakestheformof1050 40magazinearticlesorqualitativeprojectreports.DukeUniversitywasoneofthefirstto1051exploreiPodsandpodcastinginaneducationalsettingwiththeDukeDigitalInitiative.1052DukeUniversity(2006)conductedthelargestqualitativeiPodstudytodateby1053distributing20-gigabyteiPodstoits1650incomingfreshmanstudents.TheiPodswere1054preloadedwithorientationinformation,andadministrativeandacademicmaterialsin1055mp3 format and were made available for students to download via the Duke Web server1056andAppleiTunes(Lee,Mcloughlin,&Chan,2008).Theprimarypurposeofthis1057evaluativeresearchwastoassistDukeUniversityindeterminingwhatiPoduseswere1058mostsuccessfulintermsofacademicemploymentandtohelpshapethefutureof1059technology at the university (Duke, 2006). Duke found that the use of iPods fell into five1060differentcategories:coursecontentanddissemination,classroomrecordingtool,field1061recording tool, study support tool, and file storage and transfer of electronic information. 1062Basedonobservationsandsurveyswithfacultyandstudentsthebenefitsofthe1063iPodwereconvenienceforbothfacultyandstudentsofportablecontent,flexible1064location-independent access to digital multi-media course materials, effective and easy to1065use tool for recording, greater student engagement and interests in class discussions, labs,1066fieldresearch,independentprojects,andenhancedsupportforindividuallearning1067preferencesandneeds(Duke,2005).Thebarriersandproblemsencounteredwiththe1068academicuseoftheiPodwerechallengesintegratingmultiplesystemsforcontent1069storage,access,andsharingfileswithexistingtechnologyinfrastructure,difficultiesin1070locatingcommercialsourcesandobtaininglicensesforcontent,inherentlimitationsof1071thedevice,lackofinstructortoolsforcombiningtextandaudio,limitedpre-existing1072documentationandtrainingresources,lackofawarenessoraccurateknowledgeofiPod1073 41functionality, and some recordings made on iPod were not sufficient quality for academic1074use(Duke,2005).Theinstitutionalimpactsoftheprojectwereincreasedcollaboration1075andcommunicationamongcampustechnologysupportgroups,significantand1076unanticipatedpublicitygeneratedbytheproject,conversationsamongfaculty,1077administrators,staff,andstudentsaboutthebestrolesoftechnology,andincreased1078visibility for Dukes institutional commitment to technology (Duke, 2005).1079Previousstudiesine-learningsuggestedthatwell-designedvirtuallearning1080materials increase the amount of control learners have over the learning process and can1081bemoreefficientandeffectivethantraditionalalternatives(Evans,2008).Frydenberg1082(2006)implementedpodcastingintohisintroductorytechnologycourse.Frydenberg1083allowed two sections with a total of 54 students to participate in the podcasting study. A1084survey was administered to 48 of the students and 55% stated they listened to parts of the1085podcaststoclarifypoints,26%listenedtoallofthepodcaststoseeiftheymissed1086anything,26%updatedtheirnotesfromthepodcasts,and15%listenedtothepodcasts1087more than one time through. Over half of the students surveyed stated they subscribed to1088theclasspodcastsandsoughtoutotherpodcastsontopicsofpersonalinterest1089(Frydenberg, 2006). Ormand (2008) selected an upper level information technology class1090totesttheuseofpodcasts.Inoneofthefoursectionsofthesameclass,podcastswere1091posted for use. On the class final, the podcast section scored 4.75% higher than the other1092three sections. Ormond surveyed the class and found that 82% of the students found the1093podcastsuseful,63%saidthepodcastsimprovedoverallperformance,and80%ofthe1094studentswouldusethepodcastsinthefuture(Ormand,2008).SaeedandYang(2008)1095usedstudentsenrolledinawebprogrammingclassandallowedtheclasstocreateand1096 42study from their fellow students podcasts. With a total number of 204 enrolled students,1097over half (51.5%, N=105) participated in the survey. For podcasts, 56% reported at least1098someexperiencewithpodcastsand67.8%statedtheyaccessedpodcastsatleastoncea1099week.Themostpreferredtypeofpodcastswasmusic(51.2%)followedbyeducational1100podcastsat(44.2%).Theparticipants(76.3%)eitheragreedorstronglyagreedthat1101podcasts could be used as learning and teaching tools. Audio and video recordings of the1102lecturesemergedasthemostpreferrede-learningtool,with1064hitsreportedfor111103recorded lectures, an average of 97 hits per lecture or 5 hits per student over the semester.1104Themostpreferredwaytoaccesslecturepodcastswasthemanualdownloadtoapc,1105votedby75%oftherespondents.However,61.4%diddownloadlecturestotheir1106portablelisteningdevice.Morethanhalf(59.1%)reportedtheywouldprefervideo1107recordings to audio podcasts and 48.9% of responders stated that they would prefer to use1108podcastsattheirconvenience. Overall, 86.4% of the participants were satisfied with the1109use of lecture podcasts. 