Combined Arms Role of Armored Infantry

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    ABSTRACT

    THE COMBINEL) HHMS ROLE OF ARMORED INFANTRI, by MaJOr Rober tJ St . Onge, J r . , USA, 165 pages .T h i s s t u d y i s an a n a l y s i s t o d e t er m in e t h e p ro pe r t a c t i c a lr o l e o f i n f a n t r y eq ui p pe d w i t h t h e B r a d l e y I n f a n t r y F i g h t i n gV e h i c l e ( BI FU ). T h a t r o l e i s s h a p e d by the demands of t h emodern b a t t l e f i e l d i n c l u d i n g t he e x p e c te d S o v i e t - t yp e t h r e a t ,t h e n a t u r a l s e t t i n g f o r b a t t l e c r e a t e d by t e r r a i n a n dw e at h er , a nd t he e f f e c t s o f weapons w h i c h s i g n i f i c a n t l y a1 t e rt h a t n a t u r a l s e t t i n g . The r o l e i s a l s o a t t e c t e d b y t h ep r a c t i c a l r e q u i re m e nt s t o f i g h t as comb in ed a rms . Theh i s t o r y of c o m bi n ed ar m s w a r f a r e f r o m Wor ld War I t o t h ep r e s e n t r e v e a l s t h e c o mp le m en ta ry and s up pl em en ta ry e f f e c t st h a t e ac h p r i n c i p a l g r ou n d a rm - i n f a n t r y , ta n ks , an da r t i l l e r y - c o n t r i b u t e s t o t h e c o mb in ed a rm s b a t t l e .T h i s s t u d y c o n c l u de s t h a t t h e r e i s a r e q u i r em e n t f o r t h r e ek i n d s o f i n f a n t r y : l i g h t i n f a n t r y w h i c h f i g h t s i n c l o s e ,d i f f i c u l t t e r r a i n ; r e g u l a r i n f a n t r y w h i c h f i g h t s t h em a np o we r - i n te n si ve , d i sm o un t ed b a t t l e s s uc h a s p o s i t i o n a ld e fe ns e s an d a t t a c k s o f f o r t i f i e d p o s i t i o n s , s u p p o r t e d byt a n k s a n d o t h e r h e av y w ea po ns ; a n d a r m o r ed i n f a n t r y , e q u i p p e dw i t h t h e BIFU, w h i ch t i g h t s i n c l o s e c o o p e r a t i o n w i t h m a inb a t t l e t a n k s i n o f f e n s i v e a nd m o b i l e d e f e n s i v e c om ba t.T h i s s t u d y a l s o c on c lu d es t h a t t he U.S. Army s h o u l d s e r i o u s l yc o n s i d e r r e t e n t i o n of M l l3 - eq u ip p e d , r e g u l a r i n f a n t r y f a r c e st o f i g h t t h e m a n po w er - in t en s iv e , d i s mo u n t ed b a t t l e s f o r w h i c hb o t h t h e n e w l i g h t a nd a rm or ed i n f a n t r y a r e i l l - d e s i g n e d .Heavy d i v i s i o n s , e ve n b r i g a d e s , s h o u l d c o n t a i n a m ix o f t a n k ,B IF V- eq ui pp ed i n f a n t r y , a nd M 11 3- eq uip pe d i n f a n t r y b a t t a l i o n st o meet th e demands o f t h e m od er n b a t t l e f i e l d an d c om bi ne da rm s w a r f a r e .

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    TABLE OF LONTENT5

    THESIS APPROVAL PAGE .................................. iHBSTRACT .............................................. iTABLE OF C ON T EN l S ................................... I i iC HkPTER

    1. INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . iT h e P r o b \ e n l................................... 4P u r p o s e ....................................... 5Methodo log , . ................................... 6E n d n o t e s..................................... I I

    I 1 . DEMANDS OF THE MODERN BATTLEFIELD.............. 1 2l e r r a i n a n d Wea t he r .......................... 1-

    C e n t r a l E u ro p e ............................. 21D e s e r t E n v i r o n m e n t s........................ 28

    B a t t l e f i e l d Cond i t i o n s ....................... 31Summary ...................................... 3.5E n d n o t e s. . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . 39

    111 . DEMANDS OF CO MBIMD HHMS WARFARE ............... 4 1Wor ld War I .................................. 45I n t e r w a r b e a r s ............................... 56W o r l d War 1 1 ................................. 7UN u c l e a r Age .................................. 84Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . y o

    T h r e a t . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

    L n d n o t e s ..................................... 98IU . INFANTRY ROLES AND COMBlNED ARMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1u2

    E v o l u t i o n o f I n f a n t r y....................... 1 0 2E v o l u t i o n o f T a n ks .......................... 1u5E v o l u t i o r i o f A r t i l l e r y ...................... 1 U 5R e q u i r e m e n t s o f C o mb i n e d A r ms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 0 5I n f a n t r y R e q u i r e m en t s i n C o mb i n e d A r m s . . . . . . 1 0 7" T h re e K i n d s o f I n f a n t r y " . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1u8l j e s i r e d C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s ot A r m o re d I r i f a n t r y . 1 1 1A r m o r e d I n f a n t r y T a s K s ...................... 1 1 4R e l a t i v e M e r i t s o f t h e M I 1 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 1 ..R e l a t i v e M e r i t s ot t h e M2 61FU . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 1B r a d l e y m p I o y n i e n t Cons i d e r ' a t Ion ;. . . . . . . . . . . 1 ISummary ..................................... 130E n d n o t e s .................................... 132

    I l l

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    u . ZONCLUS IUNS ................................... 134D o c t r i n e . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . .. 134W e a p o r l s ..................................... 140S o l d i e r s .................................... 14iO t h e r L o n c e r n c .............................. 147S u m m a r y ..................................... 149E n d r l o t e s .................................... 151

    GIGLIOGRAPHY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152INITIAL DISTRIBUTION L I S T ........................... 15'9

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    CWIPTER IJNTRODUCT1M.l

    I n mos a rm ie s we see weapons e v c , ing on nor a t i w i a l p l a n . New a rm s a r e i n v e n t e d a ndi n t ro d uc e d w i t h o u t a d e f i n i t e t a c t i c a lr ea so n, and w i t h o u t a d e f i n i t e r e l a t i o n s h i pt o s t r u c t u r e , m ain te na nc e, a nd c o n t r o l . O l dw eapo ns a re ma in t a i n e d ; t h e o l d an d new a rem i x ed i r r e s p e c t i v e o f t h e i r e le m en ta l v a l ue s .P r o po r t i o n s a re n o t l o g i c a l l y a r r i v e d a t , b u ta r e t h e o ut ca n e o f i g n o r a n t o p p o s i t i o n on t h eone s i d e a nd e n t h u s i a s t i c a g g r es s i v e ne s s ont h e o t h e r . The w h o le p ro c e ss i s a l c h e m i c a l ,i s slo w and c o s t l y and i n e f f i c i e n t ;u l t i m a t e l y t r i a l and e r r o r w in s t h r ou g h . t l 1

    J.F.C. F u l l e r1925

    T h i s ha rs h i n d ic t m e nt o f m i l i t a r y s ystem s i n g e ne ra l andt h e i r a b i l i t y t o adap t , penned i n 1925 b y one of the mostn o t ed m i l i t a r y t h i n k e r s o f t h i s c e n tu ry , h a s an a i r o fcu r re n c y when o ne l o o k s a t t h e U.S. Army toda y. One must o n l yr e v i e w c u r r e n t d efen se r e l a t e d p e r i o d i c a l s t o g a i n ana p p r e c i a t i o n f o r t he f a c t t h a t t he re i s am ple u n c e r t a i n t ya bo ut t h e pr o pe r r o l e s a nd i n t e g r a t i o n of new and expen siv ecom bat s ys te ms . The B r a d l e y I n f a n t r y F i g h t i n g V e h i c l e ( B IF U)i s such a system.

    I n t h e d ecade s i n c e t h e e n d o f U.S. i n vo l ve m e n t i n t h eVi etn am War the U.S. Army h a s e xp e r i e n ce d a p e r i o d ofs i g n i f i c a n t Change, n o t j u s t i n i n t e g r a t i n g new w ea pw , b u t

    1

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    a c r o s s t h e w i d e s p e c t r u m o f i t s a c t i v i t i e s . A s Colonel HubaWass d e Czege, p r i n c i p a l a u th o r o f t he 1982 v e r s i o n o f FM100-5, O De ra tio ns , p o i n t s o u t , t he " t r i a d o f s o l d i e r s ,we apo ns, a nd d o c t r i n e c o n s t i t u t e s t he f o u n d a t i o n o f e v e r yarmy.'C 21 T h i s p a r a d i g m p r o v e s a u s e f u l f ra me wo r k f o rd i s c u s s i n g t h i s p e r i o d o f change a nd t h e U.S. A r my ' s a d a p t i v ee f f o r t s . O f c o u r s e , c h an g es i n e a ch o f t h e s e a r e a s i mp a c ts i g n i f i c a n t l y on t he o t h e r t wo a re as .

    D o c t r i n e . The l a s t d eca de i s c h a r a c t e r i z e d by m a j o rd o c t r i n a l c h an ge s. S e v er a l c om pr eh en si ve r e o r i e n t a t i o n s o ft h e U.S. Ar my ' s b a s i c d o c t r i n e w er e i n t r o d u c e d a s FM 100-5,O p er at io n s, was s u b s t a n t i a l l y r e v i s e d i n 1976 a nd a g a i n i n1982. A ma jo r command, T r a i n i n g and D r c t r i n e Command(TRADOC), was cr e a te d i n th e 1970s t o f o c u s o n t h os ei m po r ta n t f u n c t i o n s t h a t i t s t i t l e i m p l i e 5 - t r a i n i n g andd o c t r i n e . A s e r i e s o f " h c w- t o -f i gh t " f i e l d manua ls werep u b l i s h e d t o p r om ulg at e d o c t r i n e a nd t a c t i c a l t ec hn iq ue s f o rcombat u n i t s down t o t h e l ow e st l e u e l . E f f o r t s t oc o n c e p t u a l i z e how th e A rmy w i l l f i g h t f u t u r e w a rs began w i t hTRADOC's "A i rL an d B a t t l e 2000" and A r m y 21" s t u d i e s .

    S o l d i e r s . I n t r o d u c t i o n o f t h e a l l - u o l u n t e e r a rm y a ndt he e l i m i n a t i o n o f t he d r a f t h i g h l i g h t th e t u rb u l en ce i n th ev i t a l f u n c t i o n o f m ann in g t he f o r c e . A d d i t i o n a l l y , th eo f f i c e r c o rp s was s i g n i f i c a n t l y c u t back f r o m i t s V i e t n a mw a rt im e s t r e n g t h t h r ou g h a s e r i e s o f n e ce s sa ry b u t d i s r u p t i v er e d u c t i o n a c t i o n s . S t r i n g e n t manpower c e i l i n g s i mp os ed by

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    C o ng re ss c o u p l e d w i t h t h e c o m p l e xi tr o f modern weapons a nds u p p o r t s y s t e m s ha ve r e q u i r e d e mp ha si s on r e c r u i t i n g a ndr e t a i n i n g h i g h q u a l i t y s o l d i e r s a nd l e a d er s i n pe ace tim e a sn e ve r b e f o r e i n o u r h i s t o r y . The i n t r o d u c t i o n o f t h e NewManning Sys tem w i l l have a s i g n i f i c a n t i mp ac t on U.S. combatu n i t s , e s p e c i a l l y t h e i n f a n t r y .

    Weaoons. Te ch no lo g i ca l advances and th e emergence o f am as si ve , s o p h i s t i c a t e d S o v i e t g ro un d t h r e a t d u r i n g t h i sp e r i o d h av e f o rc e d t h e U.S. Army t o mo d e r n i z e a n d t oi n t e g r a t e h u n d r e d s o f new a n d c o mp le x s y s t e m s i n t o i t se q u i p me n t i n v e n t o r i e s . B ec au se new s y s te ms a r e e x p e n s i v e an dd efe ns e r e s o u rc e s a re c o n s t ra i n e d , c a r e f u l p l a n n i n g a s t o t het y p e an d r e q u i r e d num ber of each new system i s c r i t i c a l .S e v e r a l m anagem ent p r a c t i c e s i n c l u d i n g a c o n c e p t s ba s e dd ev el op me nt p h i l o s o p h y i n w h i ch d o c t r i n e , or c o n c e p t s , f o r mth e b a g i s f o r m a t e r i e l n eeds , were i n i t i a t e d d u r i n g t h i sp e r i o d i n an a t t e m p t t o p r o c u re new s y s t e m s t h a t f i t t h eA rmy s c o n c e p t u a l v i e w o f f u t u r e w ar a n d t o e n co u ra g er e s e a l I a nd d ev elo pm en t e f f o r t s t o f o c u s on p r o j e c t e d Armyo p e r a t i o n a l r e qu i re m e n ts .

