Commercialization of Apple

7/28/2019 Commercialization of Apple

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Commercialization of Apple


Submitted by:

Subash Dahal

Department of Horticulture

IAAS, Rampur, Chitwan, Nepal

April, 2013

ubashDahal


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Prepared by: Subash Dahal, Institute of Agriculture and Animal Sciences, Nepal

Table of Contents Page o

1. Introduction 12. Scientific Classification 13. Morphology 1

3.1 Characteristics of Apple 14. utritional value of Apple 35. Classification of apple 36. Different Kinds of Apples 47. Apple production in the World 58. Apple Production in epal 69. The prospects of commercial apple cultivation in epalese high hills 710.Constraints of apple production in epal 711.Government policies for research and development 912.Horticulture Development Plan and Policies 913.Commercialization of Apple farming 10

13.1 Soil Preparation 1013.2 Planting Apple Trees 1013.3 Orchard Layout 1113.4 Root stock 1113.5

Fertilizing Apple Trees 11

13.6 Irrigation 1213.7 Pruning Apple Trees 13

14.Fruit thinning 1815.High Density Planting 1916.Pest and Disease Management 22

16.1 Diseases 2316.2 Pests 24

17.Pollinisers 2418.Harvesting 2419.Post Harvest of Apple 2520.Conclusion 26

References


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List of Figures Page

Fig: 1 Apple production in world 5

Fig: 2 Productivity of apple in Nepal 6

Fig: 3 Producers price of apple in Nepal 6

Fig: 4 Well developed central leader 14

Fig: 5 Open and Central leader 15

Fig: 6 Slender, spindle-type system 16

Fig: 7 Crodon type system 17

Fig: 8 dwarf apple tree, normal apple tree,

conventional apple orchard, apple meadow orchard 19

List of Tables

Table1: Nutritional value of apple 3

Table2: Amount of nutrient removed from soil with 10 MT of fruit yield 12

Table3: Recommended amount of manure per fruit tree 12


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1. IntroductionApple is a temperate fruit. Apple is the pome fruit of the apple tree (Malus domestica) in the

Rosaceae family. It is one of the most widely cultivated tree fruits, and the most widely known of

the many members of genus Malus that are used by humans. There are more than 7,500 known

cultivars of apples, resulting in a range of desired characteristics. Cultivars vary in their yield and

the ultimate size of the tree, even when grown on the same rootstock.They are native in many parts of Europe and Asia temperate climates. The origin of apple is

Central-Asia, and Afghanistan has many areas with native apples. The leading apple growing

country is China, producing about 41percent of the world's apples, followed by the United States.

In this context of Nepal fruit producer sector can play a significant role covering the local and

international market of the region. The apples from the western regions of Nepal are of excellent

quality for export.

Apple production is not only important for the fresh fruit market, but it also develop favorable

conditions for fruit processing industry, which is a significant step forward economy

development in the country. Juice production and concentrate export is one of the most

promising profit producer industries.

2. Scientific ClassificationKingdom: PlantaeDivision: MagnoliophytaClass: MagnoliopsidaOrder: RosalesFamily: RosaceaeSubfamily: MaloideaeGenus: Malus

Origin: Central Asia

3. MorphologyThe tree naturally grows between 5m and 12m tall. The leaves are arranged alternately along

the shoot. Their shape is a simple oval. The leaf is 5 to 12cm long and 3 to 6cm wide attaching

to a 2-5cm long petiole with an acute tip. The flowers have five petals with a size

approximately 3cm. The color of the flowers is white with a pink tinge. The fruit contains five

carpals arranged in a five point star. Each carpal contains 1 to 3 seeds.

3.1Characteristics of AppleThe main shape types are: roundish, oblate, conical, and oblong. Roundish indicates that the

height and diameter of the fruit are nearly equal. Oblate indicates that the height is much less

than diameter. Conical, is when the fruit is roundish, having the apex end contracted. Oblong, is

when the fruit is longer than broad, and having the apex and base of nearly the same breadth.

Truncate conic, is when the fruit is flattened at the apex. Ribbed, or obscurely ribbed, when the

surface has rising lines and channels from apex to base. Oblique, is when the fruit presents the

appearance as of being one - sided, or when the axis is inclined to one side. Oblate fruit is when

one side is less than the other. Corrugated apple means that it contains depressed lines, furrows,

or wrinkles. Acute, when the fruit is narrowing to a sharp point.


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3.1.1 Axis

This is an imaginary straight line between the stem and the centre of the calyx. The axis is

inclined when the fruit is oblique or lop-sided; short when oblate or the cavity and basin are

deep; long when the fruit is oblong. The core-cells are axial when they meet the axis; abaxial

when distant from it. When a section made through the apples at right angles to the axis is

circular, it is regular; if so, it could be turned in a lathe, meaning it is very regular; it may be

irregular, compressed, or flattened sidewise, angular, furrowed, or ribbed, rarely triangular,

quadrangular, or pentangular.

3.1.2 Tube Stamens

The stamens can occupy three different positions in the tube. The position is marginal when

the stamens are placed close to one of the two ends of the tube: marginal near to the outer end

or marginal near to the inner end. The third position relates to when the stamens are placed

near to the middle section of the tube (median).

3.1.3 Tube

In case of conical fruit, the outlines from the base of the sepals turn in on a curved line inwards -

towards the core, forming a cone. These curves are generally made inward, but occasionally they

are seen outwards. When funnel-shaped, the outlines are seen in a hollow cavity like the stem of

a funnel.

3.1.4 Carpals

This is the core of the apple fruit. Usually the fruit contains five carpals, each one of them with 1

to 3 seeds. Its shape can be round, ovate, obovate or elliptical.

3.1.5 Eye

The sepals are commonly called the eye of the apple. When the fruit develops, the segments

from the original calyx stay and gradually assume various directions. When the fruit matures,

the segments take four distinct forms. When the segments are reflexed or recurved, it is known

as the divergent form. When the segments are erected and pointed, the form is erect convergent.

Flat convergent is formed when the segments are closing over the eye without overlapping each

other. When the segments are overlapping each other, this forms a compact cone, making the

eye connivent.

There are other characteristics like the size of the apple, its surface or the appearance of dots.

The stem can also brown or green colored and its form can be straight, curved, fleshy or

knobbed. Cavity is the depression in which the stem is inserted, and may be wide, deep, shallow,

regular, irregular, wavy, uneven, or folded. In a few varieties, the cavity is nearly or quite filled

up, and is then termed flat.


