Colca Valley 2

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COLCA VALLEY

Ways of getting to the Colca Valley

The city of Arequipa is the starting point for the 165 km journey to the Colca Valley. The journey to the Colcamay be carried out independently, may be organized by a tourist agency or may be a combination of both.

For the tourists who wish to travel independently, the buses to Chivay and Cabanaconde, the two maintowns in the valley, set off from the bus terminal in Arequipa. There is a day bus and a night bus. The journeylasts approximately four hours with one stop at a police control. In Chivay you can find all the services a visitormight require, while in Cabanaconde, Yanque and Achoma, these services are limited. There are very fewtourist services in other towns or villages. There are local buses which travel between the towns and villagesin the valley, but their time schedule is irregular. It is more practical to hire a taxi for a few hours.

The travel agencies usually programme excursions which normally only include a visit to the southern areaof the valley, between Chivay and Cabanaconde. Some also offer visits to less well known sites, as long asthere is enough demand.

The third way is to combine both methods: first to take an organized tour and then stay on a few more daysin order to take your time and visit those hidden marvels which the Colca offers. This is an especially

interesting option for those who love walking as they can take time to tour all the valley.

Portrait of Arequipa

Arequipa is located in the South of Peru at the foothills of the Andes, 1,020 kilomtres from Lima. It is thesecond largest city of the country and a must for any tourist plans for visiting the Colca Valley.

If you are travelling up from the coast, due to the altitude in the Colca, it is advisable to stay in Arequipa forone or two days to get acclimatized and take advantage of the warm climate and the varied tourist attractions.

Arequipa has possibilities for tours within the city as well as to the surrounding area. Its varied culinarydelights are well known throughout the country. The "White City", as it is called due to the white volcanic rockwith which many of its buildings are built, maintains ancient architectural treasures in the way of grand houses

and impressive churches and monasteries. Historical tours include the visit to the Plaza de Armas (mainsquare) with its cathedral, the church of the Compaa de Jesus and the Santa Catalina Monastery. On theoutskirts the attractions include the Cayma district with a church built in 1730, and Yanahuara which also hasa church and an outlook point from where you have a magnificient view of the city and volcanoes whichsurround it. As far as excursions to the surrounding area are concerned, there are possibilities for visiting thepicturesque villages, the Mejia lakes, the Salinas and Aguada Blanca Nature Reserve or the Colca Valley.

Arequipa can be reached by land, along the Panamericana Sur highway, by train from Puno, or by air fromvarious cities in Peru.

Activities and routes

As mentioned before, the journey to the Colca Valley offers a great variety of attractions in the way of

ecology, landascape and cultural and historical monuments.

It is possible to visit all of these to a lesser or greater extent, depending on the transport available and thetourist's interests. So if you are an experienced mountain climber who wishes to try the high mountain tops ofthe area it is possible to find a prepared guide at the Arequipa Mountain Guides Association, who willaccompany you to see, for example, the origin of the Amazon River. If you enjoy trekking you may go onexcursions to all corners of the valley where you will see not only amazing flora and fauna and landscape, butalso wonderful archaeological remains and towns. The local guides enrich the experience with their interestingexplanations.


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We recommend that your stay in the Colca Valley should last at least three to six days. A stay this long willenable you to have quite a full impression of the cultural and natural wealth of the region. A shorter stay willonly enable you to see a part of what the Colca offers.

The following suggested route enables you to see a bit of everything using your own or hired transport andwe have called it the "Colca Classic Route". We also suggest some partial routes in the way of very practicalexcursions which you can use at your choice and depending on the type of holiday you want and the time you

have available. In a different section of this CD-ROM you will find detailed information about activities andjourneys which can be done in the Colca. These short lines are merely an introduction to this more completeinformation.

Climate, clothing and other recommendations

As the Colca is a valley enclosed by the high snow-capped Andes mountains at an average altitude of 3,500metres above sea level, its climate is typical of a high mountainous region. Temperatures rise and fall greatlyfrom day to night.