    These ch an ge s h i g h l i g h t a c e n t r a l r e q ui re m e n t f o r t h eU.S. A r m y t od ay : t o b e b o t h e f f i c i e n t ( c o s t e f f e c t i v e ) ande f f e c t i v e ( f i g h t o utn um be re d a nd w i n ) i t m us t h av e a c l e a r l ya r t i c u l a t e d d o c t r i n e t h a t g u i de s a r e l a t i v e l y sm al l f o r c e ofh i g h q u a 1 i t y s o l d i e r s a nd l e a d e r s t o o p t im i z e t hec a p a b i l i t i e s o f n u m e r i c a l l y i n f e r i o r bu t q u a l i t a t i v e l y

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    s u p e r i o r s y s t e m s i n f i g h t i n g a nd w in n i n g t h e n e x t w ar .O b v i o u s l y , t h e U.S. A r m y c a nn o t e a s i l y a c h i e v e nu m e r i c alp a r i t y w i t h t h e S o v i e t s . I t m u st c o n c e n t r a t e on d e v e l o p i n gs u p e r - I e q u i p m e n t t h a t w i l l b e employed by b e t t e r l e d and

    o r t a c t i c s andve capab i 1 i t i e s

    b e t t e r t r a i n e d s o l d i e r s and u n i t s u s i n g supero p e r a t i o n a l m eth od s t h a t o p t i m i z e t h e c o l l e c to f a1 1 arms.

    The Prob lem

    Perhaps no arm o f o u r g r o u n d f o r c e h a s been a f f e c t e d asmuch d u r i n g t h i s decade o f c hange as o ur t r a d i t i o n a l f i g h t i n garm - t h e i n f a n t r y . W h i l e t o d a y ' s v o l u n t e e r i n f a n t r y m a n mayb e o f h i g h e r q u a l i t y t ha n h i s p re de ce ss or , t he t o o l s o f h i st r a d e c o n t i n u e t o become i n c r e a s i n g l y c om ple x. The v a r i e t yo f i n f a n t r y o r g a n iz a t i o n s a t t e s t s t o t h e c o m p l e x i ty o fi n f a n t r y t a sk s a nd m y r i a d p o t e n t i a l b a t t l e f i e l d e nv ir on me nts .C u r r e n t l y , t he r e a re e i g h t d i f f e r e n t t y pe s o f i n f a n t r yb a t t a l i o n s w i t h d i s t i n c t l y d i f f e r e n t c a p a b i l i t i e s a nd1 i m i t a t i o n s : r a n g e r, 1 i g h t , s t an d ar d, a i r b o r n e , a i r m o b i l e ,m o t o r i z e d ( h i g h t e c h ) , me c ha n iz e d, a n d a r mo re d (my t e r m f o ri n f a n t r y e q ui pp ed w i t h t he B I F U ) . T h i s v a r i e t y a l s oh i g h l i g h t s an a p pa re nt c o n f u s io n r e g a r d i n g i n f a n t r y t a s ks a ndm i s s i o n s . D e s p i t e th e A r m y ' s a t te m p t s t o t h i n kf u t u r i s t i c d l l y t h e i n f a n t r y o f t e n d i s c o v e r s t h e weaponsys tems i t 1 5 t o e mp lo y a r e d e v e l o pe d an d f i e l d e d a nd i t so r g a n i z a t i o n a l s t r u c t u r e d e te r m in e d w e l l b e fo r e t he c o n ce p tso f h ow - t o- f i gh t a re c l e a r l y a r t i c u l a t e d i n d o c t r i n e .

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    T h i s i s c e r t a i n l y t he c as e w i t h t h e new, h i g h l ys o p h i s t i c a t e d BIFV, and t he a rm ore d i n f a n t r y u n i t s e q ui pp e dw i t h i t . T h i s new t yp e o f i n f a n t r y b r i n g s a u n i q u e s e t o fc a p a b i l i t i e s and l i m i t a t i o n s t o t he modern b a t t l e f i e l d .A l t h o u g h t h e U.S. Army h a s b ee n i n t h e p r o c e s s o f p r o c u r i n gan i n f a n t r y f i g h t i n g v e h i c l e f o r n e a r l y tw e n t y y e a rs , t h eB I N i s b e i n g f i e l d e d now i n Eu ro pe an d th e U n i t e d S t a t e sw i t h o u t c l e a r l y a r t i c u l a t e d d o c t r i n e a s t o how i t i s t of i g h t .

    Purpose

    The p u rp o se o f t h i s s t u d y i s t o i s t o de t e r m in e t h eo p t im a l r o l e o f t h e B I N - e q u i p p e d i n f a n t r y , o r a rm o re di n f a n t r y , u nd er A i rL a nd B a t t l e d o c t r in e . The n o t e d B r i t i s hs o l d i e r a nd c on te m po ra ry m i l i t a r y w r i t e r , R i c h a r d E. S im p ki n,s t a t e d th e f l a v o r o f the pro ble m q u i t e w e l l i n h i s 1980 booke n t i t l e d M ech an ize d I n f a n t r y :

    W i t h mechan ized i n f a n t r y t h e d i f f i c u l t y l i e si n a r r i v i n g a t a m ea ni n gf ul and l u c i dd e f i n i t i o n o f t h e r o l e o f i n f a n t r y i n th ea rm o re d b a t t l e a nd t h e w a y i t s ho u l d f i g h t -by w h i c h I mean s a n e th i n g a t t h e g r a s s r o o t sl e v e l b u t r a t h e r b ro a de r t ha n m i n o rt a c t iCS. C31

    I t i s i m p o r t a n t t o make a d i s t i n c t i o n be tw ee n a rm o re da n d m ec h an iz ed i n f a n t r y . The t e rm a rm o re d i n f a n t r y wasu se d i n t h e U.S. A r m y f rom Wor ld War 1 1 u n t i l t h e l a t e 1950'sf o r t ho se i n f a n t r y u n i t s e qu ip pe d w i t h a r mor ed pe r s onne l

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    c a r r i e r s an d a ss ig n ed t o a rm or ed d i v i s i o n s . The U.S. Armynow u s e s t h e t e rm m e c ha n iz e d i n f a n t r y f o r i n f a n t r y e q u ip p edw i t h any arm ore d p er so nn el c a r r i e r , i n c l u d i n g b o t h i n f a n t r yw i t h t he MI13 a n d t h o se w i t h t h e B IF U. T h i s s t u d y maKes t h ed i s t i n c t i o n between a rm ore d i n f a n t r y i n r e f e r r i n g t o t hosei n f a n t r y f o r c e s eq uip pe d w i t h BIFU a nd m e ch a ni ze d i n f a n t r ya s t h os e e q u ip p e d w i t h t h e M 1 1 3 . T h i s d i s t i n c t i o n n o t o n l yp r o v i d e s c on ve n ie nt l a b e l s b u t a l s o d ra ws a t t e n t i o n t o t h es i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e re n c es i n c a p a b i l i t i e s , l i m i t a t i o n s , andc o m p l e x i t y t h a t c h a r a c t e r i z e t he se t w o f or ms o f i n f a n t r y .

    Me t h o d o l o g y

    To d e te r m in e t he o p ti m a l r o l e of any arm o f t he o v e r a l lf o r c e o n e mu s t r i g o r o u s l y e x a m i n e t h r e e a r e a s o f concern :t h e demands o f t h e m od ern b a t t l e f i e l d ; t h e U.S. A r m y s b a s i ch o w - t o - f i g h t p h i l o s o p h y - 4 i r L a n d B a t t l e d o c t r i n e ; and t hec a p a b i l i t i e s and v u l n e r a b i l i t i e s n o t o n l y o f t h a t a r m but o feach arm o f t h e f o r c e w i t h w hi ch i t m u st c o o p e r a t e as p a r t o fthe combined arms t eam.

    The demands o f the modern b a t t l e ie 1 d. These demandsw i l l shape t he r o l e o f maneuver f o r ce s . The U.S. Armyo r g a n i z e s , e q u i ps , a nd t r a i n s i t s f o r c e s b a s ed u po n t h ep e r c e i v e d t h r e a t , t e r r a i n and w ea th er c o n s i d e r a t i o n s , a nda n t i c i p a t e d b a t t l e f i e l d c o n d i t i o n s . T h i s ca n be r e a d i l y seeni n a s t r a t e g i c se nse ; s i n c e t he e n d o f Wor l d War I 1 t he U.S.A r m y h a s been r e q u i r e d t o m a i n t a i n f o r c e s c a pa b le o f

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    o p e r a t i n g v i r t u a l l y anywhere i n t h e w o r l d . O n one hand, i th a s m a i n t a i n e d h ea vy f o r c e s c a p a b l e o f f i g h t i n g o t h e r moderna rm i es i n m i d - t o h i g h - i n t e n s i t y w a r f a r e i n s uch p la c es a sC e n t r a l Eu ro pe a nd t h e M i d d l e Ea s t . On t h e o t h e r h an d, i th a s m a i n t a i n e d ( a nd i s c u r r e n t l y r e v i a l i r i n g ) I i g h t e r f o r c e scap;,lgle o f s w i f t s t r a t e g i c d e p lo y m e n t t o p e r i p h e r a l com batz on es o f t e n c h a r a c t e r i z e d by l o w i n t e n s i t y w ar fa re i n t e r r a i nw h i c h i s m os t o f t e n n o t s u i t a b l e f o r t h e e mploy ment of h ea vyf o r c e s . I n t h i s a t te mp t t o d e t er m in e th e o p t i m a l r o l e o fa rm o re d i n f a n t r y , o n l y i t s p o t e n t i a l c o n t r i b u t i o n s as p a r t o ft h e h e av y f o r c e s em pl oy ed i n e n v ir o n m e n ts l i k e c e n t r a l E uro peo r t h e M i d d l e Ea s t w i l l b e co n s id e re d .

    T h re e ma jo r f a c t o r s w h i ch d e t e rm in e t h e demands o f t h emodern b a t t l e f i e l d a r e c o ns i de r ed i n t h i s s tu dy : t h r e a t ,t e r r a i n an d w ea th er , and b a t t l e f i e l d c o n d i t i o n s . T h i s st . .d rw i l l e xa min e a S o v i e t t y p e t h r e a t . A l t h o u g h th e S o v i e t ss u p p o rt w ar s o f n a t i o n a l 1 i b e r a t i o n a nd o t h e r low i n t e n s i t vc o n f l i c t s , t h e i r a rmed f o r c e s a r e p r e d o m i n a n t l y h ea vy f o r c e sd es ig ne d t o f i g h t i n m i d and h i g h i n t e n s i t y c o n f l i c t s on t heE u r a s i a n l a n d mass. T h i s s t u d y w i l l f o c u s on t e r r a i n a ndw e a t h e r o f C e n t r a l E ur op e a n d th e M i d d l e E a s t - t h e t y p e o ft e r r a i n on w hi ch t h e B I N , as p a r t of t h e U.S . A rmy s heavy

    f o r c e s , w i l l m os t l i k e l y be em p lo ye d a g a i n s t a S o v i e t t yp et h r e a t . The modern b a t t l e f i e l d w i l l be shaped by t hep o t e n t i a l u s e o f n u c l e a r w ea po ns , a nd t h e a l m o s t c e r t a i n useo f c h e m i c a l weapons, e l e c t r o n i c w a r f a r e , m i n e s a nd o b s t a c l e s ,and smoke and ob sc ur an ts . I t w i l l be c h a r a c t e r i z e d by

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    n o n - l i n e a r m ane uv er b a t t l e s , i n t e n s e c o n c e n t r a t i o n s o f h i g h l yl e t h a l d i r e c t a nd i n d i r e c t f i r e s , h i g h tempo o f a c t i v i t i e s ,d i s r u p t e d c ar ma nd a n d c o n t r o l , a n d a u s t e r e s u p p o r t t 4 1 .