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4.utritional value of apple

Table 1: Apple nutritional value per 100 g

USDA utrient database (2008)

5. Classification of appleThere are different classification systems of apple. One important system of classification is

given by John Warder in 1867. He classified apples in 4 classes.

Class: Oblate or flat having the axis shorter than the transverse diameter Class: Conical, tapering decidedly toward the eye and becoming ovate when larger in

the middle and tapering to each end making the axial diameter shorter.

Class: Round, globular, or nearly so, having the axial and transverse diameters aboutequal, the former often shorter by less than one quarter of the latter. The ends are often so

flattened as to look truncated making the fruit appear to be cylindrical or globular-oblate.

Class: Oblong, in which the axis is longer than the transverse diameter, or appears

Element/Compound Amount

Carbohydrates 13.81 g

Sugars 10.39 gDietary fiber 2.4 g

Fat 0.17 g

Protein 0.26 g

Vitamin A equiv. 3 g 0%

Thiamin (Vit. B1) 0.017 mg 1%

Riboflavin (Vit. B2) 0.026 mg 2%

Niacin (Vit. B3) 0.091 mg 1%

Pantothenic acid (B5) 0.061 mg 1%

Vitamin B6 0.041 mg 3%

Folate (Vit. B9) 3 g 1%

Vitamin C 4.6 mg 8%

Calcium 6 mg 1%

Iron 0.12 mg 1%

Magnesium 5 mg 1%

Phosphorus 11 mg 2%

Potassium 107 mg 2%

Zinc 0.04 mg 0%


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so. These may also be truncated or cylindrical.

Each class contains the following subdivisions:

Order: Regular

Section: Sweet

Subsection: Pale or blushed, self colored and not

striped Subsection: Striped or splashed

Subsection: Russeted

Section: SourSubsection: Pale or blushed, self colored and not



Order: Irregular Section: Sweet

Subsection: Pale or blushed, self colored and not



Section: SourSubsection: Pale or blushed, self colored and not



6. Different Kinds of ApplesThe different types of apple are described below

Red Delicious Apples: This apple variety has a deep red color and thick skin. The apple skin is

bitter in taste and its edible portion has a crispy texture. This popular cultivar is preferred over

local varieties by farmers. Unlike the rounder varieties, the red delicious apples are thinner. It is

best eaten when in the raw state.

Honey Crisp Apples: It is one of the different kinds of apples with sweet taste and crispy in the

edible portion. Farmers have started growing this apple variety from the 1990s, it is a cultivar

produced by crossing the Macaun and Honeygold varieties. Apart from fresh-eating, this apple

finds its use in salads, baking, sauces and many other dishes.

Granny Smith Apples: The sweetness and tartness of Granny Smith apples is well balancedand it is also one of their specialties. These green colored apples are durable and retain their

freshness throughout the shipping journey. It is possible to store the Granny Smith apples for

about 6 months in cold storage. It is one of the different types of apples used for fresh-eating.

The applesauce made from this type is considered to be very good.

Ambrosia Apples: In the British Columbia, Ambrosia is considered to be one of the popular

kinds of apples. Ambrosia was discovered in the 1990s decade on a Cawston BC orchard. The


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perfumed aroma and honey sw

eating. Moreover, the cut slices

Golden Delicious: The Comp

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Golden Delicious is rounder a

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Swiss Gourmet Apples: Kno

fresh eating and also for diffe

crossing between the Ida Red

medium-large in size. The crisp

Spartan Apples: The Spartan

apples. This apple is characteri

The sweet tangy taste of this ap

Empire Apples: The Empire

McIntosh varieties. These appl

apple is not only a fresh-eating

and also in making sauces.

7. Apple production in thChina is the largest producer of

by USA.

Fi

Commercial

5

eet flavor of the Ambrosia makes it one of th

of apples don't turn brown quickly.

ny called Stark Brothers named this apple

ed by the same company is a little less sweet

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d fatter than the Red Delicious and considere

licious has a firm texture, baking it becomes ea

n by an alternative name Arlet, the Swiss Go

rent apple pie recopies. This apple is produc

and Golden Delicious apples. These yellow-

y edible part is creamy-white in color.

apple is popularly known as one of the best all

ed by a white-crispy edible portion and a deep

le makes it a children's favorite.

Apple was produced in the 1960s from Re

es have a green background color beneath the

fruit, but is also considered as good for cooking

e World

apple contributing 41% of the world total prod

:1 Apple production in world

ization of Apple

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, baking, freezing

ction followed


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8. Apple Production in epalBefore the 1960s apples were already grown in Marpha for subsistence use. In 1966 the

Horticultural Farm was established and introduced new varieties of apples and production

methods to promote a transition of agriculture from subsistence towards cash crop farming. This

took place in the context of the sudden end of the salt trade between Tibet and Nepal to providenew sources of income for the Thakali region.

The linear trend line of yield of apple in Nepal indicates decreasing productivity whereas the

trend of producer price is increasing. This indicates the constraints and prospects of commercial

apple cultivation in Nepal.

0

2

4

6

810

12

14

16

1990 1995 2000 2005 2010

Yield

(ton/

ha)

Year

Yield

Linear (Yield)

Source: FAOSTAT 2009

0

100

200

300

400

500

600

1998 2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 2010

USD/ton

Year

Producers Price

Linear (Producers Price)

Source: FAOSTAT 2009

Fig: 3 Producers price of apple in epal

Fig: 2 Productivity of apple in epal


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Right from the beginning many farmers welcomed the idea of apple farming in Nepal. Also

climate and soil conditions proved to be favorable. Additionally apples are easy to store and can

therefore be sold on the markets of Pokhara and Kathmandu in times when vegetables and fruits

from other regions are scarce. Because of high transport costs for fresh apples it has always been

hard to compete with Indian apples on the markets of Pokhara and Kathmandu. Recently

competition on Nepalese markets got even more severe owing to of apple imports from China.

9. The prospects of commercial apple cultivation in epalese high hills Growing conditions in the region regarding climate and soil are very favorable for the

growth of high quality apples

Innovation potential and interest in modern agricultural techniques is high among theNepalese farmers (e.g. private production and marketing of apple rings, cider, etc.)

Counseling and advice can always be obtained by such institutions as the HorticultureFarm and the Agricultural Service Center

Foreign and local investors as well as the community are interested in financing appleprocessing facilities (e.g. solar dryer, distilleries)

Tourists and pilgrims lead to an additional local market with a high capacity Most people do not depend only on apple farming but have also got other businesses such

as lodges, shops, restaurants, etc.