In the dry season (mid April to mid November) temperatures usually fall to below zero at night and reach 15C - 20 C during the daytime. During the rainy season (end of November to end of March), changes intemperature are less dramatic as the overcast sky impedes the penetration of the sun's rays and the heating

of the atmosphere during the day and the frost and cold at night. Temperatures vary between 5 C and 10 C.

As far as clothing is concerned, comfortable footwear for walking, preferably sports shoes or boots; warmclothes; a sun hat and a water bottle or container, are recommended. For the rainy season, it is also best tobring appropriate protection from the rain. For the visit to the spring baths at Chivay and Yanque you shouldtake swim wear and your own towel.

You must never forget to wear sun glasses and high sun factor protection cream when you visit the ColcaValley. A good, night moisturising cream is also recommended. If you plan to walk along some of thesuggested routes you should carry your own camping gear and first aid kit. You should also have becomeaccustomed to high altitude conditions for a few days first so that the physical exercise is not too demandingand your body does not suffer from lack of oxygen.

Finally, as the Colca Valley nears the Pacific Ocean it narrows and becomes a canyon. The Colca canyon

reaches a depth of approximately 3,400 metres. This view cannot be seen on any other of the usual tours. Itsaccess is down river and requires previous preparation as it is a difficult route. The maximum height which thestandard tours show is at the Cruz del Condor viewpoint (about a 1,200 metre fall).

ROUTES

CONVENTIONAL TOURIST OFFERHISTORY/CULTURE/MONUMENTS/LANDSCAPE

History, archaeology, culture, landscape, nature

THE "COLCA CLASSIC" TOUR (THREE DAYS AND TWO NIGHTS)

The three days and two nights "Colca Classic" tour starts from Arequipa on the first day towardsChivay through Yura, passing impressive volcanoes and scenery. After an initial climb we arrive at Pampa

Arrieros and then Pampa Caahuas, within the Salinas and Aguada Blanca Nature Reserve. This area isideal for short stops to watch vicuas, alpacas and other fauna and flora. After the police control atChasquipampa and taking a turn to the right, we can enter Sumbay and visit the cave paintings. Later wecome to a fork in the road: the right leads to Cuzco and indirectly to Chivay and the left heads straighttowards Chivay. We head briefly towards Cuzco to see the origins of the river Colca and to stop at thecave paintings at Mollepunku. Continuing the road there is a new fork and this time we take the left turn to


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enter the Colca. On route we visit Callali (church and rock formations) and Sibayo (church, handicraftsand surroundings). The arrival at Chivay, after a five-hour journey, marks the end of the day for a betteradaptation to the altitude. The spring baths at Chivay are three kilometres from the town.

The second day can start with a visit to Chivay and the surrounding area, including the archaeologicalremains of Uskallacta. After that we recommend travelling to Coporaque to admire the churches andsquares. From Coporaque, it takes an easy three hour walk to get to the village of Yanque. This walk

takes you past the archaeological remains of San Antonio, the spectacular Yurac Ccacca terraces, theOccolle outlook point and the hanging tombs of Chininea. After lunch at Yanque, the rest of the afternoonis taken up with visiting the beautiful church, the Choquehuanca Inca house, the Cervantes colonial bridgeand the spring baths. It is best to sleep the night at Yanque or Achoma. There are various places whichoffer accommodation.

The third day starts early in order to observe the flight of the condors from the Cruz del Condor outlookpoint. This place offers a good view of how the river starts to narrow (1,200 metres below) in order toreach a maximum depth of 3,400 metres much further on. From the Cross onwards you can enjoy aninteresting journey observing the flora and fauna of the area. On the way back to Chivay you can stop atplaces you did not visit on the way there. Lunch is usually eaten at Chivay before returning to Arequipa.The last part of the journey holds a surprise: the Patapampa outlook point which is the highest viewingpoint in the Colca at 4,800 metres above sea level, where you can admire the volcanic mountain range.