    A i r La n d B a t t l e d o c t r i n e . FM 100-5, ODerat ions,p u b l i s h ed i n 1982, d e s c r i b e s t h e U.S. A rm y s o p e r a t i o nc on ce pt . T h i s d o c t r i n e i s b a s e d on g a i n i n g a nd m a i n t a i n i n gt h e i n i t i a t i v e an d e x e r c i s i n g i t a g g r e s s i v e l y t o d e f e a t t h eenemy. T h i s o p e r a t i o n a l c o n c e p t e n v i s i o n s t h a t su cc es s ont h e modern b a t t l e f i e l d w i l l depend on f o u r b a s i c t e n e t s :i n i t i a t i v e , d ep t h, a g i l i t y , a nd s y nc h ro n i z a t i on .C o l l e c t i v e l y , t h ey i m p ly an o f f e n s i v e l y s p i r i t e d , p r o - a c t i vef o r c e t h a t s ee ks t o a c t f a s t e r t h a n t h e enemy a n d t o m a x i m i z ei t s combat power through u n i t y o f e f f o r t o f combined a rmsr e s u l t i n g i n t h e d i s r u p t i o n o f t h e enemy p l a no f h i s f o r c e s t h r o u gh o u t t h e de p t h of t h e b a t

    A k e y a s p e c t o f A i r L a n d B a t t l e d o c t r i n e

    a nd d e s t r u c t i o nl e f e l d .

    s combineda rm s. T h i s t e r m i s u s e d f r e e l y i n m i I i t a r y I i t e r a t u r e , o f t e ni n a v ag ue manner c o n t r i b u t i n g t o a g e n e r a l l a c k ofu n d e r s t a n d i n g a b o u t i t . The t e r m c o mb i n ed a rm s i n c l u d e st h r e e r e l a t e d e le me nt s: t h e c on c e p t o f combined a rms,comb ined a r m s o r g a n i z a t i o n s , a n d c om b in ed a rm s t a c t i c s an d

    o p e ra t i o ns . [ 5 1 T h i s s tudy w i l l d e t a i l t h es e e l em e nt s o fcomb ined a r ms and w i l l e xa m in e t hem a s t h e y p e r t a i n t ot a c t i c a l c o o p e r a t i o n b e tw e e n t h e p r i m a r y com ba t arm s: t a n k s,I n f a n t r y , a nd a r t i l l e r y . The v i t a l c o n t r i b u t i o n s o f o t h e rcombat arms, i n c l u d i n g a v i a t i o n , a i r d e fe ns e an d e n g i n ee r s ,

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    a r e r e c o g n i z e d but w i l l n o t be t h e f o c u s o f t h i s s t u d y . Hr e v i e w o f t h e h i s t o r y o f t a n k - i n f a n t r y - a r t i I l e r y c o o p e r a t i o nf r o m W o r l d War 1 through t h e r e c e n t l s r a e l i e x c u r s io n i n t oLebanon w i l l r e v e a l p a t t e r n s t h a t w i l l h e l p c l a r i f y how U . S .f o r c e s shou ld p l a n t o f i g h t i n c o m bi n ed a rm s. T he s e p a t t e r n sof t a c t i c a l w a r f a r e w i l l be c o n s id e r e d a s f u n c t i o n s o f t het h r e e p h y s i c a l e l em e n t s of w a r e n u me r a t e d by J . F . C . F u l l e r L 6 1- m o b i l i t y , p r o t e c t i o n , a nd o f f e n s i v e p cw er - o r i n c u r r e n tt e r m s of FM 100-5 a 5 t h e e l e m e n t s o f combat power : maneuver ,f i r e p o w e r , a nd p r o t e c t i o n . The f o u r t h e le m en t o f combatp o we r , l e a d e r s h i p , i s a m o r a l f a c t o r a n d i s d e s c r i b e d i n FM100-5 a s t h e c r u c i a l e le m en t by w h i c h t h e e f f e c t s o f t h ef i r s t t h r e e a r e o p ti m iz e d. C 71 T he se p a t t e r n s o f t a c t i c a lw a r f a r e w i l l b e k e y t o d e t e r m i n i n g how t h e U.S. Army mustcomb ine t h e c a p a b i l i t i e s o f i t s a v a i l a b l e f o r c e st h e i r c o l l e c t i v e co m bin e d a r m s p o t e n t i a l .

    t o op

    An a n a l y s i s o f i n f a n t r y . The s t u d y o f b a t l e f ec o n d i t i o n s , t h e d em and s o f c o m bi n ed a r ms w a r f a r e , a n d t h el e s s o n s o f 2 0 t h C e n t u r y w a r f a r e h e l p e s t a b l i s h some broad

    i m i z

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    r e q u i r e m e n t s f o r i n f a n t r y i n t h e f u t u r e . An a n a l y s i s o f t h ec a p a b i l i t i e s o f o ur v a r i o u s t y p e s of i n f a n t r y m at cht he se r e q u i r e m e n t s s h o u l d su gg es t a p r o p e r r o l e f o ri n f a n t r y . T h i s a n a l y s i s w i l l p r o v i d e a c l e a r e r p i chow a r m o r ed i n f a n t r y s h o u l d b e e m pl oy ed , a n d i t w i l

    d a g a i n s ta r m o r e du r e o f

    l e a d t os u g g e s t i o n s f o r o r g a n i z i n g , e q u ip p i n g , l e a d in g , a nd t r a i n i n ga rm or ed i n f a n t r y t o b e s t a c c o m p l i s h t h i s o p t i m a l r o l e .

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    A s s t a t e d above, com ba t s ys te m s a r e o i t e n f i e l d e d b e f o r et h e r e i s a c l e a r u n d e rs t a n d i n g o f how t h e y a r e t o f i g h t . TheU.S. A r my f i n d s i t s e l f i n t h a t d i le mma now a s i t a t t e m p t s t ow r i t e h o w - to - f i g h t d o c t r i n e f o r t he a rm or ed i n f a n t r y . T h i ss t u d y w i l l a t te m p t t o p r o v i d e m e an in g fu l i n s i g h t s t o s o l v i n gt h i s c u r r e n t B I N d o c t r i n a l d i l e m m a .

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    UJWOTES - CHFIPTER I1. J .F .C . F u l l e r , T he F o u n d a t i o n s a n d S c i e n c e of War(London: H u t c h i n s o n a n d Co. , 1 9 2 5 > , p . 147.2. C o l o n e l H ub a Wass de Cz eg e, T ow a rd a New h e r i c a nA p p r o a c h t o W a r f a r e , ( F t . L e a v e n w or t h , K S : Command andG e ne r al S t a f f C o l l e g e , 1 9 83 ) , p. 10-1-46.3. R i c h a r d E. S i m p k i n , M e c h a n i z e d I n f a n t r y ( O x f o r d :B r as s er s P u b l i s h i n g L t d , 1980 ) , p . 2.4. U.S. D e p a r t m e n t o f t h e Arm y, O D e r a t i o n s F i e l d M an ua l100-5 (Washington,D.C. : U.S. G ov ernm ent P r i n t i n g O f f i c e ,1982 ) , pp . 1-1 t h r o u g h 1-3.5 . Jon a th an M. House , Towards Combined A r m s War fa re : AS u r v e y of T a c t i c s . D o c t r i n e . a nd O r a a n i z a t i o n i n t h e 2 0 t hC e n t u r y ( F t . L e av e nw o rt h, KS: Cunbat S t u d i e s I n s t i t u t e ,Camand a n d G e ne r al S t a f f C o l l e g e , 1984), p . 2-3.6. J.F.C. F u l l e r , T he F o u n d a t i o n s of t h e S c i e n c e o f War,p. 148.7. F i e l d M anua l 100-5, p . 2-5.

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    C M P T E R 2THE DEMCINDS OF THE MODERN BfiTTLEFlELD

    f ind t h e r e f o r e I say: . k no w th e enemy, knowy o u r s e l f ; your v i c t o r y w i l l n e v e r b ee n d a n g e r e d . Know t h e g r o u n d , know t h ew e at h er ; y o ur v i c t o r y w i l l be t o t a l . L 1 1

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    T h i s a n c i e n t C h in es e d ic t u m , w h i c h e x t o l s k no wl ed ge o tt h e b a t t l e f i e l d , i s r e c o g n i z e d as J U S ~ s w i s e t o d a y a s i tw as when w r i t t e n o v e r 200U y e a r s ago. FI4 1UO-5, ODera t i o r& ti d e n t i f i e s t o u r b a s i c c h a l l e n g e s f o r t h e U.S. Army: t heb a t t l e f i e l d , l e a d e r s h i p , r e a d i ne s s , a n d t r a i n i n g . L 2 1 l h rb a t t l e f i e l d i s t h e m o s t b a s i c o f t he se c h a l l e n g e s ;l e a d e rs h i p , r e a d in e s s , a nd t r a i n i n g c h a l l e n g e s a r e , f o r t h em os t p a r t , d e r i v a t i v e o f i t .

    What w i l l t h e m i d - a n d h i g h - i n t e n s i t y b a t t l e f i e l d oft om or ro w be l i k e ' The f u t u r i s t i c v i ew i n FM 100-5 i ss o b e r i n g a n d p ro d u c es thoughts ot a chamber o t h o r r o r s .F u t u r e b a t t I e s a r e e n v i s i o n e d a s n o n- l I nea r maneuve re ng ag em ents b e tw ee n m obi l e f o r c e s w i e l d i n g h i g h l y l e t h a ld i r e c t a nd i n d i r e c t f i r e s ys te m s o p e r a t i n g deep i n eacho t h e r ' s t r a d i t i o n a l r e a r a re a s. L e t h a l i t y o f m o d e rn w e a po n si n c l u d e s t h e g r o w i n g t h r e a t o f n u c l e a r a n d c h e m ic a l w eapons

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    of mass k i l l i n g a nd d e s t r u c t i v e power c un pl em en te d by newp r e c i s i o n w ea po nr y w i t h i n c r e a s e d r a n ge a n d d e s t r u c t i v e n e s s ,s u c h a s p r e c i s i o n g u i de d m u n i t i o n s a nd e v e n t u a l l y d i r e c t e de n e r g y w ea po ns. T he se p o t e n t f o r c e s w i l l r e l y ons o p h i s t i c a t e d s e ns o r a n d c o m m u ni c a ti o n sy s t em s t o s e e t h eb a t t l e f i e l d a n d t o s y nc h ro n i z e t h e e f f e c t s o f t h e i r c om batpower on t h e i r a d v e r s a r i e s . B a t t l e s w i l l r a g e no t o n l y f o rc o n t r o l o f t h e g r ou n d, t h e s ea , a n d t h e a i r b u t a l s o f o r u s ea nd d e n i a l of a medium o f i n c r e a s i n g i m po r ta n ce , t h ee l e c t r o m a g n e t i c s pe ct ru m. The r e l a t i v e l y u nim pe de d u se o ft h i s s p ec t r um w i l l b e v i t a l t o command a n d c o n t r o l a n d t o t h ee f f e c t i v e e mp loym ent o f an e v e r i n c r e a s i n g a r r a y o f h i g ht e c h n o l o g y weapon s y st e ms . N o n - l i n e a r i t y o f t h e b a t t l e f i e l dw i l l s t r a i n comnand and c o n t r o l a n d l o g i s t i c a l o p er a t i o ns .M o de rn f o r c e s w i l l b ec un e m or e d ep e nd e nt on s p e c i a l i z e ds u p p o r t n o t a v a i l a b l e f r o m l o c a l e n v i ro n m e nt s , c a p t u r e d enemys t o r e s , o r even frun a l l i e s . Mo dern f o r c e s w i l l o f t e n ber e q u i r e d t o o p e r a t e a t t h e e nd o f l o ng , v u l n e r a b l e l i n e s o fl o g i s t i c a l s u p p o r t . [31

    A c l o s e r e x a m i n a t i o n of t h r e a t , t e r r a i n a nd w e a t l l . . , a ndo t h e r b a t t l e f i e l d c o n d i t i o n s i s n e c e s s a r y t o a ny a n a l y s i s ofhaw the U.S. Army i s t o f i g h t .

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    Any b r i e f d e s c r i p t i o n of t h e S o v i e t t h r e a t , s uc h a s t h i son e, r i s k s e r r o r t h r o u gh o ve r- si mp 1 i f c a t i o n o r o m i s s i o n .