10.Constraints of apple production in epala) Infrastructural Constraints

Apple growing areas are situated in remote places in the mid and high mountains. These areas are

not yet accessible to motor roads and large markets, so farmers are facing big problems in sellingtheir produce which discourages them from venturing into commercial production enterprises.

Essential inputs such as fertilizers, plant protection chemicals and horticulture tools etc. are not

regularly available and on time, in these areas. Farmers have to depend upon compost and

farmyard manures which are not readily available to fruit crops. As a result, fruit trees are

nutrient deficient, untrained, unpruned and unprotected against diseases and pests. These are

some of the causes for low yield and poor quality of these fruits.

Apple cultivation requires large initial investment which the majority of Nepalese farmers cannot

afford to make and have no access to any credit. Organized marketing channels, transportation,

storage and processing facilities have not yet been developed in all deciduous fruit growing areas

of the country. These are very important limiting factors that hamper profitable fruit farming in

the country.

b) Physical and Environmental Constraints

Physically, Nepal is situated in a very difficult region of the world. More than 80% of its

geographical area comes under hilly and difficult terrain with very steep slopes, loose soil and


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rocky structure. It is understandable how difficult it is to establish the basic development

infrastructures in these areas for a very poor country like Nepal. It is also being threatened by the

alarming situation with regard to environmental degradation and soil erosion that is being created

by the rapidly growing population, compounded by unemployment and poverty (> 40% are

below absolute poverty line).

It might appear that there would be great opportunities to grow a wide range of apple species at

specific locations in Nepal when one considers the enormous range of climatic conditions.

However, certain unfavorable conditions also exist in Nepal such as heavy rain during monsoon

period, uneven distribution of rainfall, high wind and hailstorms, spring frost etc.

c) Agronomic Constraints

Lack of quality planting materials, mineral fertilizers, and incidence of economically important

insect pests and diseases are the most important agronomic constraints to fruit cultivation in

Nepal.

The majority of the nursery plants produced in the country are of inferior quality and not true to

type. Most of the private nurseries do not maintain quality mother stock and standard rootstocks.

Plants produced in the private nurseries are generally of sub-standard and not healthy.

Another important constraint to fruit production in this country is the incidence of economically

important insect pests and diseases. For example, woolly aphis, San Jose Scale of apple and

diseases such as apple scab, pink disease of apple are commonly found.

d) Technical Support Constraints

These constraints are summarized as follows:

- Low priority for fruit research

- Poor allocation of fiscal resources

- Lack of trained manpower

- Weak extension system in horticulture

- Inadequate technical information

The Nepal Agriculture Research Council (NARC) is the sole agent responsible for fruit

research. Only a little research has been done in fruit crops to solve technical problems which

the growers are facing. There is also a total lack of coordination between research and

development.

e) Socio-Economic Constraints

- Lack of experience in fruit growing

- Socio-cultural


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- Food habits

- Land tenure

Unlike cereal crops, farmers of Nepal are not experienced in growing fruit crops, since

commercial fruit growing is not traditional in Nepal. Most of the Nepalese farmers have

small and fragmented holdings which are primarily occupied by cereals, and it is really

difficult to persuade farmers to grow fruit trees instead of cereals.

11.Government policies for research and developmentUntil 1990, both agriculture research and development were the responsibility of the

Department of Agriculture under the Ministry of Agriculture. However, in 1991 the Nepal

Agriculture Research Council (NARC) was formed as an autonomous organization under a

separate act. Now, NARC is mandated for all research activities and the Agriculture

Department (DOA) for all extension and development activities.

There are many horticultural stations under DOA and NARC located in different agro-

ecological regions of Nepal which are supposed to carry out both research and development

activities. However, as far as research on apple is concerned, very little work has been done.

There are a number of reasons for that such as lack of qualified manpower and infrastructure,

poor coordination between NARC and DOA, inadequate research funds, lack of long term

planning and vision. Whatever research work has been carried out so far, it concentrated

mostly on plant protection, cultivar collection and maintenance.

12.Horticulture Development Plan and PoliciesThe Government has recognized horticulture as one of the important sub-sectors of

agriculture in Nepal. Horticulture has been considered as a key to high growth rates andaccorded priority in most of the past development plans. Despite the development potential

and accorded priority, the pace of growth of horticulture has been very slow.

In view of the slow growth in the past and the ever increasing demand for horticultural

products and to harness the immense potential of the country a Twenty Year Horticulture

Development Plan was formulated in 1990 with support from the Asian Development Bank,

named as the Master Plan for Horticulture Development (MPHD).

Despite the implementation of eight development plans in the past, no significant

improvement in the living standards of the people has been achieved. Nonetheless,

development efforts of the past decades have accelerated some basic infrastructure

development. In view of this situation, a long term Agriculture Perspective Plan (APP) has

been designed for Nepal that would lead past development towards a dynamic growth path.

APP has taken agriculture as the engine of economic growth and that can trigger multiplier

effects on the other sectors of the economy. Horticulture, sericulture and apiculture have been

treated as high value commodities in the APP.


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Based on the successful story of apple production in some areas and its advantages, the APP

has identified apple as one of the high value priority commodities in high mountain areas. In

the ongoing Ninth Five Year Plan, the Government has taken a policy of developing

commercial orchards of apple in suitable pocket areas of western to far-western development

regions. Eleven such districts have been recognized as most suitable for commercial apple

cultivation

13.Commercialization of Apple farmingFor successful commercial apple farming, a standard set of practices are to be followed.

13.1 Soil Preparation

Apple likes cool and humid conditions. It is not very sensitive for soils. Apple can grow in

wide range of soil types. However the best soil texture type is from sandy-loam to sandy clay

loam. Soil drainage is maybe the most important factor to be considered. The soil should be

well- drained up to 80-100cm depth. The acceptable soil pH for apple growth is between 5.7and 7.6. The best pH range is between 5.8 and 6.5. The soil pH should be checked every three

years.

Site preparation starts with the cleaning of the area. After cleaning the bush, the next step is to

level the area and, if necessary, build up the terraces. Carefully avoid the complete removal of

the topsoil during the process of leveling and terrace making. This usually happens where the

soil depth is shallow. Slope should not exceed 10%. Slope exposure is important. Southern

facing slope warms up to fast and western facing slope tends to be thinner. The recommended

slope facing direction is east. During soil preparation, avoid excessive or deep tillage practice.