THE "COLCA CLASSIC" TOUR (FOUR DAYS AND THREE NIGHTS)

The four days and three nights "Colca Classic" tour starts from Arequipa on the first day towardsChivay through Yura, passing impressive volcanoes and scenery. After an initial climb we arrive at Pampa

Arrieros and then Pampa Caahuas, within the Salinas and Aguada Blanca Nature Reserve. This area is

ideal for short stops to watch vicuas, alpacas and other fauna and flora. After the police control atChasquipampa and taking a turn to the right, we can enter Sumbay and visit the cave paintings. Later wecome to a fork in the road: the right leads to Cuzco and indirectly to Chivay and the left heads straighttowards Chivay. We head briefly towards Cuzco to see the origins of the river Colca and to stop at thecave paintings at Mollepunku. Continuing the road there is a new fork and this time we take the left turn toenter the Colca. On route we visit Callali (church and rock formations) and Sibayo (church, handicraftsand surroundings). The arrival at Chivay, after a five-hour journey, marks the end of the day for a betteradaptation to the altitude. The spring baths at Chivay are three kilometres from the town.

The second day can start with a visit to Chivay and the surrounding area, including the archaeologicalremains of Uskallacta. After that we recommend travelling to Coporaque to admire the churches andsquares. From Coporaque, it takes an easy three-hour walk to get to the village of Yanque. This walktakes you past the archaeological remains of San Antonio, the spectacular Yurac Ccacca terraces, theOccolle outlook point and the hanging tombs of Chininea. After lunch at Yanque, the rest of the afternoonis taken up with visiting the beautiful church, the Choquehuanca Inca house, the Cervantes colonial bridge

and the spring baths. It is best to sleep the night at Yanque or Achoma. There are various places whichoffer accommodation.

The morning of the third day includes a visit to Lari with its spectacular church and also a two-hourwalk to the village of Madrigal, passing by lakes Haachigua and Lekempa. Madrigal is a good place tohave lunch. After a short visit to the church, we set off for Ichupampa where you can admire surprisingcolonial doorways. From there you take the road to Cabanaconde where you sleep the night. During this

journey tourists usually stop at the various viewpoints and at a place where cheese is made.

The fourth day starts early in order to observe the flight of the condors from the Cruz del Condor


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outlook point. This place offers a good view of how the river starts to narrow (1,200 metres below) in orderto reach a maximum depth of 3,400 metres much further on. From the Cross onwards you can enjoy aninteresting journey observing the flora and fauna of the area. On the way back to Chivay you can stop atplaces you did not visit on the way there. Lunch is usually eaten at Chivay before returning to Arequipa.The last part of the journey holds a surprise: the Patapampa outlook point which is the highest viewingpoint in the Colca at 4,800 metres above sea level, where you can admire the volcanic mountain range.

CONVENTIONAL TOURIST OFFERHISTORY/CULTURE/MONUMENTS/ LANDSCAPE

OPTIONS FOR THE "COLCA CLASSIC" ROUTE

Landscape, nature, physical-recreational.

THE COLCA GEYSER: Instead of returning to Arequipa on the last day of the "Colca Classic" tour,

you may sleep the night at Chivay, Yanque or Achoma. The next day we set off for Cabanaconde and turnoff a little after the village of Pinchollo, towards the Hatun Infiernillo geyser along a road only for four

wheel drive vehicles. The walk from where you leave the car to the geyser takes around 30 minutes. Thisactivity lasts two hours in total and it is not very strenuous. The route is not steep until the last twohundred metres. The difficulty lies in the altitude of the road (4,500 metres above sea level). This wholeactivity lasts two hours. Effort level: Easy

CABANACONDE AND NATURE: Instead of returning to Arequipa on the last day of the "ColcaClassic" tour, we sleep in Cabanaconde and set off the next day on a three days and two nights tourwhich takes us to San Juan de Chuccho, Tapay, Corihua and Malata, based at Sangalle, a uniqueecosystem in the valley and the canyon, forming an oasis of riverside vegetation in a warm, subtropicalclimate with abundant vegetation, fruit trees and a beautiful landscape. This route begins at Cabanaconde(at 3,250 metres above sea level) and descends to 2,200 metres above sea level in the oasis. Thisimpressive difference of 1000 metres takes us through the heart of the Colca and its variety of ecologicallevels, microclimates and natural diversity. Effort level: Moderate-Demanding