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    T h er e a r e many e x c e l l e n t t e x t s on t h e S o v i e t t h r e a t a v a i l a b l etoday; t h e U.S. Ar my 's new FM 100-2 s e r i e s i s c o m p r e h e n s i v e ,c u r r e n t , u n c l a s s i f i e d , a n d r e a d i l y a v a i l a b l e t o U.S. m i l i t a r yp e r s o n n e l . O n l y a g e n e r a l o v e r v i e w o f t h e S o v i e t t h r e a t a si t c o n t r i b u t e s t o d e f i n i n g t h e c h a l l e ng e s of t he mode r nb a t t l e f i e l d w i l l b e o u t l i n e d h e r e .

    T r a d i t i o n a l l y , ground f o r c e s a r e t h e f o c u s o f t h e S o v i e ta rmed f o r c e s w i t h n a va l , a i r , and o t h e r s p e c i a l i z e d f o r c e se mp lo ye d p r i m a r i l y i n s u p p o r t r o l e s . A1 t ho ug h f o r c e d on t h ed ef en se i n t h e e a r l y s t a g es o f W o r l d War 1 1 , t h e S o v i e t s h av el o n g p r e f e r r e d t h e o f f e n s i v e as i l l u s t r a t e d by t h e 1936F i e l d S e r v i c e R e a u l a t i o n S o v i e t Army. C41 When I t r e v e r t e dt o th e g e n e r a l o f f e n s i v e i n Wor ld War 1 1 , S o v i e t f o r c e ssought t o a c h i e ve s u r p r i s e , t o o p e r a t e i n t h e en em y' s r e a rw i t h s p e c i a l t r o op s , a nd t o a c h i e v e m a s s i v e c om b at

    s u p e r i o r i t y a t t h e d e c i s i v e p o i n t . S o v i e t s r e l i e d h e a v i l y onr e c o n n a i s s a n c e a nd s e c u r i t y t r o o p s a n d ad va nc ed de t ac h me n tst o p i n p o i n t enemy d e f e n s e s a nd r e s e r v e f o r m a t i o n s b e f o r ec o m m i t t i n g t h e ma in f o r c e t o t h e a t t a c k . Once t h e a t t a c kb e ga n , mom entum w a s m a i n t a i n e d t h r o u g h m a s s i n g o v e r w h e l m i n gc om ba t p ow er a t t h e p o i n t of p e n e t r a t i o n . M ass ed f o r m a t i o n so f t a n k s , s o me t im e s o r g a n i z e d as comb in ed a r ms maneuve rg r o u p s , w o u l d b r e a k through a t t h es e p o i n t s of p e n e t r a t i o n t oa t t a c k d eep i n t o t h e r e a r o f e n e m y d e f e n s e s t o p u r s u e ,e x p l o i t , or e n c i r c l e t h e e ne my. T he R ed A rm y sought a h i g htempo o f o p e r a t i o n s t o k ee p t h e d e f e n d e r s d i s o r g a n i z e d a ndu n a b l e t o r e c o v e r a n d r e c o n s t i t u t e a de f en s e.

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    D u r i n g t h e p o s t W o r l d War I 1 p e r i o d i n w h i ch t he U n i t e dS t a t e s en jo y ed r e l a t i v e s u p e r i o r i t y i n n u c le a r weapons o v e rt h e S o v i e t s , t h e S o v i e t Army r e o r g a n i z e d t o d e a l w i t h w ha t i tp e r c e i v e d a s new r e q u i r e m e n t s o f n u c l e a r w a r .

    The m a s s i ng o f com bat f o r m a t i o n s , a h i s t o r i c a lc h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f S o v i e t o p e r a t i o n s , was v i e w e d as ac r i t i c a l v u l n e r a b i l i t y and th e c on c ep t ofc o n c e n t r a t i n g f o r a b re ak th ro ugh was abandoned i nf a v o r o f d i s p e r s e d m u l t i p l e a xe s o f adv an ce a c r o sst h e b r e a d t h o f t h e fr o n t .C S 1

    S t r a t e g i c r o c k e t f o r c e s r e c e i v e d p r i o r i t y and t he t an k,w h i ch c o u l d s u r v i v e a nd e x p l o i t t he e f f e c t s o f n u c l e ar wa r,became t h e c e n t e r p i e c e o f t h e S o v i e t g r o u nd f o r c e s a t t h eex pe nse o f t h e i r t r a d i t i o n a l arm s, t he i n f a n t r y a nda r t i l l e r y . [ 6 1 I n f a n t r y f o rc e s w e r e c on ve r t ed t o f u l lm e c h a n i z a t i o n a n d a new b r a nc h , m m t o r i z + d i n f a n t r y , wasf o rme d in 1 9 6 3 . [ 7 1 The BMP w a s i n t r o d u c e d i n t h e m id - lY6 u sa s t h e w o r l d s f i r s t t r u e i n f a n t r y f i g h t i n g v e h i c l e t ocomplem ent t an k s and t o p r o v i d e i n f a n t r y w i t h t he p r o t e c t i o nn ec es sa ry t o s u r v i v e on t he n uc l e a r b a t t l e f i e l d . I t h a d t h em o b i l i t y and f i r ep o w e r t o e x p l o i t n u c l e a r weapons e f f e c t sa l o n g w i t h ta nk f o r c e s .

    By the m i d t o l a t e 1940s t h e S o v i e t s beg an t o c o n s i d e r ac o nv e nt io na l v a r i a n t t o t h e i r s i n g l e v i e w o f war i n t hen u c l e a r age. R e c o gn i z in g t h e u n d e s i r a b l e e f f e c t s t h a tn u c l e a r war w o ul d hav e on t h e S o v i e t Un i on an d th e p o l i t i c a lc o n d i t i o n s t h a t w o u l d p r o b a b l y d e l a y e mploym ent o f n u c l e a r

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    weapons by W T O , t h e S o v i e t s begar; i n c r e a s e t h e c om b atpower of t h e i r c o nv e n t i o na l ground f o r c e s . D u r i n g t h e p e r i o dt h a t t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s was p o u r i n g i t s d e f e ns e r e s o u r c e s i n t ot he Vi et na m War, t h e S o v i e t s w er e r e f i t t i n g a nd r e o r g a n i z i n gi n t o a m as si ve , s o p h i s t i c a t e d f o r c e w i t h i n c r e as e dc a p a b i l i t i e s t o f i g h t a c o n v e n t io n a l l a n d - a i r b a t t l e un de rt he t h r e a t o f s udd en e s c a l a t i o n t o n u c l e a r w a r .

    S o v i e t t a n k a n d m o t o r i z e d r i f l e d i v i s i o n s became t o t a l l ym e ch an iz e d c om bi ne d a rm s u n i t s . Ev en a i r b o r n e d i v i s i o n s w er ee q ui p pe d w i t h t h e l i g h t a r m o r e d t r o o p c a r r i e r , t h e BMD. r h eS o v i e t a r t i l l e r y s u p p o r t i n g t h e s e d i v i s i o n s was t r a ns f o r me df r o m t owed t o s e l f - p r o p e l l e d t o c om pl em en t mo re c l o s e l y t h ep r o t e c t i o n and m o b i l i t y c a p a b i l i t i e s of t h e m a ne uv e r f o r c e s .H n t i - t a n k , h e l i c o p t e r , e n g i n e e r , a i r d ef en se , a nd c h em i c alde fens e componen ts we re upg raded t o p r o d u c e a c o m p l e t ec o m bi n e d a rm s f o r c e .

    The 1973 A r a b - I s r a e l i c o n f l i c t c a u s ed t h e S o v i e t s t od eb at e o p en l y t h e i r t a c t i c a l d o c t r i n e an d + o r c e s t r u c t u r e ,e s p e c i a l l y i n l i g h t o f t h e a p p a r e n t a d v a n t a ge o f new a n t i t a n kw ea po ns o v e r t a n k s a n d o t h e r a r m or e d v e h i c l e s .I n t e r e s i n g l y , t h e v e h i c l e t h a t t he S o v i e t s d e te rm i ne d t o bem o s t vu n e r a b l e i n t h i s k i n d o f b a t t l e f i e l d en v i r o n m en t w a 5n o t t h e t a n k b u t t h e BMP i n f a n t r y f i g h t i n g v e h i c l e. C8 1

    D e s p i t e t h e s e a p p a r e n t c h a ng e s i n o p e r a t i o n a l o u t l o o k ,s e v e r a l c o n s t a n t s p er v ad e t h e S o v i e t m et ho ds . F i r s t , t h e

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    S o v i e t s o r g a n iz e and t r a i n t o f i g h t a s c a nb in ed arms. Ar e v i e w o f S o v i e t d o c t r i n a l l i t e r a t u r e f r o m t h e 1936 FieldS e r v i c e R e a u l a t i o n S o v i e t Army t o S a v k i n ' s 1972 t e x te n t i t l e d B as ic P r i n c i D l e s o f O p e r a t i o n a l A r t a nd T a c t i c s ,d e m on s t ra t es t h e i r e a r l y an d c o n t i n u e d a p p r e c i a t i o n o f a n dcommi tment t o combined a rms.

    Second, S o v i e t t a c t i c s a r e c h a r a c t e r i z e d by r e 1 a n c e o nn o rm s . B a s e d o n t h e c o m b i n a t i o n o f d i a l e c t i c m etho d, t h es c i e n t i f i c app roac h , an d h i s t o r i c a l a n a l y s i s o f war ande x e r c i s e e x pe r ie n ce s , t h e S o v i e t s h av e d e t e r m in e d t h a t f o ra n y g i v e n c o mb at s i t u a t i o n t h e r e i s a c o r r e c t r e s p on s e.S o v i e t c m a n d e r s a r e t a u g h t t h es e n or ms an d a r e e x p ec t e d t ot a k e p r o p e r a c t i o n i n c o mb at b a s e d u p on t h e a p p r o v e d h i g h e rc om ma nd er 's p l a n an d t h e a p p l i c a t i o n of norms. How muchi n i t i a t i v e a Sovie t commander may d i s p l a y when c o n f r o n t e dw i t h u ne xp ec te d s i t u a t i o n s i n combat i s u n do u b te d ly af u n c t i o n of t h e c o r r e c t n e s s o f t h e p r e s c r i b e d no rm s an d t h edeg ree t o w hi c h t h a t c m a n d e r i s t r a i n e d t o app l y t hem.

    T h i r d , S i w i e t e q ui pm en t i s n o t o r i o u s l y s im p l e , r e l i a b l e ,rugged , and easy t o m a i n t a i n . I t i s a d a p t e d by d e s i g n n o to n l y t o t h e i r t a c t i c a l a nd o p e r a t i o n a l m et ho ds b u t a l s o t ot he b a t t l e f i e l d en vi ro nm en ts i n w h i c h i t w i l l p o t e n t i a l l yf i g h t . For e xa mp le , S o v i e t a r m o r ed v e h i c l e s a r e n o t e d f o rt h e i r low s i l h o u e t t e a nd l i m i t e d e l e v a t i o n a nd d e p r e s s i o nc a p a b i l i t i e s of t h e i r m a i n armament . U.S. a n a l y s t s o f t e nc i t e t h e s e as weaknesses c o n s i d e r i n g t he h i l l y t e r r a i n o f

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    C e n t r a l E u r o p e , b u t t h e s e v e h i c l e s a r e p e r f e c t l y s u i t e d f o rt h e e n d l e s s l y f l a t t e r r a i n o f t h e S o v i e t s t e pp e f o r w h i c ht h e y h a ve b e en e n g i n e e r e d . B ec au se S o v i e t t a n k s a r eo f f e n s i v e w e ap on s y st e m s w h i c h w i l l o n l y t e m p o r a r i l y s ee kd e f i l a d e o r d e t en s i ue p o s i t i o n s , l o w s i l h o u e t t e a n d l i m i t e dgun e l e v a t i o n a nd de p r es s io n a r e i n t e n t i o n a l e n g i n e e r i n gc r i t e r i a i n k e e p in g w i t h s i m p l i c i t y , l o w c o s t , and c r e wp r o t e c t i o n . C 9 1 D e s p i t e t h e r e q u i r e m e n t s of s im p1 i c i y ,S o v i e t e qu ip me nt m ay be m or e s o p h i s t i c a t e d t h a n i s commonlys u s p e c t e d i n W T O . V i c t o r S uv o ro v h a s w a r ne d t h a t e q ui p me n tt he S o v i e t s d i s t r i b u t e t o a l l i e s i s much l e s s s o p h i s t i c a t e dt h a n t h o s e m o d e l s w i t h w h i c h S o v i e t f o r c e s a r e e q u i pp e d. C l0 1

    L a s t l y , t h e S o v i e t s c an b e e x p e c t e d t o o p e r a t e i na cc or d an ce w i t h s e v e r a l p r i n c i p l e s . The p r i n c i p l e s I i s t e db e l o w a r e s u m m a ri z e d f rom t h e The B a s i c P r i n c i D l e s o fO D er a t i on a l A r t a nd T a c t i c s by U. S a u ki n . A l t h o u g h t h e b oo kf oc us es on t h e n u c l e a r b a t t l e f i e l d , i t s l e ss o n s a r e j u s t a sv a l i d f o r a c o n v e n t i o n a l b a t t l e , e s p e c i a l l y i n l i g h t of t h ee v e r p r e s e n t t h r e a t o f e s c a l a t i o n t o n u c l e a r w a r . S o v i e tf o r c e s c a n b e e x pe c t e d t o a t t e m p t t o :

    - a c h i e v e a n d s u s t a l n r a p i d m ovem ent a n d a h i g h tempoof o p e r a t i o n s t o k e e p t h e enemy o f f b a l a n c e a n d u n d e rc o n s t a n t p r e s s u r e .