It is also very important to avoid tillage in dry soils, because it will turn up big pounds.

13.2 Planting Apple Trees

The saplings should be planted if the soil not too wet. First open a large hole to accommodate

the root system. Before planting, any roots that are broken or kinked should be cut off. A

planting board can help positioning the sapling on the top of the hole. Replace the planting

board with the tree stem fitted into the central notch with the graft at least 5-10 cm above the

soil surface. After that, fill the hole with soil until the root ball is fully covered. Gently firm

the soil around the tree and level the soil. The tree should be planted to the same depth as it

was in the pot (or the soil mark on the trunk in the case of bare-rooted trees). Water well if

the conditions are dry.

Some varieties need to be supported (Staking) sometimes during the whole life of the tree.Stakes should be 5cm diameter and in general about 1.5m high - 60cm below ground, and the

remainder above ground. The stake should be 8cm (3in) or so from the main stem. Tie the

trunk to the stake in one or two places using plastic ties available from garden centers. Do not

use wire or anything which could cut into the tree trunk. The saplings that need supporting

stakes depend on the used root stock. M9, M26 and M27 definitely need it.

A doughnut shaped basin should be built around the planted tree, so the water drains away

from the trunk. The size of the basin should be slightly wider than the planting hole. In this


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way the water can be applied to the entire root area and just beyond. Until the establishment

of the roots, fill up the basin once or twice per week.

13.3 Orchard Layout

Usually the orchard layout follows a regular pattern. The process starts with establishment of

a straight line from the edge of the field, which will be the base line. After establishing a right

angle (90) to the base line, begin taking reference point measurements. One base line forms

a base row and the other line (running at right angle to the first) forms the line at which the

first tree in each row is placed. Using the base lines as reference points, stretch tape along one

line and place pegs at the desired intervals of tree spacing.

The spacing distance depends on the rootstock and the tree training system. Dwarf and

intensive production systems require less spacing than standard type apple trees. Cordon

type dwarf trees are planted in double or simple lined beds.

Commonly used planting distances of apple trees:

Row and plant distance (m) umber of tree per Hectare

Single row

5.00 X 5.00 400

7.00 X 4.00 358

6.00 X 4.00 417

5.00 X 3.00 667

13.4 Root stock

There are many pruning systems. One of the most important factors to determine which kind

of pruning system will be used is the type of root stock where the scion grafted or buddedinto. This also related to other aspects like production technology, tree density per area, etc.

The rootstock clones of apple are divided to three groups: strong growing (standard),

medium-strong growing (semi-dwarf) and weak growing (dwarf) types. They form the M

series. The M series had been selected in East Malling (M), England. For the identification

of each clone in the series after the M every clone has a number. The MM series was

created in Merton through cross breeding and their number series is between 100 and 120.

The most important apple rootstocks are:

Weak growing (Dwarf): M27, M9, M26 Height: Between 1.8-3.0 m Medium-strong growing: MM106, M7, M4, MM104, M2 Height: Around 4.0m Strong growing: MM111, MM109, M10 Height: Between 4.8-5.5m

13.5 Fertilizing Apple Trees

The nutrient availability of the soil depends on the soil pH. The farmer should adjust the soil

pH between the following ranges:

Topsoil: Between 6.5 and 7.0

Subsoil: Between 6.0 and 6.5


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apricot and peach. Finally, during the third period the water use decreases and the tree turn into

the dormant stage.

Small holder farmers usually use surface irrigation. Three methods are important: Border,

furrow and basin irrigation. The main concepts for irrigation are to avoid over or under

irrigating the trees and irrigation application should follow a regular interval pattern.

13.7 Pruning Apple Trees

Objectives of Training and Pruning

In the nonbearing years, some pruning will always be necessary, but the emphasis should be on

training rather than pruning. Ideally, the growth of the young tree should be directed into

branches that will be a permanent part of the mature tree, and an equal effort should be made to

avoid superfluous growth that will be removed before it fruits. Training practices should

encourage early production and the development of a strong structural framework capable of

supporting heavy crops in future years. The framework should facilitate the development and

maintenance of optimum tree shape. The training program should also produce trees that will be

easy to manage in later years. In terms of future management, pruning is the cultural practicemost affected by training. Much of the pruning of mature trees is merely the correction of earlier

errors and omissions.

Physiology of Tree Growth

Growth in an apple tree takes several forms. It includes the readily visible development of

extension shoots, leaves, and fruits as well as the less conspicuous thickening of stems and the

development of roots. All forms of growth require the assimilated materials manufactured by the

leaves. Early-season growth is dependent on stored carbohydrate and nitrogenous reserves

derived from photosynthetic activity the previous season. Later in the growing season current

photosynthate is utilized to support growth of the tree and crop, and to restore reserves for thecoming dormant period and the initial phases of growth the following spring. A healthy

functional leaf surface is essential for these processes.

A growing point in an apple tree is any site in the tree that can direct the movement of

manufactured food materials from the leaves toward itself. Actively growing shoots and fruits

have this capability and compete among themselves and with other growing points, such as roots,

for the products of the leaves. Because assimilate supply is limited, direction of assimilates to

growing fruits decreases the supply available for shoot and root growth. An increased number of

fruits invariably results in a compensating reduction in root growth and in number and vigor of

shoots. It is in this way that fruiting helps to control tree vigor, shoot growth, and tree size. This

mechanism of growth control becomes increasingly important at closer tree spacing. Reduced

cropping in a high density orchard can lead to increased vegetative growth, which can quickly

result in crowding and loss of bearing wood due to shading. For optimum growth control, crop

load should be adjusted to the largest possible number of fruits consistent with good fruit size,

quality, and repeat bloom.