1110Evans(2008)conductedaqualitativestudytodeterminewhetherrevision1111podcasts enhanced the learning process. He discovered that students believe that revision1112podcastsareaquickerwaytorevisethanusingtheirnotes,butthatrevisingfromnotes1113requiresthelearnerstoexpendcognitiveenergyinre-familiarizingthemselveswiththe1114materialinthecontexttheyfirstencounteredit.Thestudentsfeltthatrevisionpodcasts1115weremoreeffectivetoolsthantextbooks,butnottheirownnoteswhenstudyingfora1116test.Studentsstatedthattheylearnedmorefromthepodcaststhanreadingthe1117corresponding sections from the textbook. Students also valued the flexibility offered by1118podcasts in terms of the ability to study where and when they wanted with one quarter of1119 43thestudentslistenedtopodcastswhiletheytraveled.Studentsalsoindicatedthatthey1120were more receptive to podcasts material than material delivered in the form of a revision1121lecturefromthetextbookbecausepodcastswereofaparticularbenefitinhelping1122learnersfocusontheimportantaspectsofthesubjectwithoutgettingsidetrackedby1123details. The students also noted feeling more engaged while listening to the podcasts and1124liked the feeling of having more control of the learning process. 1125Copley (2007) conducted a study on the production and evaluation of student use1126withpodcasts.Themostcommonlyindicateduseofpodcastmaterialwasfor1127revision/preparation for assessments, to enablenote-takingatownpace,tocatchup1128on missed lectures, and to have a complete record of ones own interest.Copley found1129anoverallenthusiasmforpodcastlecturesmaterialswith(92%)ofstudentsindicating1130they would like to see more supplementary stand alone podcast materials. The majority1131(86%)ofstudentsselectedvideopodcastsastheirpreferredformatforsupplementary1132lecture materials. Again, the majority (88%) of students stated that podcasting would not1133reducetheirattendancebecausetheyneededstructuredlearningandtheopportunityfor1134interaction and asking questions. 1135While many studies have been conducted there are few, if any, that have done an1136experimenttoseeifpodcastingdoesindeedaidinlearningandincreasetestscores.1137Usingpodcaststomeetthechallengesoftranslatinganytime,anywhereaccessinto1138exemplary pedagogy requires materials that can be reviewed without reference to lecture1139notes.Thesepodcastscanbedoneinaradioshowformatratherthanarecordingofan1140audio lecture (Copley, 2007). This study aimed to create stand alone podcasts and tests1141to see if the podcasts, do indeed, increase knowledge retained.1142 44Learning Styles1143Learningstyleunderscorestheimportanceofindividualizedlearning,which1144demandsalearningenvironmentandcontentdeliverymethodthatisappropriateforan1145individuals learning style (Hui, 2007). People vary considerably in learning style, which1146referstotheimportantcharacteristicbehaviorsofalearnerthatcanserveasastable1147indicatorofhowheorsheperceives,interactswith,andrespondstoalearning1148environment(Kolb,1990).Everyonehasamixoflearningstylesthoughsomepeople1149mayfindtheyhaveadominant style of learning, with far less use of other styles. Some1150people may find they use different styles in different situations (Advanogy, 2007). 1151There are seven learning styles: visual (spatial) in which the learner prefers using1152pictures,images,andspatialunderstanding;aural(auditory-musical)usingsoundand1153music; verbal (linguistic) using words, both in speech and writing; physical (kinesthetic)1154usingtheirbody,hands,andsenseoftouch;logical(mathematical)usinglogic,1155reasoning, and systems; social (interpersonal) in groups or with other people; and solitary1156(intrapersonal) to work alone and use self-study (Advanogy, 2007). Learning styles have1157a strong influence and guide the way a person learns. Learning styles also change the way1158apersoninternallyrepresentsexperiences,recallsinformation,andevenchooseswords1159(Advanogy, 2007). 1160Research has shown that learning styles use different parts of the brain and that by1161involvingmorepartsofthebrainduringlearning,peoplemayremembermoreofwhat1162they learn. Those that are visual learners have the occipital lobes at the back of the brain1163engagedwhichmanagesvisualsense.Theoccipitalandparietallobesmanagespatial1164orientationwhiletheaurallearnersengagethetemporallobeswiththerighttemporal1165 45lobebeingespeciallyimportantformusic.Verballearnersusethetemporalandfrontal1166lobes, especially Brocas and Wernickes areas and physical learners use the cerebellum1167andmotorcortexforphysicalmovement.Logicallearnersusetheparietallobes,1168especiallytheleftside,whichdriveslogicalthinkingandsociallearnersusethefrontal1169andtemporallobesincludingthelimbicsystemwhichmanagesemotions,moodsand1170aggression.Thesolitarylearnerengagesthefrontalandparietallobesandthelimbic1171system (Advanogy, 2007).1172Studentspreferentiallytakeinandprocessinformationindifferentwayssuchas1173seeing,hearing,reflecting,acting,analyzing,andvisualizing.Teachingmethodsalso1174vary with some instructors lecturing, demonstrating or leading students to self-discovery1175applications.Otherteachingmethodsemphasizememoryandunderstanding(Felder,11762008).Whenmismatchesexistbetweenlearningstylesofmoststudentsintheclass1177students may become bored and inattentive, do poorly on tests, and get discouraged about1178thecourseandthemselves.Toovercometheseproblems,professorsneedtostrivefora1179balanceofinstructionalmethods.Whenabalanceisachieved,allstudentshavean1180opportunity