    - c on c e n t r a t e e f f o r t t o c r e a t e s u p e r i o r i t y o f t o r c e sa n d means o v e r t h e e nemy a t t h e d e c i s i v e p l a c e a n d t i m e .

    - s u r p r i s e t h e enemy b y t a k i n g a c t i o n w hen a nd w he re18

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    l e a s t e xp e c t e d w h i l e e n s u r i n g s e c u r i t y o f f r i e n d l y f o r c e s ,i . e . d e n y i n g t h e a d v a nt a g es o f s u r p r i s e t o the enemy.

    - a c h ie v e c om ba t a c t i v e n e s s t h r o u g h b o l d n e s s ,i n i t i a t i v e , a nd d e c i s i v e n e s s i n h e r e n t i n o f f e n s i v e a c t i o n .

    - p r o t e c t t h e f o r c e a nd s u s t a i n i t s combate f f e c t i veness .

    - c o n fo r m g o a l s o f t h e o p e r a t i o n t o t h e a c t u a l c om ba ts i t u a t ion.

    - c o o r d i n a t e a l l a rm s a nd e l e m en t s t o a c h i e v ec o o p e r a t i o n , m u t u a l a s s i s t a n c e , a n d maximum c om ba t p o w e r . [ l l l

    I n summ ary, t h e S o v i e t t h r e a t on t h e mode rn b a t t l e f i e l dc a n b e e x p e c t e d t o b e a h e a v i I Y e c h a n i z e d c o m b i n e d a r m sf o r c e w h i c h w i l l a t t e m p t t o s u r p r i s e i t s enemy and t om a i n t a i n a h i g h tempo o f a c t i v i t y . The S o v i e t s p r e f e ro f f e n s i v e a c t i o n a n d o n l y d e f e n d when t h e o f f e n s e i s no tp o s s i b l e . They p r e f e r t o a t t a c k e n e m y w e a k n e s s e s t o f o c u so v e rw h e lm i n g pow er a t t h e d e c i s i v e p o i n t , a n d t o o p e r a t ea g a i n s t f l a n k s a nd deep i n t h e e ne my 's r e a r . The S o v i e t s a r eh e a v i l y d ep en de nt on r ec o nn a i s sa nc e a nd s e c u r i t y t r o o p s a nde m pl oy s i z e a b l e a dv an c ed de t a ch m e n ts t o r e c o n n o i t e r a n d f i xt he enemy. They a re cap ab l e of e m p l o y i n g m a s s i v e a m o un t s ofa r t i l l e r y i n s u p p o r t o t t h e p r i m a r y m ane uv er e f f o r t s .

    T e r r a i n a n d W ea th er

    W ea th er a nd t e r r a i n h a ve m or e i m p a ct a n b a t t l e t h a nany o t h e r p h y s i c a l f a c t o r , i n c l u d i n g weapons,e q u i p m e n t o r s u pp l i e s . [ l 2 1

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    FM 100-5 b e r a t i o n s ( 19 8 2) , f r o m w h i c h t h i s s t r i k i n gr e m a r k i s q u o t e d , g o e s o n t o s t a t e t h a t t e r r a i n a nd w ea th erw i l l p r e s en t o p p o r t u n i t i e s t o bo th s i d e s . The commander whou n d e r s t a n d s t h e e f f e c t s o f t e r r a i n a nd w e at he r on h i s u n i tc a p a b i l i t i e s a nd t ho se o f t h e e nemy a n d t h e n a d a p t s , u s e s a n dr e i n f o r c e s t h e s e e f f e c t s w i l l s t a n d a f a r b e t t e r c ha nc e ofs uc ce ss . I n t e r e s t i n g l y , i n an h i s t o r i c a l s t udy of 200s u c c e s s f u l c om ba t a c t i o n s , c o n d u c t e d by t h e U n i t e d S t a t e sM i l i t a r y Academy i n s u p p o r t o f t h e 198 3-84 O f f i c e rP r o f e s s i o n a l Managem ent S ys te m S t u d y Gr ou p, ' t e r r a i n s e ns e "w as r a t e d a s one o f o n l y f i v e f a c t o r s w h i ch c o r r e l a t e s h i g h l yw i t h s u c c e s s i n co m ba t . [1 31

    Many e x c e l l e n t t e x t s d e t a i l t h e e f f e c t s o f t e r r a i n a n dw ea t h e r on m i l i t a r y o p e r a t i o n s . FM 30-10, M i l i t a r yG eo gr ap hi c I n t e l l i g e n c e ( T e r r a i n ) , i s among t h e b e s t r e a d i l ya v a i l a b l e t o U.S. A rm y p e r s o n n e l . A d d i t i o n a l l y , n um er ou sa r e a s t u d i e s p r o v i d e d a t a on s p e c i f i c p o t e n t i a l b a t t l e f i e l de n v i ro n m en t s . The i n t e n t i o n h e r e i s t o exam ine s i g n i f i c a n tf a c t o r s w h i ch e f f e c t t h e t a c t i c a l emp loyment o f h e a v y f o r c e si n t w o s t r i k i n g l y d i + f e r e n t a r e a s i n w h i c h t h e y w i l l mostl i k e l y be em pl oy ed : C e n t r a l E ur op e an d a M i d d l e E a s t o rS o ut h we st A s i a d e s e r t e n v i ro n m e n t .

    Of t he f i v e m i l i t a r y a s pe c t s o f t e r r a i n , t h i s a n a l y s i sw i l l c o n c e n t r a t e on c o v e r a n d c o nc e al m en t , o b s t a c l e s a n dmobi 1 i t y , a nd o b s e r v a t i o n a nd f i r e s . These t h r e e f a c t o r swhen s t u d i e d i n l i g h t o f t h e n a t u r e o f t h e m i l i t a r r o p e r a t i o n

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    con temp la ted , w i l l u s u a l l y d e t e rm in e t h e o t h e r t w o m i l i t a r ya s p e c t s o f t e r r a i n : k e y t e r r a i n and u u e s of annroach.These t h r ee f a c t o r s a150 a r e c l o s e l y r e l a t e d t o t h e t h r e ep h y s i c a l e le m e nt s o f c ombat po we r: o b s e r v a t l o n a nd f i e l d s o ff i rr r e l a t e most d i r e c t l y t o f i r e p ow e r , cov er andc once a 1ment t o p r o t e c t i o n , and o b s t a c l e s a n d mobi 1 i r t omaneuver.

    Cen t ra l Eu PODQ

    B a t t l e f i e l d C e n tr a l E uro pe, o r more s p e c i f i c a l l y t heFed era l Rep ub l i c o f Germany, i s one o f t he mos t dens e lyp o p u la t e d a n d b u 1 t up a reas i n Eu rope . T h is compac tL -shaped coun t ry is 850 k i l o m e t e r s f r om n o r t h t o s ou th . E a stt o w es t i t i s n ar ro w i n t h e n o r t h a nd c e n t r a l r e g i o n s (225k i l o m e t e r s i n t h e n a r ro w c e n t e r ) a nd w i d e s t (450 k i l o m e t e r s )a c r o s s t h e so u t h e rn r e g i o n . O v e r a l l , t h e F R G h a s t h r e ee s se n t i a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s t h a t e f f e c t m i l i t a r y o pe ra t l o n s :

    ( 1 ) There i s l a c k o f d e p t h of area between theb o r d e r w i t h t h e W a r s a w P a ct c o u n t r i e s and t h e R h i n e R i v e r .

    t 2 ) T h e re a re n umerou s t e r r a i n -d e p e n d e n t n a t u ra li n va s i on c o r r i d o r s f r o m t h e e a s t .

    (3) S e ve ra l f e a t u r e s o f t h e t e r r a i n , s uc h as woods,urban a reas , and hyd rog raphy , have a s i g n i f i c a n t e f f e c t onm i l i t a r y o p e r a t i o n s . t l 4 1

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    The f i r s t o f t he se c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s h a s o p e r a t i o n a l a nds t r a t e g i c imp1 i c a t i o n s b u t n o i n h e r en t t a c t i c a l e + f e c t s .fi t it w o p o s s i b l e e x ce p t i o ns . F i r s t , t h i s l a ck o f d e p t h h a sc a u s e d N A T U , especially t h e We st Germans, t o i n s i s t or1 af o rw a rd , l i n e a r d e f en se w h i ch c o u l d p o s s i b l y l i m i t m i l i t a r yo p t i o n s . S ec on d, l a c k o f o p e r a t i o n a l d e p t h has e n t i c e d t heS o v i e t s t o c o n s i d e r a ' d a r i n g t h r u s t " s t r a t e g y - a q u i c k ,u n ex p ec t ed a t t a c k w i t h o u t t h e no rm al w a r n i n g 5 i n o r d e r t os e i ze deep o b j e c t i v e s b e f o r e NATO f o r c e s c o u l d e i t h e r f u l l yo c cu p y a n d p r e p a r e f o r w a r d d e f e n s e s or e x e rc i s e a l l t h edec i s i on mak ing a p p a r a t u s n e c e s s a r y t o use nuc 1 ear weapons .

    The se co nd c h a r a c t e r i s t i c , t h e ex i s t e n c e o f s e v e r a ln a t u r a l i n va s io n c o r r i d o r s f r o m t h e e as t , a l s o h as p r i m a r i l ys t r a t e g i c a n d o p e r a t i o n a l i mp ac t. 41% o f t he F R G ' s b o r d e r sa r e s h a r e d w i t h c om mu ni st C z e c h o s l o v a k i a a n d E a s tG er ma ny .t l5 1 A l o n g t h e b o r d e r t h e r e a r e a t l e a s t t w e l v ei n v a s i o n g a p s fo r m e d by t h e t e r r a i n . t l 6 1 The N o r t h Germanl ow la n d, a w i d e r e l a t i v e l y f l a t p l a i n , a pp ea rs t o be t h e mostf a v o r a b l e t e r r a i n f o r an a t t a c k by t h e S o v ie t s . I n t hec e n t r a l u p la n ds n a t u r a l g ap s , s u c h a s t h e F u l d a Gap, o f f e rn a r r o w , h i g h s p e e d a p p r oa c h e s t o t h e R h i ne R i v e r . I n t h ea l p i n e f o o t h i l l s t he Danube R i v e r v a l l e y o f f e r s a r e ad ya pp ro ac h i n t o k ey a r e a of sou t he r n Ge r many . I t i s a l o n gt he se n a t u r a l i n v a s i o n r o u t e s t h a t t h e S o v i e t s w i l l f i n d t h et e r r a i n f a vo r ab l e f o r h i g h t empo o p e r a t i o n s w i t h t h e i r h i g h l ym e ch a ni z ed f o r c e s .