THE COLCA OASIS:Instead of returning to Arequipa on the last day of the "Colca Classic" tour, we

sleep at Cabanaconde and set out the next day for Sangalle, the Colca oasis. This option is different fromthe previous tour in that we head straight for our destination and we aim to enjoy a pleasant climate, fruitand a few days rest and relaxation surrounded by nature with a unique view of the Colca canyon. The tourlasts two days and one night camping at the oasis which provides a camping area, toilets and a swimmingpool. Effort level: Moderate-Demanding

THE COLCA WATERFALLS:Instead of returning to Arequipa on the last day of the "Colca Classic"tour, we sleep at Cabanaconde and set off the following day on a three day and two night tour to the mostspectacular waterfall in the Colca, Huaruro. The route leads through the oasis, the village of Paclla, until itreaches the waterfall. During the walk you can see a great variety of ecological levels, landscape, climatesand the walk varies in difficulty (from very easy to moderate and strenuous). Without a doubt, this is one ofthe most complete walks in the Colca. It is a strenuous and demanding tour. Effort level: Demanding.


"NATURAL COLCA" ROUTE (THREE DAYS AND TWO NIGHTS)

Nature, ecology, physical-recreational, rural


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The "Natural Colca" starts from Arequipa on the first day towards Chivay through Yura, passingimpressive volcanoes and scenery. After an initial climb we arrive at Pampa Arrieros and thenPampa Caahuas, within the Salinas and Aguada Blanca Nature Reserve. This area is ideal forshort stops which enable us to observe the ecosystem of the arid, high plateau with vicuas, alpacasand other fauna and flora. After the police control at Chasquipampa and taking a turn to the right, wecan enter Sumbay and visit the cave paintings. Later we come to a fork in the road: the right leads toCuzco and indirectly to Chivay and the left heads straight towards Chivay. We head briefly towards

Cuzco to see the origins of the river Colca and to stop at the cave paintings at Mollepunku.Continuing the road there is a new fork and this time we take the left turn to enter the Colca. Onroute we visit Callali (rock formations) and Sibayo. The arrival at Chivay, after a five-hour journey,marks the end of the day for a better adaptation to the altitude. The spring baths at Chivay are threekilometres from the town.

The second day starts early in order to observe the flight of the condors from the Cruz delCondor outlook point. This place offers a good view of how the river starts to narrow (1,200 metresbelow) in order to reach a maximum depth of 3,400 metres much further on. From the Crossonwards you can enjoy an interesting journey observing the flora and fauna of the area. On the wayback to Chivay we stop and explain the landscape and the ecosystems at Tapay, Antahuilque,Choquetico and Achumani. Then we visit the centre at the Achoma hotel and have lunch. In theafternoon, we walk to the river bed to see the Colca river ecosystem. It is best to sleep at Yanque or

Achoma. There are several places which offer accommodation.

On the third day we set off for Cabanaconde and turn off a little after the village of Pinchollo,towards the Hatun Infiernillo geyser along a road only for four wheel drive vehicles. The walk fromwhere you leave the car to the geyser takes around 30 minutes. After this tour, we return to Chivayto visit the village of Maca and the geological fault which runs through it and to visit a place wherecheese and dairy products are made. We have lunch at Chivay and then return to Arequipa. The lastpart of the journey holds a surprise: the Patapampa outlook point which is the highest viewing pointin the Colca at 4,800 metres above sea level, where you can admire the volcanic mountain range.

Optional: At the end of the second day, instead of staying the night at Acho, or Yanque, you canspend the night at Cabanaconde and take any of the optional tours as options for the "Colca Classic"Route.