to learn according to their learning preference (Felder, 2008).1181There is a way to extend the instructional impact of instructors and the advantage1182istousetechnologypopularamongstudents.Thetechnologyallowsteachersto1183differentiatetheirinstructionsforstudentswithdiverseneeds.Instructorscanestablish1184blogs that contain text, audio, and view new postings about a class and iTunes makes it1185possibleforstudentstoaccesshigh-qualityinstructionfromclasses(Colombo,2007).1186Podcastsmaybeparticularlyusefultostudentswithspecificlearningneedssuchas1187dyslexia or dyspraxia or for whom English is not their first language (Copley, 2007). The1188 46skilloflisteningiscomplexandmultifaceted.Therearethreestepstolistening:1189receiving, attending, and assigning meaning. Podcasts can be created to engage students1190inallthreeofthesesteps.Thepodcastcanrequirestudentstomakesenseofthe1191information,usetheinformationforsomesortofactionandreportbackthenew1192understanding(Kervin&Vardy,2007).Anexampleistocreateaseriesofopen-ended1193mathematics podcasts that require the students to listen to a math problem, work through1194theproblem,andpresentasolution.UsingiPodstodothiswouldsupportstudents1195learning as the private nature of technology ensures that distractions are minimized. The1196technologyalsoenablesstudentstolistentotheoraltextasmanytimesasnecessaryto1197internalize,understand,andassignmeaningtowhattheyareaskedtolearn(Kervin&1198Vardy, 2007).1199Therearetwowaysoflearning:synchronousandasynchronouslearning.1200Synchronous learning refers to a group learning the same things at the same time and in1201the same place. This is the type of pedagogy practiced in most school settings, especially1202undergraduateprograms(Park&Bonk,2007).Asynchronouslearningisateaching1203method using computer network technology. These are strategies that can enable learners1204toincreaseknowledgeandskillsthoughself-pacedandself-directedmodulestobe1205completed when the learner is prepared and motivated to learn (Sloan, 2006). Podcasting,1206whichisasynchronous,hasrevolutionizedhighereducationbyaddressingmultiple1207learning styles and allowing students to learn at their own pace, listen to audio or video as1208manytimesandtheyneedto,andtorelyontimeshiftingforclassesandlearning.1209Preparedpodcastsareofparticularusetoauditoryandvisuallearnersandhaving1210studentsmaketheirownpodcastscanreachallofthelearningstyles(Moisey,2006).1211 47Mostexistingusesofpodcastinginhighereducationfocusontheuseoftechnologyto1212deliver lectures and cause one to question the ultimate educational value of adopting this1213technology. Used appropriately, podcasting can enhance classroom learning by engaging1214students in the material and adding yet another modality of learning (Lee, McLoughlin, &1215Chan, 2008).1216Theory1217Only by wrestling with the conditions of the problem at hand, seeking and finding his own1218solution (not in isolation but in correspondence with the teacher and other pupils) does1219one learn ~ John Dewey1220Constructivism1221Modern education follows two traditions with two distinct learning paradigms.1222The dominant tradition has its roots in medieval Europe with books being rare,1223expensive, and revered. In the universities lecturing meant reading the book word for1224word with the professor interjecting thoughts while the students transcribed information.1225Reading was central and the students role was to capture the textual content and never1226interrupt delivery. Knowledge was an entity that existed apart from the learner and1227detached from present context. The Western education has often continued to center1228around the medieval approach that places content at the center of learning (Ryder, 2008).1229Jean Rousseau was the first modern philosopher to criticize the model of education and in1230a fictional account emphasized what it would be like to shift away from instructional1231content and steer toward the learners own experiencing. Rousseau envisioned a system1232of intrinsic motivation rather than extrinsic coercion that could lead to a more rewarding1233learning experience (Ryder, 2008). Student-centered alternatives did not come about until1234 48the Twentieth Century. John Dewey formalized an educational model based on direct1235learning experience (Dewey, 1938). An experiential education places the learner in an1236active role to investigate, draw upon available tools, seek out relevant information,1237resolve problems, and reflect on the experience (Ryder, 2008). When considering the1238computer as a learning technology, it is possible to implement both of the learning1239traditions by students attending lecture and using technology as a supplemental learning1240tool (Ryder, 208).1241Constructivism is a philosophical position that views knowledge as the outcome1242of experience mediated by ones own prior knowledge and experience (Ryder, 2008).1243Human cognitive development is a continually adaptive process of assimilation,1244accommodation, and correction (Piaget, 1973). Constructivism has roots in