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    The t h i r d e s s e n t i a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c i mp ac ts th e most ont h e t a c t i c a l e mpl oy me nt o f f o r c e s . The 1978 US/German ArmyC on ce pt P ap er c o n c e r n i n g m i l i t a r y g eo gr ap hy o f t h e FRG s t a t e st h a t f o r e s t s , u rb an ar ea s, and h yd ro gr ap hy have s i g n i f i c a n t l yg r e a t e r e f f e c t s on t a c t i c a l o p e r a t i o n s t ha n do o t h e r f a c t o r ss uc h a s w e at he r , s o i l c o m p os i t i o n , a nd o t h e r t e r r a i nc h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . C l 7 1

    O bs er va ti on and f i e l d s o f f i r e . I n h i s bookB a t t l e f i e l d C e n t ra l EuroDe, German Ge n era l F ra n zU h l e- W e tt l er a rg ue s c o n v i n c i n g l y f o r t he use o f l i g h ti n f a n t r y f o r c e s on t h e European b a t t l e f i e l d . A m ai n p o i n t i nt h i s arg um ent c e n t e r s on t e r r a i n and, m ore s p e c i f i c a l l y , onl i n e of s i g h t c o ns i de r a t i on s . L i n e o f s igh t i s a f f e c t e d n o to n l y by t h e t e r r a i n b u t a l s o by f o r e s t s a nd b u i l t up a r ea s .U h l e - W e t t l e r s t a t e s t h a t a p p r o xi m a te l y 30% o f t h e FRG 1 5f o r e s t e d a nd 11% i s b u i l t - u p a r e as . C i 81 T h i s h a s madea c tu a l l i n e o f s i g h t d i s t a n c e s much s h o r t e r t h an one m i g h te x pe c t. Bundeswehr M i l i t a r y G e og r ap h ic a l O f f i c e r e p o r t sr e f l e c t t he f o l l o w i n g average l i n e of s i g h t d i s t a n c e s f o r t heFRG:

    0-50 meters 30%50-200 m e t e r s 9200-500 meters 16500-1000 m e te rs 181000-1500 meters 10%1500-2000 meters 7/.2000-3000 m e t e r s 96

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    W h i l e t h e s e f i g u r e s show t h a t 96 o f t h e l i n e s o+ s i g h ta re l e s s t han t he cu r r en t maximum range o f t he TOW a n t i t a n km i s s i l e (3000 m u ) , t h e y a l s o show t h a t m o st o f t h e l i n e s ofs i g h t a r e f a r s h o r t e r . 73% a r e l e s s than 1000 met e rs , themaximum e f f e c t i v e r a n ge of t h e D R A G W a n t i ta n k m i s s i l e . t l 9 1These f i g u r e s o n l y i n c l ud e l i n e of s i g h t l i m i t s caused byf o r e s t s an d b u i l t up ar ea s, n o t by t e r r a i n f e a t u r e s s uc h ash i l l s o r by wea the r cond i t i ons .C201

    T h i s s i t u a t i o n i s n o t a s t a t i c one ; t he ' t e r r a i n ' i ss t e a d i l y c h a n gi n g a s ur b an growth c o n t i n u e s . J . A . E n g l i s hn o t e s :

    What h a s pa ss e d p r a c t i c a l l y u n n o t i c e d t o manym i l i t a r y e y es s i n c e W o r ld War 11 i s t h e g r a d u a l l ya l t e r e d n a t u r e o f t h e v e r y t e r r a i n o v er w hi c h t hene x t war may b e fo ug ht . The phenomenal andr e l e n t l e s s p r oc es s o f u r b a n i z a t i o n of E u r o p e , a l r e a d yw i t h 374 c i t i e s of 100,000 or m ore, h a s r a d i c a l l yc han ged t he f a c e of t he p o t e n t i a l b a t t l e f i e l d . . . .M o r eo v er , w i t h C e n t r a l E ur op ea n u r b a n g r o w t hp r o j e c t e d a t a r a t e of two o r t h r e e t i m e s t hep o p u l a t i o n r i s e , t he re w i l l b e , by 1995, a 50%i n c r e a s e i n t o t a l u rban a rea.CZ11

    P a ul B r a ck e n p o i n t s o u t t h a t a t t h e same t i m e' go ve rn me nt a f f o r e s t a t i o n p ro gra mm es h av e i n c r e a s e d f o r e s t e da r e a s by about 0.8% per year . 'C221

    Weather c o n d i t i on s , p r i m a r i l y p r e c i p i t a t i o n and fog,e f f e c t v i s i b i l i t y and t h er e fo r e l i n e o f s i g h t .

    Fog, i n t e r m s o f v i s i b i l i t i e s o f l e s s than 1000 m,oc cu rs on an average o f 100-120 days t h roughou t t heYear , p re dom inan t l y be tween Sep tember and March, w i t ha maximum i n Oc to be r and November.CP31

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    I n summary, o b s e r v a t i o n a nd f i e l d s o f f i r e a r e nowl i m i t e d and w i l l ge t worse . The s ta ndo f f advan tage ot t h elo n g ra n g e a n t i - t a n k weapons o ver t h e t a n k i s e l i m i n a t e d i nt he v a s t m a j o r i t y o f s i t u a t i o n s i n Ce n tr a l E urope.

    Cover and Concea lmen t. The p r ev io us d is cu ss ion o f 1 i n eof s i g h t c o r r e c t l y s u g g es ts t h a t c o nc ea lm en t i s n o t a m a j o rp ro b le m i n t h e FRG. F o r e s t s , u rb a n a re a s , a nd t h e n a t u ra lu n d u l a t i o n s o f f e r p l e n t y o f c on ce al m en t. U rb an a r ea s a ndf o r e s t s a l s o o f f e r co v er . The s o i l i n t h e FRG i s conduc ivet o t he c o n s t r u c t i o n o f f i e l d f o r t i f i c a t i o n s excep t i n t hee x t r e m e l y c o l d o r w et s ea so ns o r i n t h e m o u n t a i n a r ea s w hi c ha re p re do mi na nt ly r oc k w i t h l i t t l e s o i l . The re i s amplem a t e r i a l a v a i l a b l e f o r t he c o n s t r u c t i o n o f f o r t i f i c a t i o n s andove rhead cove r .

    Ob s t a c le s a n d M o b i l i t y . The FRG h a s one of th e b e s th igh w ay n e t w o rks i n Eu ro pe , w i t h o ve r 6 70 me t e r s o f r o a d p e rs qu ar e k i l o m e t e r . [ 2 4 1 T h i s r o a d n e t i s i n c r e a s i n g b y aboutone p e r c e n t p e r y ea r.C 25 1 D e s p i t e t h e f a c t t h a t t h e m a J o r i t yo f l a r g e r o a d s ( m o r e t h an t w o l a n e s ) t e n d t o r u n n o r t h - s o u t ha l o n g t he l o n g a x i s o f t he c o u n t r y , a l l -w e a t he r r o a d s a r edense enough th a t th ey su pp or t movement of m i l i t a r r f o r c e s i na1 1 d i r e c t i o n s .

    Be s id e s t h e su p e rb s y s t e m o f r o a d s a nd b r i d g e s , s e v e r a lfa c to r s tend t o make mechan ized a rmi es roadbound i n th e FRG.

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    M o b i l i t y i s hampered s i g n i f i c a n t l y by e x t e n s i v e f o r e s t a t i o n ,by t h e e v e r i n c r e a s i n g amount o f b u i l t u p a r e a s an d u r ba ns p r a w l , a n d by h y d r o g r a p h y .

    F o r e s t r y i n t h e FRG i s an i n t e n s i v e l y managed i n d u s t r y .M o st f o r e s t s a r e d en se b u t a r e g e n e r a l l y p a s s a b le b e ca us e ofth e e x i s t e n c e of a r e l a t i v e l y w e l l d ev e l op e d n et wo rk o ft r a i l s . W h i le f o r e s t a r ea s h av e a m ore s i g n i f i c a n t i mp ac t onc o v e r a n d c o n ce a lm e n t a n d o b s e r v a t i o n a n d f i r e s , t h e y f o r c eme c h a n i z ed t o r c e s t o s l o w d own, c o n c e n t r a t e a n d becomec h a n n e l i z e d . O b s t a c l e s w h i ch r e q u i r e l i t t l e equ ipment andmanpower a n d a r e e a sy t o i n s t a l l c an c au se f o r e s t s t o becomeimpassab le i f c o v e r e d by f i r e - a s t a n d a r d i n f a n t r y t a sk .

    U rb an a re a s h av e a v a r i e t y o f e f f e c t s o n m o b i l i tr; mosto f th em a r e a d v e r s e e f f e c t s . On one h a nd , t h e g r e a t e s td e n s i t y o f r o a d s a r e i n t h e u r b a n a r e a s ; m o st a u to b a hn s an d ag r e a t p e r ce nt ag e o f l a r g e r o ad s a r e w i t h i n o r c o n n e c t u r b a na r e a s . On t h e o t h e r h an d, i n t h e e v e n t o f w ar u r b a n a r e a scan become m aj or ob st ac le s. They may become i mp ass abl e due t oc on ge st io n o f c i u i l i a n , r e fu ge e , a nd m i l i t a r y t r a f f i c . Urbana r ea s become d i f f i c u l t o b s t a c l e s when r u b b l e l i t t e r s thes t r e e t s or when defended by i n f a n t r y . l h e a re as w i t hg r e a t e s t p o p u l a t i o n d e n s i t y i n t he FRG, and thosee x p e r i e n c i n g t he g r e a t e s t g r ow t h, a r e e a s t o f t h e R h in eR i v e r .

    A r e a s c o v e r e d by w a t e r a r e o n l y a b ou t T/: f t h e t o t a l26

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    a r e a o f the FRG, b u t these bo di es of w a t e r ca n a f f e c tm i l i t a r y o p e ra t i o n s t o a g r e a t ex te n t . [ 26 1 I n th e N o r t hGerman l ow l ands t he v a l ue o f t hes e w a te r ob s t ac l e s i sf o r m i dab l e . Abou t 40% of t h e s tr ea m s an d r i v e r s a r e w i d e rthan 30 m et er s and more tha n 2.5 m et er s deep.CZ71 Thesef i g u r e s a re i m po r ta n t because v i r t u a l l y a l l a rm ore d v e h i c l e scannot f o r d s t r eams deepe r t han 1.5 m e te r s ; t hos e t h a t canf o r d d ee pe r w a t e r s , s w i m , or s n o r k e l m us t h a l t a n d u n de rg op r e p a r a t i o n s t h a t a r e t im e c on su min g a nd i n t e r r u p to p e r a t i o n s . t Z 8 1 A l l a rm or ed v e h i c l e l a un c he d b r i d g e s(AVLBs) c u r r e n t l y fo und i n bo th t h r e a t and a l l i e d f o rc e s l a yb r i d g e s l e s s t han 30 m e t e r s lo ng .C Z9 1 A d d i t i o n a l l y , t h el o wl an d s a r e r e p l e t e w i t h m ar sh es a nd m oo rs . S i g n i f i c a n ta mo un ts o f e n g i n ee r e q ui pm en t a nd e f f o r t a r e r e q u i r e d t os u s t a i n m o b i l i t y i n t h i s reg io n.C3 01 I n t he c e n t r a l u p la nd sw at er o b s t a c le s a re o f l i m i t e d v a l ue . I n t he a l p i n ef o o t h i l l s of so ut he rn Germany th e Rhine-Main-Danube Canal andt he a l p i n e r l v e r s so ut h o f t he Danube a re s i g n i f i c a n to b s t a c l e s and c r o s s i n g s r e q u i r e m a jo r e f f o r t . W aterways i nt h i s r e g i o n a r e w i d e s t o f t h e t h r e e r e g i o n s ( 5 W . a r e g r e a t e rthan 30 m e t e r s w i d e ) and a r e r e l a t i v e l y d eep (36% a r e 2.5m e t e r s o r m o r e deep) . [311

    I n s um na ry , t h e FRGs t h r e e d i f f e r e n t r e g i o n s p r o v i d ed i s t i n c t l y d i f f e r e n t s e t t i n g s f o r b a t t l e . The n o r t h e r nl o wl an ds a re i n v i t i n g l y f l a t b u t p r e se n t s i g n i f i c a n t w a te ra nd u r ba n o b s t a c l e s t o m aneuver. U i s i b i l t y and 1 i ne o f s i g h ti n t h i s s e ct o r a r e r a t e d a s p oo r t o good. The c e n t r a l u p la n d s

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    h av e f a r f ew er m a j o r w a t e r o b s t a c l e s o r b u i l t - u p a r e as , bu tu n d u l a t i o n s and f o r e s t s impede o f f e n s i v e o p e r a t i o n s . C ov erand concea lmen t i s e x c e l l e n t ; v i s i b i l i t y and l i n e s o f s i g h tr a ng e f r o m e x t r e m e l y poor t o m a r g i n a l . The a l p i n e f o o t h i l l sc o n t a i n many i m p ed i m en t s t o m aneuv er , e s p e c i a l l y r i v e r s .C o ve r a n d c o n c e a l m e n t i s adequ a te , a n d v i s i b i l i t y and l i n e o fs i g h t a r e r a t e d p oo r t o s a t i s f a c t o r y . C 3 2 1

    D e s e r t E n v i r o n m e nt s

    D e s er t s e nv i r on m e n t s a r e , i n m i l i t a r y r e s p e c t s , n e a r l yt he a n t i t h e s i s o f t h e C e n t r a l Eu ropean b a t t l e f i e l d . D e s e r t sr e q u i r e d i f f e r e n t t a c t i c s p r i m a r i l y because o f t e r r a i n a ndw ea th er . D e s e r t s a l s o have much d i f f e r e n t e f f e c t s onp e r s o n n e l a n d e q ui p m en t . T he l o c a t i o n of t h e N a t i o n a lT r a i n i n g C en te r i n t h e M o j a ve D e s e r t of Ca l i + o r n i au n d e r s c o r es t h e a n t i c i p a t i o n t h a t U .S. h ea vy f o r c e s may h av et o f i g h t i n t h e d e s e r t a r ea s o f t h e M i d d l e E a s t o r Sou thwes tA s i a . T h e m o s t r e c e n t c l a s h e s of h ea v y f o r c e s h av e be en i nt h e s e a r e a s : t h e A r a b - I s r a e l i W ar s a n d t h e I r a n - I r a q War.