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Principles of Training and Pruning the Young Apple Tree

Training and pruning the young apple tree begin at planting time, and the training program

should be continued until the tree reaches maturity. An intelligently applied program of training

and pruning the young tree eliminates the need for costly corrective pruning later, develops good

tree structure, and encourages early fruit production. The specific, year-by-year program will

vary depending on several factors, including varietal vigor, tree growth habit, precocity, final tree

size, and whether the tree is freestanding or supported. Trees intended for mechanical harvesting

should be trained appropriately from the start.

a. Central-leader developmentDuring the first growing season, most trees will produce a cluster of vigorous shoots near the

heading cut. These develop from the uppermost 2-4 buds. The shoots are usually approximately

equal in size and vigor with unacceptable narrow crotch angles. One such shoot, usually the

uppermost, should be selected as the leader, and competition with it eliminated by pinching out

competing shoots while they

are still succulent (fig. 11). In

subsequent years, the effort

required to maintain a strong,

dominant leader will vary

with cultivar and vigor. In the

less vigorous cultivars that

grow naturally to a central

leader, such as 'Golden

Delicious' and 'Idared', all that

may be required is the

pinching out of an occasionalcompeting shoot early in the

growing season. In other

cases, sustained effort will be

necessary. With some

cultivars, particularly

'Delicious', numerous

competing shoots may

develop and the leader may

make excessive extension

growth. When extensiongrowth exceeds 18 inches (45

cm), the leader is often

structurally weak, and lateral development so limited that there are insufficient suitable branches

for the main scaffolds. In this situation, the leader should be headed back by about one fourth.

This both strengthens the leader and stimulates lateral growth which can be developed into

scaffold branches. A cluster of shoots usually develops near the pruning cut in much the same

manner that they develop in response to the original heading cut. These should be summer

Fig: 4 well developed central leader


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pruned as illustrated in figure 11. At the same time, other new shoots that are challenging the

dominance of the leader can be removed or repositioned by spreading. Regular heading back of

the leader, and the accompanying summer selection of the most desirable leader shoot, may be

necessary every year until the tree comes into bearing.

Selection and training of scaffold limbs

Probably the most important procedure in the development of a well-trained, highly productive

orchard is the proper selection and training of the scaffold branches. The future productivity of

the orchard is directly correlated with the attention devoted to scaffold training during the first

few years in the orchard. The objectives of scaffold selection and training are to develop a series

of well-spaced, properly positioned branches which can take advantage of high light exposure to

produce and carry heavy crops of fruit. The first scaffold limb should be at least 18 inches (45

cm) from the ground to allow sufficient clearance for the movement of orchard equipment

b. Open center systemAn open center apple tree does not have a central leader. Instead, some major branches are

distributed around the top of the trunk forming a vase shape. At the beginning of the first

growing season, select 3- 6 shoots that will become the primary scaffold branches and cut back

all other upright shoots to 10 to 15 cm long. The leader should be removed. The lowest branch

should be about 50-60cm above the ground. If the scaffold branches grow vigorously, they

should be cut back during early summer time to 60-75cm length. By the end of the first growing

season the main scaffold branches should be formed. During the 2nd

and 3rd

year, select the 5 -7

secondary scaffold branches to fill up the space. Head back the secondary scaffold branches at 60

to 75 cm long to develop two to three tertiary branches from each secondary branch. During

the 4th

and 5th

year another 10-12 tertiary scaffold branches will be selected to form the vase

shape of the tree. All strongly upward growing branches and shoots should be removed.

Fig: 5 Open and Central leader


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16

c. Slender, spindle-type systemThis system requires a permanent support structure (stakes and wire), where each tree is tied

to a stake 25-30cm apart. The tree height is approximately 1.8-2.5m. The height always

should be controlled. It is a misunderstanding that dwarf types of trees do not need height

control. The tree has many limbs around the leader. At maturity, it has two permanent whorls

of scaffold branches 25-30 cm apart. The branches above the second whorl of branchesshould be renewed every two-four years. The length of the spreading branches is

approximately 90cm.

The pruning technique of the young planted tree follows the traditional leader development

technique. The leader is headed

back to a height of 75-80cm and a

new shoot will be selected as the

central leader (It should be a new

growth with a length of 8- 10cm). If

the young tree is a feathered tree

(well-branched) the leader is headed

back 25cm above the highest usable

branch. With poor lateral branch

development it is necessary to use

weak leader renewal technique.

This means the removal of the

vigorous central leader and its

replacement with a weaker branch.

This will stimulate branching on the

tree.

The remedial technique helps to shape the tree. Approximately two weeks before bloom, a

notch is made above each node in the un-branched region of the leader through the bark to

stimulate branching.

Snaking the tree also helps to stimulate the branching process. The time for snaking is the

growing season. In every 45 -50cm, bend and tie the leader into the stake at an angle of 60.

The leader will have a shape like a snake.

Another technique that can be used for an un-branched leader is the Bagging technique.

The leader is headed back to a maximum length of 80cm above the highest usable lateral

branch and the headed leader is covered with a polyethylene bag. This should be done four

weeks before bud break.

Later branch management is a very important process. All lateral branches should be spread

at an 80-85 angle which have a length of 8-10cm and be controlled in length. Usingsummer pruning the branches can be cut back into wood keeping the desired length.

Thereafter, the main pruning work is lightening the tree. Thinning cuts should make to create

distinct whorls of branches 25-30cm apart.

Fig: 6 slender, spindle-type system


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17

d. Cordon type systemThis is the easiest system to use for dwarf type apple

trees. It really hardly can be called a tree. The cordon

tree is a single stem with pruned, short side shoots

(fruiting spurs). The sapling is planted at an angle of 45.The cordon is built up from three 25mm wires that are

60cm apart from each other, making three levels from

the soil surface, which are respectively 60cm, 120cm and

180cm height from the ground. Once the wires are fixed,

tie the tree to the wire. For each tree, fix a stake

approximately 2.4m long. All side shoots longer than

10cm should be pruned after the third bud (summer

pruning).

Training and pruning the young tree

At planting time the young tree should be headed back to stimulate branch development (fig.

17). If well-developed 1-year whips are planted, they should be headed at about 30 inches (75

cm) from the ground unless mechanical harvesting is planned. In this case the trees should be

headed at around 36 inches (90 cm) to allow for the development of suitably located scaffold

limbs. Low heading results in excessive growth from the remaining buds, whereas heading

back much higher leads to the development of a whorl of weaker shoots near the cut, with

little growth lower on the trunk. If older, feathered trees are planted, they should be headed

back to a strong spur or bud to stimulate vegetative growth and bring the shoot-root ratio

more nearly into balance. Feathers are not to be retained as scaffolds should be removed andlong feathers headed back at planting.

Pruning Bearing Trees

Since pruning both affects and is affected by tree vigor, careful attention to other cultural

practices is absolutely essential for a successful pruning program. Fertilizer must be regulated

to support consistent, moderate vegetative growth. Since crop load markedly affects vigor,

uniform, annual production must be encouraged by judicious fruit thinning. On susceptible

sites, frost control practices should be employed to avoid the disastrous invigoration of a

complete crop loss.