CONVENTIONAL TOURIST OFFER

HISTORY/CULTURE/MONUMENTS/LANDSCAPE

"THE OTHER COLCA" (THREE DAYS AND TWO NIGHTS)

Historical, archaeological, religious, cultural, landscape.

"The other Colca" Tour starts from Arequipa on the first day towards Chivay through Yura,passing impressive volcanoes and scenery. After an initial climb we arrive at Pampa Arrieros andthen Pampa Caahuas, within the Salinas and Aguada Blanca Nature Reserve. This area is ideal forshort stops to watch vicuas, alpacas and other fauna and flora. After the police control atChasquipampa and taking a turn to the right, we can enter Sumbay and visit the cave paintings.Later we come to a fork in the road: the right leads to Cuzco and indirectly to Chivay and the leftheads straight towards Chivay. We head briefly towards Cuzco to see the origins of the river Colcaand to stop at the cave paintings at Mollepunku. Continuing the road there is a new fork and this timewe take the left turn to enter the Colca. On route we visit Callali (church and rock formations) andSibayo (church, handicrafts and surroundings). The arrival at Chivay, after a five hour journey, marksthe end of the day for a better adaptation to the altitude. The spring baths at Chivay are threekilometres from the town.

The second day can start with a visit to Chivay and the surrounding area, including thearchaeological remains of Uskallacta. After that we recommend travelling to Coporaque to admire


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the churches and squares. From Coporaque, it takes an easy three hour walk to get to the village ofYanque. This walk takes you past the archaeological remains of San Antonio, the spectacular YuracCcacca terraces, the Occolle outlook point and the hanging tombs of Chininea. After lunch atYanque, the rest of the afternoon is taken up with visiting the beautiful church, the ChoquehuancaInca house, the Cervantes colonial bridge and the spring baths. It is best to sleep the night atYanque or Achoma. There are various places which offer accommodation.

The third day includes a visit to Lari with its spectacular church and also a two hour walk to thevillage of Madrigal, passing by lakes Haachigua and Lekempa. Madrigal is a good place to havelunch. After a short visit to the church, we set off for Ichupampa where you can admire surprisingcolonial doorways. From there you take the road back to Chivay before returning to Arequipa. Thelast part of the journey holds a surprise: the Patapampa outlook point which is the highest viewingpoint in the Colca at 4,800 metres above sea level, where you can admire the volcanic mountainrange.

SUBJETS

THE BATTLES OF CHAYLLAYCHO: THE STRUGGLE FOR THE IRRIGATION OF COLCAVALLEY

ABSTRACT

The battles that have occurred between two villages of the Colca Valley, Yanque and Coporaque,for the control of water sources, reflect the importance of irrigation in this semiarid environmenttypical of the western Andean escarpment. They also reflect the problems caused by the division ofpopulation and catchment basins into two or more administrative units as of the colonial period.

This paper traces the history of population and territorial fragmentation as they transpire fromcolonial and republican documents pertaining to the Province of Collaguas, now called Caylloma.The author argues that in the prehispanic and early colonial period, native authorities controlledpopulation and irrigation sources over extensive territories; and that colonial institutions such asvillages, and republican administrative units such as distritos and indigenous or peasantcomunidades (a legal construct associating groups of peasants) tend to create opposition andconflict over territorial boundaries and access to irrigation water.

ANDEAN IMIGRANT IN THE DESSERT: THE MAJES IRRIGATION PROJECT

INTRODUCTION

The Majes Irrigation Project in the department of Arequipa, Peru had approximately 12,000hectares and 25,000 inhabitants in 1996. By definition all inhabitants of Majes are migrants, as thelocation is a desert where there has only been water since 1982. The Pampa de Majes is an irrigatedarea, run by the Majes, Arequipa, Irrigation Project. The Pampa de Majes population is basicallydivided into tenant farmers and employee labourers, temporary workers like craftsmen, merchantsand employees of state institutions as well as national and international development projectworkers.

Most of the farmers and their labourers are from the Andean region and have previous experience

in animal and crop farming. The Majes project was originally designed to be a social project but inactual fact it has promoted milk production for dairy factories and other agricultural related industries.