    D e s e r t e n v i r o n m e nt s v a r y , b u t i n g e n e r a l t h e y l a c kt r a d i t i o n a l k ey t e r r a i n . Key t e r r a i n i n t h e d e s er t , w i t h t h en o t a b l e e x c e p t i o n o f w a t e r e d a r e a s s u c h a s o a s es , i sd e t e r m i n e d by t h e o t h e r m i l i t a r r a s p ec t s o f t e r r a i n .

    G e he r t s a re a u s te r e r e g i o n s w i t h n o f o r e s t s , f ews e t t l e m e n t s , a nd f ew r oads o r o t h e r c om ba t s e r v i c e s u p p o r t

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    acconunodat ions f o r m i l i t a r y f o r c e s s u c h a s po we r s o u r c es ,b u i l d i n g m a t e r i a l s , s u pp l i e s , o r w a t e r . D e s e r t c l i m a t e s a r ec h a r a c t e r i z e d by h i g h t e m p e r a t u r e s , e x t r e m e r a n g e s oft e m p e r a t u r e , l a c k o f p r e c i p i t a t i o n , l ow h u m i d i t y , a nd w in d.E x t r e m e t e m p e r a t u r e and l o w h u m i d i t y a d v e rs e l y a f f e c ts o l d i e r s and t h e i r e qu ipm en t , e s p e c i a l l y s o p h i s t i c a t e de l e c t r o n i c e qu ip me nt .

    O b s e r v a t i o n and f i e l d s o f f i r e . The r e l a t i v e l y f l a td es e r t t e r r a i n a f f o r d s v i r t u a l l y u n l i m i t e d v i s i b i l i t y and ,t h e r e f o r e , w e ap on s em p lo y me nt a t maximum ranges. I t i s n o ta b s o l u t e l y f l a t , however , due t o t h e p r e s e n c e o f wad is , r o c kf o r ma t i ons , some s p a r s e g r o u nd c o v e r , a nd s l i g h t u n d u l a t i o n s .R ug ge d m o u n t a i n r i d g e s a l s o b r e a k up t h e f l a t n e s s of m o s td e s e r t a r e a s . Weapons a n d o b s e r v a t i o n p o s t s h av e a na dv a nt ag e when s i t e d on h i g h e r g r o u n d, e ve n i f o n l y a f e wm e t e r s abov e th e s u r r o u n d i n g t e r r a i n . O b s e r v a t i o n c an behampered by s e v e r a l u n i q u e d e s e r t e f f e c t s . H c c u r a t e r an gee s t i m a t i o n i s d i f f i c u l t , h e a t and t em pe ra tu r e v a r i a t i o n sc au se s e v e r e image d i s t o r t i o n s , and d u s t , s a n d s t o r m s , andb a t t l e f i e l d smoke c an make d i r e c t o b s e r v a t i o n i m p os s i b l e f o re x te n de d p e r i o d s of t i me . D us t c l o u d s c r e a t e d by weaponsf i r i n g a nd i mp ac t make s e n s i n g an d a d j u s t m e n t s o t f i r e muchmore d i f f i c u l t . B u r s t on t a r g e t c o r r e c t i o n s may be a l m os t

    i m p o s s i b l e m o s t o f t h e t i m e .

    Cove r and concea lmen t . The r e i s a g e n e r a l l a c k ofc o v e r i n t h e d e s e r t . T e r r a i n m as Kin g b e h i n d m ou nt a i n r i d g e s

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    a n d l a r g e s a n d du n es o r i n w a d is p r o v i d e s t h e o n l y c o v er w h i l em ov in g. The d e s e r t p r o v i d e s v i r t u a l l y no m a t e r i a l s f o ro ve rh ea d c o v er . The d i f f i c u l t y o f d i g g i n g i n a rm or v e h i c l e si s o f t e n a g g r av a t ed by l a r g e a r e a s o f p r e d o m in a n t l y r o c k ys o i I

    Concea lmen t i s v i t a l i n t he d e s e r t because o f t h ee x c e l l e n t o b s e r v a t i o n . C am ou flag e e f f o r t s m us t t a k e i n t oc o n s i d e r a t i on n o t o n l y c o n t r a s t a nd c o l o r b u t a l s o s ha pe ,shadow, a n d s h i n e . L i g h t a n d n o i s e a r e n o t a t t e n u a t e d a smuch i n t h e d e s e r t a nd a r e s e ns ed a t g r e a t e r d i s t a n c e s .M ovem ents c r e a t e d u s t c l o u d s v i s i b l e f o r m a n y m i l e s .

    O b s t a c l e s a n d m o b i l i t y . T a c t i c a l m o b i l i t y i s t h e k e yt o s u c c e s s i n d e s e r t o p e r a t i o ns . M a j o r p o r t i o n s of t h ed e s e r t " p e r m i t t r u e t w o d i m e n s i o n a l m ov em en t b y g r o u n d t r o o p ss i m i l a r t o t h a t o f a n a v a l t a s k f o r c e a t s ea .* C3 31 N a t u r a ld e f e n s i v e p o s i t i o n s a r e r a r e , l i m i t i n g t h e us e o f p o s i t i o n a ld e fe n s es . W h i l e t h e h a r s h , a b u s i v e d e s e r t d o es n o t p r e c l u d emaneuver of t r a c k e d v e h i c l e s i t does l i m i t movement o f heavyw h ee l ed v e h i c l e s . I n many a r e a s r e s u p p l y v e h i c l e s a nd t ow eda r t i l l e r y may be r e s t r i c t e d t o t he f ew r oads and t r a i l s .

    The r u g g e d m o u n t a i n s t h a t c o m p a r t m e n t a l i z e m o s t d e s e r t sbecome m a j o r o b s t a c l e s t o movemen t. Mo un ta i n passe s and t hef ew r o a d s t h r o u g h t h e s e p a s s e s become k e y t e r r a i n . L a v a b e d sa nd s a l t m a rs h es , w h i c h p r e c l u d e s u r f a c e m ovement, a r e a l s om a j o r o b s t a c l e s . Man-made o b s t a c l e s a n d m i n e f i e l d s a r e m o s t

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    e f f e c t i v e when t i e d t o t he se n a t u r a l t e r r a i n o b s t a c l e sr e i n f o r c i n g t h e i r e f f e c t s .

    I n s um mary , U.S. h e a vy f o r c e s a r e d e s t i n e d t o f i g h t i nt w o v e r y d i f f e r e n t s e t t i n g s , eac h dem and ing d i f f e r e n t t a c t i c sbecause of t h e e f f e c t s o f t e r r a i n a nd w e at h er . A s E n g l i s h ,U h l e - W e t t l e r , and o t h e r s have p o i n t e d o u t , he av y f o r c e s w i l lf a c e many c o n d i t i o n s i n C e n t r a l E u ro pe w h i c h w i l l n o t a l l o wt h e i r c a p a b i l i t i e s t o b e m a x i mi z e d. F o r e s t s , urban a r e a s ,and o t h e r t e r r a i n t e a t u r e s l i m i t m o b i l i t y , ob s e rv a t io n , a ndl o n g r a ng e f i r e s . Many a r e a s a r e m ore s u i t e d f o r p o s i t i o n a ld ef en se s. I n d e s e r t e n v i ro n m e n ts t h e o p p o s i t e i s t h e c a s e .The g en er a l f l a t n e s s a nd n e a r l y u n l i m i t e d v i s i b i l i t y andf i e l d s of f i r e a r e p a r t i c u l a r l y s u i t e d t o m a n e u v e r w a r f a r e .

    B a t t l e f i e l d C o n d i t i o n 2

    W h i l e t e r r a i n an d w ea th er c o n s t i t u t e t h e b a s i c p h y s i c a ls e t t i n g s o f b a t t l e s ev e ra l o t h e r f a c t o r s c an s u b s t a n t i a l l ya l t e r t h e b a t t l e f i e l d . F i r s t , n u c le a r weapons can c r e a t e ane n v i r o n m e n t of u n p a r a l l e l e d d e s t r u c t i o n , c o n t u s io n , a n ds t r e s s . S ec o nd , c h e m i c a l w ea po ns n o t o n l y c r e a t e m a ssc as ua l t i e s b u t , I i k e n u c l e a r w e ap on s, may d e ny u s e o fc o n ta m i na t e d p o r t i o n s o f t he b a t t l e f i e l d . T h i r d , u s e o fe l e c t r o n i c w a r f a r e t o c o n t r o l t h e e l e c t r o m a g n e t i c s p ec t ru mc an d e s t r o y an d d i s r u p t command a n d c o n t r o l . F o u r t h , u s e o fsmoke a n d s o p h i s t i c a t e d m i n e w a r f a r e , s u c h a s c an no n o r a i rd e l i v e r e d m i ne s , c an c ha ng e o r r e i n f o r c e t he n a t u r a l e f f e c t s

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    of t e r r a i n a n d w ea th er q u i c k l y a n d u n ex p e ct e d ly

    N u c l e a r Weapons. T he i m n e d i a t e e f f e c t s of n u c l e a rweapons a r e b l a s t , t he rm al r a d i a t i o n , i n i t i a l n uc l e a rr a d i a t i o n , a n d e l e c t r o m a g n e t i c p u l s e (EMP). T he se f o r c e s n o to n l y c au se i n j u r y , d e at h , a n d d e s t r u c t i o n b u t a l s o a l t e r t h eb a t t l e f i e l d t hr ou g h t r e e b lowdown, u r ba n d e s t r u c t i o n , f i r e s ,r a d i o l o g i c a l c o nt am i na t i on , an d p o s s i b l y f l o o d i n g .

    P r o t e c t i o n . The d e gr e e t o w h ic h t h e p h y s i c a l e f f e c t s o fn u c l e a r w ea po ns i m p a c t on m i l i t a r y u n i t s i s dependent ons e v er a l f a c t o r s i n c l u d i n g t h e d i s t a n c e o f t he f o r c e f r o m t h ei m p a c t , or g r o u nd z e r o , a n d t h e e x t e n t t o w h ic h s o l d i e r s an dt h e i r eq ui pm en t a r e s h i e l d e d . S o l d i e r s g a i n p r o t e c t i o n whenw i t h i n he av y a r m or e d v e h i c l e s , f i e l d f o r t i f i c a t i o n s , a n db u i l d i n g s o f h ea v y c o n s t r u c t i o n . I n Eur ope a l l of t h e s ef o r m s o f p r o t e c t i o n ar e a v a i l a b l e ; o n l y a rm o re d v e h i c l e s andd i g g i n g i n a r e f e a s i b l e i n t h e d e s e r t . D e s p i t e t h ep r o t e c t i o n t h e y a f f o r d t r o o p s, a rm or ed v e h i c l e s t he ms el ve scan be damaged o r r e n d e r e d u n u s a b l e by n u c l e a r w e a p o n s .B l a s t a n d t he r m al r a d i a t i o n c a n damage o r d e s t r o y t he s es ys te ms ; EMP c an d e s t r o y t h e i r u n s h i e l d e d e l e c t r o n i cc o mp o ne n ts a t e v e n g r e a t e r r a n g e s . A d e q u a t e l y w ar ne d, am o b i l e f o r c e c an q u i c k l y d i s p e rs e , i n c r e a se d i s t a n c e f r o m t h es u s p e c t e d ground z e r o , o r s ee k t e r r a i n t h a t masKs t h e u n i t .