Summer pruning

All pruning is dwarfing, but summer pruning reduces growth much more than equivalent

pruning during the dormant period. The removal of active leaf surface during the growing

season reduces the late-season accumulation of assimilates in the woody tissues. This lower

level of reserves is reflected in reduced vigor the following season. Properly used, summer

Fig: 7 Crodon type system


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18


pruning can be an effective supplement to other cultural practices in controlling vigor.

Summer pruning can also significantly improve fruit color in trees that are too vegetative.

14.Fruit thinningLarge fruit come from strong flower buds that grew in full sunlight, and on trees that have a

favorable leaf to fruit ratio; not too many fruit per branch. In order to manipulate the tree into

having just the right amount of crop that will size well and develop adequate flower buds for

next years crop the fruits are hand thinned, removed in the dormant pruning process, or both.

Apples, European and Asian pears, apricots, peaches, plums, kiwifruits, and persimmons are

almost always thinned. Fruits on non-thinned trees are still edible, just smaller.

The earlier that fruits are thinned and the leaf to fruit ratio is increased, the larger the fruits

will be at harvest and the greater the effect on next years bloom. The home fruit gardener

needs to use judgment regarding spacing of the fruit as well as removal of small and damaged

fruit. Spacing fruits evenly along a branch or leaving only one fruit per spur is a good

practice, but leaving the largest fruit is more important. The small ones even well spaced willnever become as large as the big ones closer together or in clusters. Leave the same number

of fruit per branch, but leave the big ones no matter how they are spaced. This will lead to

larger fruit. Most home fruit producers do not thin enough fruit off. It hurts to drop all that

potential fruit on the ground. It usually takes 23 years of experiencing small fruit from

inadequate thinning to get it right.

Blossom thinning also increases the leaf to fruit ratio because competition among developing

fruits and elongating shoots and roots is relieved early; however, risk can be associated with

blossom thinning because bad weather during bloom and post-bloom may reduce fruit set

even more.

Standard apple and peach cultivars require leaf to fruit ratio between 40:1 and 75:1 (40 to 75

leaves per single fruit) to reach typical size at harvest. Early varieties need a larger ratio of

leaves to fruit. Spur-type apple varieties require a smaller leaf to fruit ratio of 25:1 to attain

good crop size. This result seems to be related to the fact that photosynthates and stored food

reserves are distributed more for fruit growth relative to vegetative growth in trees of this

growth habit. Leaves of dwarf trees seem to be more efficient in exporting photosynthates

because they are exposed to direct sunlight for more hours of the day than those on standard

trees.


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19

15.High Density Plantinga. Fully Dwarf Rootstock

Trees that are propagated on either M.9 or B.9 rootstock must beused and these are fully

dwarfing rootstocks.

Fig: 8 Top left dwarf apple tree, top right normal apple tree, bottom left conventional

apple orchard, bottom right apple meadow orchard


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Rootstocks of apple

Series of Clonal Rootstocks:

The clonal apple rootstocks that are used all over the world have traditionally originated in

Europe (PSCAS, 2004).

Mitra (1991) enumerated numerous series of clonal rootstocks, namely:

i. Malling (M) series: Developed by East Malling Research Station, Malling.a. Dwarfing: M 9, M 27, and M 20.

b. Semi dwarfing: M 2, M 7, M 26.c. Vigorous: M 12, M 25.d. Most vigorous: M 16.

ii. Malling Merton (MM) series: In 1928, two institutes in England (John InnsHorticultural Institute, Merton and East Malling Research Station, Malling) had a

joint venture to develop wooly aphid resistant apple rootstocks like MM 106, MM

109 etc.iii. EMLA series: Developed by East Malling Long Ashton Research Station in England

and is virus free one.

iv. Polish (P) series: Developed in Poland e. g. P 1, P 2, P 16, P 18, and P 22 etc. P 18have considerable resistant to collar rot disease but susceptible to fire blight, whereas

P 22 has dwarfing effect on scion variety.

v. Budagovsky (Bud) series: These selections have been developed with the primaryobjective of winter hardiness. All of them have been able to withstand the severe

Russian winter. These are developed at the Michurin College of Horticulture. Some

of the rootstocks are Bud 9, Bud 67-490 and Bud 57-491.

vi. Ottawa series: These are the outcome of Canadian researchers and are cold hardy, e.g. O 3 and O 8 etc.

vii. MAC series: Developed by Michigan State University, USA. e. g. MAC 9.viii. Others clonal rootstocks:

a. Alnarp-2 (A 2): Originated in Sweden, well anchored and has a good tree form.b. Robusta No. 5: Winter hardy and vigorous one.c. Bemali: Cross rootstocks developed in Sweden. It is dwarfing as M 26 and has

advantage of easy propagation.

In Nepal, as stated by (Ranjit and Shrestha, 1998) clonal rootstocks such as M, MM and Edi

Mayal are not available in all the horticultural farms and private nurseries. They also reported

that most of the horticultural farms have tried to maintain the collected apple rootstockgermplasm of which some of the important M and MM series have been lost from

horticulture farms of Kirtipur. Seedling rootstocks are the major apple rootstocks used in

Nepal. Recommended rootstocks of apple in Nepal are Crab apple and Malling Series

(Shrestha, 1998).


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b. Minimal Pruning at PlantingTrees are pruned minimally at planting time.

c. Support SystemA support system is necessary since trees propagated on dwarfing rootstocks cannot stand

without aid. Several approaches can be taken to provide adequate tree support. The support

system can be a single 10 foot post per tree pounded into the ground, a single smaller post

that is supported by a single wire trellis may be used, or a 4 wire trellis may be selected that

is similar in structure to a grape trellis but is at least 8 feet in height. Probably the easiest

system is the one wire trellis where a post that is at least 4 to 5 inches in diameter and 10 feet

long is pounded in the ground at spacing of about 30 feet. A #9 or #10 wire is positioned at a

height or 6 to 7 feet between these posts. Put a metal conduit post by each tree and attach

these securely to the wire.

d. Tree TrainingTrees are trained primarily by bending branches to the horizontal and securing them at thatangle. This slows the growth of the trees and makes them much more productive.

e. Planting and Care the First YearUsing this system, trees can be planted as close as 4 to 5 feet apart. Tree spacing in

commercial orchards using this system is frequently 3 feet between trees. Trees should be

planted so that at least a 4 to 6 inches portion of the rootstock is out of the ground.