The Majes project has been called a complete development project and its objective was to satisfythe demands of the Arequipa region for more cultivable land. The Project would use the water fromthe Colca river and the Apurimac river to irrigate 57,000 hectares in the Majes and Siguas areas onthe coast; 3,000 hectares in the highlands between Cabanaconde and Huambo and supply twohydroelectric plants. According to Jacob Maos, the Project was accepted because irrigatedagriculture is and will be one of the main social and economic resources in Peru. The coast is so aridthat it requires a great deal of irrigation. It depends almost entirely on water which flows from the


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Andes mountain ranges to the Pacific Ocean.

The government at the time presented the Majes project as an example of social justice for theless favoured farming class.

Infrastructure

The Majes project infrastructure began in 1971. The work for the transfer of water from the Colcariver to the Siguas river and then to the Pampa de Majes was started by an international consortiumby the name of MACON. The company began to build a reservoir for the water of the Colca river, inCondoroma. It would store water during the rainy season (December to March) to be used during thedry season (April - November). In 1992, the infrastructure for the transfer of the Colca river waterthrough the Condoroma reservoir to the Pampa de Majes was complete. There were economicfactors however, which did not enable the project to work as planned and some of the water wasbeing used for other irrigation areas.

The geographical, topographical and ecological environment

The Pampa de Majes is slightly uneven and is sufficient to allow normal drainage. The land isdesert and there is not much erosion except in places where rivers like the Siguas and Vitor arelocated and deep U valleys have been formed. During the winter there are thick mists. Thetemperature reaches 28 degrees centigrade and the minimum temperature is 11 degrees centigrade.

At present the irrigated area is humid due to the evaporation of the watering by sprinklers, whichcreates a type of greenhouse effect. As there is a tendency to over irrigate, water forms pools in thelower parts of the plots of land and mosquitoes proliferate. Approximately 90 percent of Majes growsalfalfa for dairy production.

MIGRANTS IN THE MAJES IRRIGATION PROJECT

The water from the Colca river arrived at the Pampa de Majes for the first time in 1982. Manypeople, mainly from the provinces of Arequipa, Caylloma and the Siguas valley, applied for land. TheColca valley inhabitants had been promised that they would be given priority if their lands had beenaffected by the Majes channel infrastructure, however inhabitants from other areas were also givenpriority, as were some inhabitants who did not meet the economic and social requirements but whowere from more socially privileged groups.

The Information Bulletin explained that the land was desert and that there was no vegetation ororganic material. It was sandy and stoney. The farmers would have to withdraw the stones wi th greateffort. Then they would have to level the surface, a new activity, which would require machinery tofacilitate drainage. The Agricultural Bank would provide loans for the acquisition of machinery forirrigation and levelling. The farmer would have to have his own sprinkling system. There were somewater supply points for human consumption. In many cases, however, the farmers did not actually goto live in the area but rather paid others to take charge.

Tenant farmers, low paid labourers and employees

The migration to the Majes project was greater than expected but not all of those who lived there

were the farmers. Some of the inhabitants were low-paid labourers and others were not the originalbeneficiaries. In the case of the labourers, there is a constant turnover. It is hard to tell what theirgain is as they live in very poor dwellings and receive very little for their work.

Many of the migrants are originally from the highlands but have already had experience of living onthe coast.Therefore they are indirect migrants. However, they do have difficulties as far as theirrigation is concerned as they are not used to the type of irrigation required. The irrigation by gravitywhich they are accustomed to is forbidden in the Majes and it is only carried out illegally.

In the highlands the farmers have the right to farm but they do not possess the land as it belongs to


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the community. However, the Majes project offers the right to buy the plot and have the title deeds.

Economic, technological and social problems

The bank loans and technological training offered became more difficult to come by. The farmerswere advised to live in small towns with basic municipal, school and religious services , but the towns

were mainly occupied by employees of the different commercial, banking, religious and educationalinstitutions and by temporary workers, merchants and craftsmen. The farmers and labourers or thosein charge of the land live mainly on their land.