philosophy,1245psychology, sociology, and education. Constructivisms central idea is that human1246learning is constructed and that learners build new knowledge upon the foundation of1247previous learning (Hoover, 1996). There are two important concepts that follow the idea1248of constructed knowledge. The first is that learners construct new understandings using1249what they already know and that learners come to learning situations with knowledge1250gained from previous experience, and that prior knowledge influences how they will1251construct the new learning experience. The second concept is that learning is active rather1252than passive and learners remain active throughout the process. The learner applies1253current understandings, notes relevant elements in new learning experiences, judges the1254consistency of prior and emerging knowledge, and modifies knowledge based on those1255judgments (Hoover, 1996 & Jaworski, 2008). 1256 49Moving from a constructivist philosophy to a constructivist learning environment1257proposes the challenge of synthesizing a large spectrum of disparate concepts (i.e. a1258prism with many facets that reflect the same light and form on part of a whole (Murphy,12591997). Situated cognition, anchored instruction, apprenticeship learning, problem-based1260learning, generative learning, constructionism, and exploratory learning are all1261approaches to learning grounded in the constructivist epistemology (Murphy, 1997).1262Jonassen (1994) summarized the implications of constructivism for instructional1263design. The following principles illustrate how knowledge construction can be1264facilitated by providing multiple representations of reality, focusing on knowledge1265construction, not reproduction, provide real-world, case-based learning environments1266rather than pre-determined instructional sequences and support collaborative construction1267of knowledge through social negotiation. Wilson and Cole (1991) provide a description1268of cognitive teaching models by stating the model provides for authentic versus academic1269contexts for learning and provides learner control. Ernest (1995) described constructivism1270as allowing sensitivity toward and attentiveness to the learners previous constructions,1271and allowed self-regulation by the learner. Honebein (1996) states goals for the design of1272constructivist learning: provide experience in and appreciation for multiple perspectives,1273embed learning in realistic and relevant contexts, encourage ownership and voice in the1274learning process, encourage the use of multiple modes of representation, and embed1275learning in social experience.1276While constructivists learning theories often involve students in collaborative1277problem solving and learning-centered activities; there is a common misperception that1278constructivism models of teaching allow no place for learning through listening to1279 50lectures or reading texts (Bransford, 1986). Constructivist models support building new1280knowledge from many sources, including lectures, reading, and classroom activities.1281Active knowledge construction, the basic foundation for the constructivist learning1282theory, can occur if students are constructing knowledge through classroom activities, or1283sitting still listening to a lecture or reading a book (Day,2008)1284Social Constructivism1285Agreement on a constructivist theory of learning is not widespread, but the1286outstanding consideration according to Ernest (1995) is to accommodate the1287complimentary between individual construction and social interaction (p.483). Social1288constructivists suggest that it is through the social process that reality takes on meaning.1289Socialization informs our understanding of science and it shapes the technology that we1290invent and continually adapt to our changing realities. Humans are shaped by their1291interactions with machines (Ryder, 2008). No classroom environment is an isolated box1292as it is part of a wider community, which has cultural practices and social norms. There1293are therefore activities which happen because they are a part of this socio-cultural setting.1294Lave and Wenger (1991) talk of a community practice to encompass the customs, social1295and cultural, of a community and how it operates. The wider culture in which the school1296is situated interacts with the classroom in ways often unnoticed because students are so1297familiar with them, such as technology. Social interactions within the learning1298environment are an essential part of knowledge construction and learning takes place1299within a socio-cultural setting in which social action and social interactions are thought to1300take place (Jaworski, 2008). Von Glasserfeld (1984 p.14) argues, From the1301constructivist perspective, learning is not a stimulus-response phenomenon. Knowledge1302 51is the result of active learning which has a generative process. Learners constantly relate1303new information to what they already know resulting in the social construction of new1304personalized meanings (Bellefeuille, 2005). Learning is a process of constructing1305meaningful