    M a n eu v e r . N u c l e a r w ea po ns c a n n o t o n l y d e s t r o y o rdamage v e h i c l e s t h r o u g h b l a s t , t h e r m a l r a d i a t i o n , a n d EMP

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    ( w h i c h c an damage e l e c t r i c a l au tomo t i v e c omponen ts ), bu tt he se weapons a l s o d r a s t i c a l l y a l t e r t he t r a f f ic a b i 1 i tr o fthe t e r r a i n . I n b u i l t u p , f o r e s t e d Cent ra l Europe t r e eb lowdow n and u rban r u bb l e c ou l d r educ e mob i l t t y t o a W a l k i n gpace. A d d i t i o n a l l y , t h e d e s t r u c t i o n o f dams an d d i s r u p t i o no f t he f l ow o f wa te rw ay s by n u c le a r weapons c o u l d f l o o d f l a t ,open a re a s f u r t h e r d e g r a d i n g I i m i t e d mob i 1 i t y . I n d es e rtenv i r onm ents maneuver wou ld b e f a r less e f f e c t e d by n u c l e a rweapons. K e y m o u n t ai n p as se s, r o a ds , a nd b r i d g e s c o u l d b ed e s t r o y e d o r cont ami nate d, however , mal t ing movement o fv e h i c l e s t h r o u g h t he s e k e y a r e a s i m p o s s i b l e o r e x t r e m e l yr i s k y .

    F i r e p o w e r. B e si d e d i r e c t d e s t r u c t i o n o f weapon s y s t e m s ,t h e o n l y p r e d i c t a b l e de g r ad a t io n o f f i re p o w e r w i l l b e causedb y EMP e f f e c t s on s o p h i s t i c a t e d f i r e c o n t r o l s y s t e m si n c l u d i n g a r t i l l e r y com puters , f i r e c o n t r o l c i r c u i t r y i n

    moder n v e h i c l es , and sys tems t h a t d ep en d on b a t t e r y p owe rs uch a s a n t i - t a n k g u i d e d m i s s i l e s ( A T G M ' 5 ) . D e s t r u c t i o n o fr a d i o s and o the r command and c on t r o l ha r dwar e w i l l a l s ore du ce t he a b i l i t y of commanders t o sy nc hr on ize weaponsemp I oymen t .

    C hemi ca l Weanons. So v i e t f o r c es a r e r e p o r t e d l y w e 1 1e q ui p pe d a nd t r a i n e d f o r o f f e n s i v e a nd de f e n s i ve c he m ic alw a r f a r e . I n de e d, t h e y ' c o n s i d e r c he m ic a l m u n i t i o n s t o b e' co nv en t io na l ' weapons when d i sc us s i ng employmentd o c t r i n e , C 341

    33

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    P r o t e c t i o n . N o n -p e rs i s te n t a ge n ts p r i m a r i l y a f f e c tp e r s o nn e l . P r o p e r l y e qu ip pe d a nd t r a i n e d s o l d i e r s may beo n l y m i n i m a l l y e f f e c t e d c om pared t o p o o r l y t r a i n e d o re q u i p p ed t r o o p s or t h e c i v i l i a n p o pu l ou s . On t h e o t h e r h an d,p e r s i s t e n t a g e n t s a f f e c t p e r s on n e l , e qu ip me nt , and t e r r a i n .E f f e c t s a r e r e l a t i v e t o t h e d e g r e e t o w h i c h u n i t s a r ee q u i p p e d and t r a i n e d f o r c h e m i c a l d e f e n s e . D e c o n t a m i n a t i o no f t r o o p s a n d e q ui p m en t i s n o t o n l y t i m e c o n s u m i n g a n dp e rs o nn e l i n t e n s i v e b u t a l s o r e q u i r e 5 much w a t e r . W at er f o rd e c o n t a m i n a t i o n w i l l d e f i n i t e l y b e a p ro b le m i n t h e d e s e r t .A u n i t w h i c h e ng ag es i n m or e t h a n a h a s t y d e c o n t a m i n a t i o nw i l l o f t e n have t o be t e m p o r a r i l y r e l i e v e d o f i t s m i s s i o n .

    M an eu ve r. P e r s i s t e n t c h e m i c a l s c an r a p i d l y d eg ra dev i t a l a u t o m o t i v e c o m p on e nt s made o f r u b b e r a n d o t h e rm a t e r i a l s , s uc h a s t i r e s , r o a d w he el s, a nd s e a l s . P e r s l s t e n tc h e m i c a l s a l s o c r e a t e h a z a r do u s a r e a s w h i c h b ecome o b s t a c l e st o maneuver .

    F i r e p o w e r . P e r s i s t e n t c h e m i c a l s c a n a l s o damage someweapons o r weapon c om po ne nt s. A d d i t i o n a l l y , t h e w e a r l n g o f ap r o t e c t i v e mask de gr ad es a s o l d i e r s a b i l i t y t o emp loyi n d i v i d u a l or c r e w s e r v e d w ea po ns . U.S. a rm o re d v e h i c l e s a r en o t e q u i pp e d w i t h o v e r p r e s s u r e s y s t e ms t h a t w o u l d o b v i a t e t h ec r ew r e q u i r e m e n t t o m as k. F i r e p o w e r c a n b e d e g r a d e d by t h em er e t h r e a t o f enemy chemica l use as many u n i t s r e q u i r e t h a ta c e r t a i n pe r c en t a ge of a l l s o l d i e r s mask d u r l n g s u s p e c t e d

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    c h e m i ca l a t t a c k s , s u ch as a i r or a r t i l l e r y a t t a c k s

    E l e c t r o n i c w a r f a r e EW). The p r i m a r y e f f e c t of EW i sd i s r u p t i o n o f t h e command a n d c o n t r o l . EW c a n d i r e c t l ye f f e c t u n i t s b y r e d u c i n g t h e commander 's c a p a b i l i t y t oc o o r d i n a t e a n d sy n c h r o n iz e t h e i r m an euver and f i r e s .I n d i r e c t l y , EW c a n c o n t r i b u t e t o w e ap o ns b e i n g jam med a n d t ou n i t s b e i n g t a r ge t e d .

    Smoke and o b s c u r a n t s . T h es e w ea po ns a r e o r i e n t e d o nv i s i b i l i t y ; t h ey p r o v i d e c o nc e al me n t r ? du ce th e e f f e c t so f f i r e p o w e r . A s a d va n ce s i n t e c h n o l o g y p r o d u c e m o res o p h i s t i c a t e d o b s c u r an t s s uch as t h e r m a l d e f e a t i n g smoke, t h ea dv er se e f f e c t s on f i r e p o w e r w i l l b e i n c r ea s e d .

    M i n e w a r f a r e . O b v i o u s l y , m i n e s a r e u s e d t o d e l a y ,ch an ne l i ze , an d damage an enemy f o r c e . U n i t s s t o p p e d ev ent e m p o r a r i l y by m i n e f i e l d s a r e s u b j e c t t o d i r e c t an d i n d i r e c tt i r e s . A i r o r c an no n d e l i v e r e d s c a t t e r a b l e m i n e s ha v e a muchg r e a t e r p o t e n t i a l a s t h ey ca n b e d e l i v e r e d on a n u n s u s p e c t i n genemy a f t e r i t s r e c o n n a i s s a n c e e l e m e n t s ha v e c h e c k e d out ana r e a . A l s o , t h e y c a n b e e m p l oy e d a f t e r a n enemy u n i t hasb e en c o m m i t t e d t o a c o u r s e o f a c t i o n t h u s r e d u c i n g i t sf l e x i b i l i t y t o r e s o r t t o an a l t e r n a t e p l a n . A p o t e n t i a lweakness i n t h e e m p l o y m e n t o f s c a t t e r a b l e m i n e s i s t h ep o s s i b i l i t y t h a t t h e y w o u l d n o t b e c o v e r e d by o bs er ve d f i r e .

    I n summary, s p e c i a l w ea po ns w i l l s u b s t a n t i a l l y a l t e r t h e35

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    d e p t h , is c rowded w i t h p o t e n t i a l o b s t a c l e s a nd i mp ed im en ts t omaneuver by h ea v y g r ou n d f o r c e s . S p e c i a l weapons w i l le nh an ce t h e o b s t a c l e v a l u e of t h i s European b a t t l e f i e l d ;maneuver by h ea vy f o r c e s w i l l be s e v e r e l y r e s t r i c t e d . I tp r o v i d e s a s u b s t a n t i a l d eg re e of c o v e r a n d c o n ce a lm e n t y e te x t r e m e l y l i m i t e d o b s e r v a t i o n an d f i e l d s of f i r e . M o s t l o n gr a ng e d i r e c t f i r e weapons, s u ch a s t a n k s and A T W ' s w i l l n o tb e a b l e t o be emp loyed a t t h e i r maximum r a n g e s ; t h e r a n g eadvan tage of ATGM's ov er tan k ma in gun i s v i r t u a l l ye l i m i n a t e d . As E n g l i s h , S im p ki n, U h l e - W e t t l e r a nd o t h e r shave a rgued , i t i s an en vi ro nm en t s u i t e d f o r o p e r a t i o n sa g a i n s t S o v i e t f o r c e s n o t o n l y by m o b i l e h ea vy f o r c e s b u ta l s o b y l i g h t e r f o r c e s i n p o s i t i o n a l d e f en s es . T e r r a i nc h a r a c t e r i s t i c s r e q u i r e f o r c e s c a pa b le o+ manpower i n tensec om ba t o p e r a t i o n s i n c i t i e s , f o r e s t s , an d m ou nt ai ns , a s w e l las i n open t e r r a i n . R e s t r i c t i v e t e r r a i n o f t e n f a v o r s t heemployment of s t a t i c d ef en se s f r o m w h i c h f o r c e s c an c o n t r o l ,

    c a n a l i z e , a nd s t o p enemy f o r c e s . T he se a c t i o n s b r e a k t h etempo of S o v i e t o p e ra t i o ns , t i e up h i s f o r c e s , a nd p r o v i d eo p p o r t u n i t e s f o r c o u n t e r a t t a c k s by m o b i l e f o r c e s .

    On t h e o t h e r h an d , t h e v a s t e x p a n s es o f g e n e r a l l y f l a td e s e r t t e r r a i n seem m or e su i t e d f o r m a n e u v e r w a r f a r e .M o b i l i t y i s t h e k e y t o s u cc es s i n d e s e r t o p e r a t i o n s , bu t a sL u t t w a k p o i n t s o u t , i n l a r g e d e s e r t e n v i r on m e nt s w i t h a l o wf o r c e d e n s i t y t h e f o r c e s w i t h t he m os t m o b i l i t y may be l i g h tf o r c e s t r a n s p o r t e d by a i r .C 3 5 1 E x c e l l e n t v i s i b i l i t y an d l i n eo f s i g h t a l l o w w e ap on s t o be emp loyed a t max imum ranges .

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    H a v i n g s e t t h e s t ag e f o r f u t u r e b a t t l e , t h i s s t u d y w l l ln e x t ex am in e th e t h e o r y an d h i s t o r i c a l p r a c t i c e o f c o m b in e dar m s. O p e r a t i n g a s c om bi ned ar ms i s an i n t e g r a l p a r t o f t h ed o c t r i n e o f t h e U.S . Arm y , i t s a l l i e s , and t h e S o u i e t s .

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    ENDNOTES - CHAPTER 21 . Sun T s u , T h e A r t o f War, t r a n s . S.B. G r i f f i t h (London:

    O x f o r d , 1 9 8 2 ) , p . 1 29 .2. U.S. Depar tment o f t he A rmy, Ope ra t i on s , FM 100 -5

    ( Wa sh in gt on ,D . C. : U.S. G ov e rn me nt P r i n t i n g O f f i c e , 1982), p .1-1.3. F i e l