Identification of the rootstock is generally quite easy since the scion variety often attaches

to the rootstock at an angle about 12 inches from the bottom of the tree. The tree should be

tied initially to the post and as the tree grows new growth should also be secured to the post.

No pruning should be done at planting time unless a side branch is larger than half the

diameter of the trunk of the tree, in which case it should be removed. The tree can be

fertilized once or twice with high nitrogen liquid fertilizer starting about three weeks after

planting. A supply of water should be available for the entire growing season to assure a

continuous and adequate supply of moisture. A soaker hose running along the base of these

trees is a simple and effective way to provide moisture. A critical component of this system

is minimal pruning. Tree vigor should be kept in check by tying down limbs and rapidly

growing shoots. This can be accomplished by tying limbs down in a horizontal position

using tape, rubber bands, weights or similar material.

f. The Second YearIt is important to make sure that no limb gets very large. Cut off any limb that is half the

diameter of the trunk of the tree or larger. This is best done early using a horizontal bevel cutwhich leaves no bark showing on the top of the cut off limb but some bark is apparent on the

bottom where new and weaker shoots can emerge. Continue to weight down or tie down

shoots to a horizontal position. Pinch back the tips of all shoots in the top half of the trees

when shoots are 3 to 6 inches in length, generally early June. Repeat this process as new

shoot emerge in the top half of the tree. The tree can bear a few fruit the second year. Thin

these to 8 to 10 inches apart. The presence of fruit will help restrict growth and keep the tree

within the allotted space. Normal fertilization and pest control practices should be followed.


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g. The Third and Subsequent YearsThe goal with this system is to develop a tree with many small branches that are horizontal to

the main trunk of the tree. These are the most productive branches on a tree. Continue to

remove any large branches (generally larger than 3/4 inch in diameter) using the previously

described bevel cut. Continue to pinch shoots when they reach 3 to 4 inches in length andbend down vigorous and upright branches. Continue to thin fruit so that they are spread no

closer than 6 to 8 inches. It is critically important that when the tree reaches the top of the

training post that their top should not be pruned or cut in any way. Any pruning will make the

top of the tree vigorous and unproductive thus jeopardize the balance between fruit

production and vegetative growth. The top should be allowed to flower, fruit and bend over

and it should be cut only when the shoots there are at a horizontal or lower. As the trees get

older, many of the small branches that were bent to the horizontal will fruit and ultimately

become unproductive. These branches can them be removed or cut back to a lateral branch

extending in a horizontal direction.

The success of this system is based upon several important horticultural principals. Bending

shoots to the horizontal position rather than cutting will reduce vigor in limbs and make

them more productive. Removal of large limbs with a bevel cut does not stimulate the

growth of a tree. Fruit production in the tops of trees is one of the best ways to control

growth in the tops of trees.

16.Pest and Disease ManagementPest and disease control begins with the use of pest-disease free planting material. The

saplings should be healthy with good vigor. Do not buy saplings with unknown origins or

without certificates. Replace chemical control with other methods when possible. It is in this

way that the natural enemies of pests can effectively intervene with plant eating insects.Chemical use also kills the benevolent insects too. Tools such as pruning tools should be

clean and disinfected frequently. These tools can transfer diseases from one tree to another.

Mechanical control can also help keep the orchard free from pests and diseases. Aphids and

mealy bugs can be washed off the leaves with a strong water spray or soap. Larger insects

can be picked up and destroyed. A paraffin lamp in a bowl of water is an effective insect

trap. Fallen fruits often contain insects eggs. Burying these fruit under the fruit trees destroy

the eggs.

The most difficult task is to control viral diseases. Tree affected by viruses have no remedy.

The tree should be removed and destroyed. The planting material should be virus free. Where

possible, the grower should plant saplings with scions grafted into virus resistant rootstock.

Virus vectors such as aphids and white flies should be controlled either with or without

chemical use.

Spraying dormant trees with chemicals and oil reduces the pests population before the

growing season starts. When fungicide is added to the pesticide and oil it will destroy over -

wintering fungus and bacterial spores. Common practice is for growers to use preventive

spraying during a particular development stage of the tree. Farmers always apply one spray

at petal fall and then again two weeks later.


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16.1 Diseases

Mildew: It is characterized by light grey powdery patches

appearing on the leaves, shoots and flowers, normally in spring.

The flowers will turn a creamy yellow color and will not develop

correctly. This can be treated by eliminating the conditions which

caused the disease and burning the infected plants are among the

recommended actions to take.

Apple scab: The fungus that causes apple scab on apples is Venturia inaequalis. Symptoms

usually start on the undersides of leaves. Spots, at first, are small, irregular lesions that are

light brown to olive green in color. Spots eventually

turn dark brown to black. Infected tissue thickens,

causing the upper surface to bulge upwards and the

lower surface to depress. Leaves may curl and

scorch at the margins. If the leaf petioles becomeinfected, the leaves drop early. If the pedicels

become infected, the fruits may drop early. Scab on

the fruit appears as nearly circular, velvety dark

green lesions. The skin of the apple near the

infected area margin ruptures. Older lesions are

black, scabby, and cracked.

Fire blight: Fire blight is a devastating disease caused by the bacterium Erwinia amylovora

and is very difficult to control. The disease develops rapidly in early

spring during rainy weather and the tree is in bloom. Blossoms and youngleafy twigs show the first symptoms, appearing wilted or shriveled and

turning brown to black. The tips of infected young twigs wilt and die,

forming a shepherds crook as the disease moves down the branch. Dead

leaves often remain attached to the branch. During wet weather, a milky-

like, sticky liquid can be seen on the stems and branches. To control

infected tree remove all infected tree parts and burn them. Pruning cut

should be 25-30 cm below the infected part. Disinfect carefully all pruning

tools. Avoid excessive nitrogen application. Simple copper hydroxide or

copper sulfate application is effectively prevent the disease.

Black rot: The fungus is called Physalospora obtusa (Botryosphaeia obtusa) and it causes

black rot. The disease begins on the leaf as a purple speck that

enlarges to have a brown or tan center. Heavily infected leaves drop

from the tree, which weakens the tree and reduces flowering the

next year. Limbs may have slightly sunken, reddish brown areas

called cankers. Infected fruits begin with tiny red or purple spots

occurring opposite the stem end. After a few weeks the spots


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enlarge and have alternating zones of black and brown. The rot eventually affects the entire

fruit, which wrinkles, mummifies and often remains attached to the tree.