representations, of making sense of ones experiential world. Because of the1306prior learning, constructivist instructional design approaches promote a more open-ended,1307cumulative learning experience that allow for different learning styles, personal values,1308and cultural variables (Bellefeuille, 2005). This means that computer-mediated1309instructional design and its web-based interactive option offer environments that are more1310inherently constructivist in nature (Bellefeuille, 2005). The relationship between1311computer-mediated learning and constructivist instruction design is based on the fact that1312technology is an expanding tool box of options to provide students with enhanced access1313to information in order to develop knowledge and skills (Bellefeuille, 2005). 1314The role of the teacher has two important components. The first is to introduce1315new ideas or cultural tools where necessary and to provide support and guidance for1316students. The other is to listen to and diagnose ways in which instructional activities will1317aid in informing and building knowledge (Murphy, 2008). Are teachers prepared to1318encounter classrooms full of learners with access to an endless supply of communication1319vehicles that aid them in navigating new media and empower them with up-to-date1320information (Pascarella, 2008)? Hein states in (Pascarella, 2008) that Learning is1321contextual: we do not learn isolated facts and theories in some abstract ethereal land of1322the mind separate from the rest of our lives: we learn in relationships to what else we1323know, what we believe, our prejudices and our fears. On reflection, it becomes clear that1324this point is actually a corollary of the idea that learning is active and social. We cannot1325 52divorce our learning from our lives. Lehner & Nosekable state in (Pascarella, 2008) that1326mobile technologies are quickly becoming indispensable and in terms of education1327application, they can deliver content regardless of time and location. Mobile technologies1328also support learners in seamless and authentic learning and can provide instant learning1329guidance and feedback (Lai et al, 2007). Handhelds (mp3 players) support the1330constructive principle by providing each student with a share of the necessary1331information to accomplish an educative goal (Zurita, 2002). Handhelds act as a support1332tool, without hindering the reflexive communication among others and the educational1333environment uses computers and wireless communication between handhelds to support1334face-to-face collaborative work (Zurita, 2002) as the students can see the teacher gather1335nonverbal clues and understandings. To make learning more efficient, instructional1336resources must be adaptable to varying contexts, learners, and educators and to achieve1337this educators are focusing on learning objects (Ruiz, 2006). 1338Learning Objects1339Learning objects are practical tools or any grouping of learning materials that are1340structured in a meaningful way and are tied to an educational objective in a rapidly1341changing educational system (Smith, 2004). Many times learning objects are digital1342elements. They are discrete pieces of content such as text, audio, video, graphics, and1343animations. These discrete pieces of content are known as digital assets (Ruiz, 2006).1344Digital learning assets are key elements in creating e-learning material. Examples include1345tutorials, case-based learning, simulations, and game-based learning. These assets are1346similar to Lego building blocks allowing the information pieces to be used and reused to1347build different structures for learning (Ruiz, 2006). Learning objects remove contextual1348 53references and can be used by a variety of learners. As technology advances, learning1349objects will become well suited to e-learning and m-learning because they can be1350delivered across computer networks and extend the boundaries of the classroom so that1351an unlimited number of learners in different locations can access them on demand1352(Wylie, 2002b). In addition to defining a learning object there are features of learning1353objects that need to be considered for them to be effective learning tools (Moisey, 2006)1354and build on the constructivist theory. Ally (2004) suggested that a learning object should1355include a pre-learning component to prepare the student for the information, an1356interaction component to enable the student to process the material, and a post learning1357component to check for mastery and practical application. Longford (2005) states that1358students should be able to select and customize learning objects based on learning styles1359and advises that the learning objects be able to stand-alone and be an independent1360instructional tool.1361Constructivism, Teaching, and Technology1362Constructivism has important implications for teaching. The implications of1363constructivism with student-centered learning may well be the most important1364contribution of this theory (Hoover, 1996). Teaching cannot be seen as the transmission1365of knowledge from enlightened to unenlightened and constructivist teachers do not play1366the sage on the stage. Constructivist teachers act as guides who provide students with1367opportunities to test themselves and learn. Teachers must also note the prior knowledge1368students hold and provide learning environments that exploit inconsistencies between a1369learners current understanding and the new experience they are about to encounter. A1370teacher cannot assume that all students understand information in the same way and1371 54students need different experiences to advance to different levels of understanding1372(Hoover, 1996). 