Remove and discard dead branches and diseased fruit, where the fungus can survive during

winter. The fungicides captan and thiophanate-methyl are effective if it is applied during

early season.

16.2 Pests

Aphids: They are feeding on leaves, therefore they are considered as typical leaf pest.

However the woolly apple aphid feeds on the bark of small twigs and the roots of the apple

tree. The two important leaf aphid are the Aphis pomi and Aphis spiraecola, both of them

with a green colored body. Aphids can be controlled easily without chemical spray. Spraying

with water or with water-soap mix effectively keeps clean the tree. Chemical use also can kill

the lady beetle, which is natural enemy of the aphid.

Mite: Two-spotted spider mites (Tetranychus urticae) and European red mites (Panonychus

ulmi) can be serious pests of apples. If mite populations are high, the feeding activity can

reduce the quality of the current crop and reduce flower bud set for the following year. Two -

spotted spider mites spend the winter as mature females hiding in protected places on the

ground near the tree. In the spring, they begin feeding on the vegetation under the tree. Later,

they move up into the tree and begin to feed on the apple leaves. European red mites spend

the winter in the egg stage. The eggs are laid on the tips of the twigs around the rough bud

scars. When numbers are high, the twigs will have a reddish appearance. The mites remain in

the tree throughout the season. Often the mite is called spider, which is a mistake. They

belong to the Acaricidae. Their control is very difficult, because they have a series of

generation during the year. Therefore chemicals should be used frequently. Systemic

pesticide use is better, but they also can be controlled if we spray throughout the trees with

high pressure water.

17.PollinisersAll varieties of apples should be cross-pollinated with another apple or crab-apple variety

(polliniser) (Lacey and Antione 2006). To attain the best fruit set on apple trees, the king

blossom (the largest and first one to open) in the flower cluster must be

pollinated. Orchardists must ensure there are sufficient polliniser varieties throughout the

orchard and that the bloom periods of the polliniser and the king blossom of the apple tree

overlap (Lacey and Antione 2006). This will help to gain maximum fruit set.

18.HarvestingFor time scheduling, growers must estimate optimum harvest dates well before picking fruit.

In addition, optimum maturity levels differ within the same cultivars, depending on intended

use and storage life desired. Harvesting too early can result in fruit that is off- flavor or

lacking flavor, poorly colored, small and subject to bitter pit and storage scald. Harvesting


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too late can result in softer fruit, the potential development of water core, and a shorter

storage life. The best test for maturity is to sample one and taste it. Another method is to take

the apple in the palm of your hand and give it a slight twist - if it drops off, it is probably

ready to eat. When harvesting apples, take care not to bruise them - this will cause them to rot

much more quickly, and if in storage, the rot will spread to other apples. The stem should not

be separated from the fruit, because fruits without stems cannot be stored long without losingquality.

Apples keep for the longest in cool conditions (3C), which are well-ventilated, dark and

slightly humid. Seeing as it is difficult to provide these ideal conditions, a compromise is

necessary. A good option is to store the apples in a shed or garage, with the apples in plastic

bags to retain moisture - leave a 2cm hole in each bag to allow some ventilation.

Maintain a relatively high level of humidity in the storage room. Apples are approximately

85 percent water and can quickly lose enough moisture to show signs of skin shrivel if kept at

too low a humidity. Shrivel can appear after an apple loses as little as 3 percent of its fresh

weight. Abrasions, bruises, and other injuries increase the rate of water loss. A single bruise

can increase water loss nearly fourfold. Warm fruit is cooled by giving up moisture. As

moisture is removed from the air by the cold refrigeration coils, a deficit gradient is produced

that pulls more moisture out of the fruit, which can result in shrivel. Once the fruit has been

cooled, the refrigeration coil temperature can be raised to reduce the amount of moisture

being removed from the air.

19.Post Harvest of appleAfter the harvest, all the fruits are washed to remove the latex, sooty mould and surface

debris. Fruits free from defects should be sorted out and the remaining fruits are graded

according to their color and size.

a. Packaging:Normally the apples are packed in cartoon with lids. Where staples are used care should be

taken to ensure complete staple closure to avoid fruit damage. Corrugated trays are equally

effective as packaging material while transporting the fruits. Use of such trays is cost

effective due to its reusability.

b. Storage:Apples grown in the upper belts of Jammu and Kashmir can be stored for 90 days under

ambient conditions whereas in lower belts they are stored for 60 days. Most apples

maintain their quality when stored at 1.8 to 0OC with 90-95% relative humidity. However

some varieties are cold sensitive at this temperature and therefore have to be stored at 3.3-4.4

OC. Fruit to be stored longer than 1 month benefit from controlled atmosphere (CA)

storage in terms of retention of acidity and firmness and reduction of scald incidence.

Recommended atmosphere is 1-2% O2 + 2-4% CO2 however specialist should be

consulted for concentration of CO2 and O2 as the recommended gas mixtures varies with

the variety and the geographical area in which the variety is grown.


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Apples can be stored with other temperate fruits if they have the same temperature

requirements. Vegetables like cabbage and onions should not be stored with apples as apples

absorb their odour. Similarly fruits and vegetables sensitive to ethylene at 0OC should not be

stored with apples.

c. Cool Chain:Cool chain is essential during the transport of export quality commodity all the way from the

farm to the customer. This helps in maintaining the temperature inside the box at the same

low level as in the cold storage.

The various stages of the cool chain are:

1.Cold-store at the farm.2.Refrigerated truck from farm to the airport3.Cold-store at the airport.4.Building up of the pallet in a cold-store at the airport.5.Loading the aircrafts directly from the cold-store in a short time.6.Cargo aircraft maintains cold-store temperature in hold.7.Off loading direct into a cold-store in the receiving country.8.Refrigerated truck to the customers.

20.ConclusionApple is important temperate fruit grown in high hills of Nepal and it has huge scope for

commercial production due to climatic suitability and increasing awareness and demand of

fruits in Nepal.


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Cuthbertson, A.and Murchie, A. (2006),Anystis baccarum, An important component of

orchard integrated pest management strategies, UK Department ofAgriculture and

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Duff, G. 1990. The fruit and Nut Book. Sidgwick and Jackson Ltd. Bloomsbury way, London.

FAOSTAT .2009

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USAID .2008. Apple production Manual pp 1-44

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production

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Cepoiu, N. and M. Marval. 1988. Effect of Rootstock and Planting Density on the Growth

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Documents

Commercialization of Apple