1373According to Dewey (1966), thinking is always creative by nature. This creativity1374is obvious in a situation in which elements of thinking that are already known can be1375constructed in such a way that they cause an incursion into something new. Thus,1376thinking does not represent something mechanistic but something creative. Deweys1377concept that experience is connected with the relationship between an individual and a1378material object (mp3 player or computer) is very close to Meads philosophy that the1379relationship between and individual and the world (Sutinen, 2007). Dewey (1955, p.163)1380declared experience as both an active and a passive element in the relationship between1381the individual and the world. The active element connected with experience is connected1382with the individuals active action in relation to his action environment, while the passive1383element is connected with the feedback received from the environment through actions.1384George McCall and J.L. Simmons (1966 pp. 50-52) outline the relationship between1385things, physical objects and social objects as: there are things in an individuals1386environment that can become objects from his/her point of view, if he/she works with the1387things. The individual needs to create things from the objects, i.e., things become objects1388to him/her only in action. A physical object and a social object can be distinguished by1389the fact that a social object can exist in interaction between two actors. Social objects1390emerge in social action, while physical objects are connected with the relationship1391between the individual and the physical things in the environment and with the situation1392in which the individual functions in relation to the physical things. 1393 55Matching McCall and Simmons thoughts is Deweys idea that thinking is1394connected with a problem in the action and with the tools that can be used to solve the1395problem (Sutinen, 2007) or in this study with a technological tool to aid in completing the1396understanding of health concepts. In 1998 Professor Hank Becker conducted a study on1397teaching, learning and computing. This study was one of the first major studies to1398examine teachers and students who use Internet computers on a regular basis. One1399discovery from the study was that constructivist teachers were more likely to have1400students use Internet computers than traditional teachers. In contrast, those teachers who1401were more traditional and preferred straight lectures did not encourage their students to1402be creative thinkers. Becker (1998) says This computer/constructivist relationship is1403perhaps due to the fact that technology provides students with almost unlimited access to1404information that they need in order to research and test ideas. It facilitates1405communication, allowing students to present their beliefs and products to broader1406audiences and also exposes them to the opinion of a more diverse group of people in the1407real world beyond the classroom, school, and local community- all conditions optimal for1408constructivist learning. In the last ten years, many researchers, Roger Schank, Seymour1409Papert, and Marcia Linn among others have explored the role computers can play in1410constructivist teaching. These researchers have demonstrated that computers often1411provide an appropriate creative medium for students to acquire new knowledge. Because1412constructivism can require vast amounts of classroom and/or preparation time, many1413educators resisted its adoption and have continued with a straight lecture approach to1414learning (Carvin, 2004). 1415 56Piagets (1973) constructivism is based on learning and discovery: To1416understand is to discover, or reconstruct by rediscovery, and such conditions must be1417complied with if in the future individuals are to be formed who are capable of production1418and creativity and not simply repetition. Within the constructivists paradigm, the focus is1419on the learner and not the teacher. It is the learner who interacts with his environment and1420gains an understanding of its features and characteristics (Thanasoulas, 2004). This study1421will attempt to discover if technology (podcasts) can aid the student in interacting with1422their socio-cultural environment and increase their construction of knowledge and1423understanding of health issues.1424Evaluation1425While there are many qualitative studies concerning podcasting there are few, if1426any, quantitative stud