Irrigation system on the Pampa de Majes

The Majes Project uses three irrigation systems which are: irrigation using sprinklers which ismainly for the alfalfa; drip irrigation using special filters for fruit orchards and grapevines andirrigation by gravity which requires ditches on a slope, which is officially forbidden but is used due tolack of equipment. In general those farmers with experience were accustomed to the latter type orflood control irrigation and therefore tend to water excessively when using sprinklers.

Conclusion

The Majes project is one of the development projects which attracts people from the highlands tothe coast, directly or indirectly. The population however, in Majes fluctuates and changes constantly.The original intention of favouring the poor peasants and farmers with 5.5 hectare plots of land is notmaterializing. The social and economic environment in Majes reflects Peruvian society, divided intoclasses and in which the land is owned by few. The evaluation carried out before the project beganand a lack of understanding of the national reality, did not foresee obstacles which cropped up duringthe development of the project (such as the amount of farming land to be destroyed in the Colca; thedemands of the farmers in the Siguas valley; the fact that the majority of the farmers would notactually reside on the Pampa and would leave their land to others to look after and the fact that theland where alfalfa was sown became grazing land for animals which provided milk for the dairycompanies). However, The Majes Project did provide paid employment and training for aconsiderable sector of the Colca population for a decade and it enabled a number of Andeanpeasant farmers to receive land.

GEOLOGICAL ASPECT OF THE COLCA VALLEY

The Colca Valley is located in a geologically rich and active area. It is located in the south ofPeru, in and between the Andes mountains, and it belongs to the South American tectonic plate.This continental plate lies under the Nazca oceanic plate. The friction between both at a depth ofover 100 kilometres causes the magma to rise to the lithosphere through large geological crevices,thus forming volcanoes.

So, the Colca area is predominantly made up of volcanic rocks, with the presence of somesedimentary rock. This type of rock can be seen to the northwest of Maca.

The most recent sign of vulcanism, is made up of the highest mountains in the valley: the HualcaHualca, Ampato and Sabancayo volcanoes.

The Colca valley is noticeable for the diversity of materials which cover it: the alluvial terracesmade up of conglomerates, gravel and mud slime. The second structure is made up of alluvialcones. These materials have descended from the high parts due to water erosion and probablyglacial activity.

Maca, Lari and Madrigal stand out for the presence of great masses of rock. These frequentlyslide, greatly affecting agriculture. The landslides are produced by the clayey lithology of some of the


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sediments, the abundance of water and the fracture of the land and even by active geological faults.

The volcanoes

Two of the at least four active volcanoes in the south of Peru, are to be found in the Colca valleyor in the tourist areas linked to the Colca. These are the Sabancaya and Misti volcanoes. Along with

the Ubinas and Huaynaputina volcanoes, they both belong to the central Andean volcanic region.The snowcapped mountain, Sabancaya, by the Colca valley, is the highest of the active Peruvianvolcanoes. It is located near to the ancient Hualca Hualca volcano and the most recent one, Ampato.

The Sabancaya has been permanently active sine 1987. Its activity alternates between periodsof relative calm and periods of increase in intensity. At present, the columns of ash from theSabancaya rise from one to four kilometres into the air for ten minutes at a time, at irregular intervals.The ash is carried by the wind for several kilometres.

The volcano started its reactivation in 1990 when the columns frequently reached over fivekilometres into the sky and were seemingly full of volcanic particles. At that time llama and alpaca

pasture in the area was stopped due to the ash.

At present, it is impossible to foresee the future evolution of the Sabancaya. Historical narrativestell of similar activity during the XVIII century. And the volcano's name in Quechua means "he whospits", suggesting that this type of eruption did occur during the pre-Columbian era. Only a greatereruption could affect the Colca valley inhabitants, at 20 kilometres from the volcano.

How to visit Sabancaya

The best place to see the Sabancaya eruptions is the Pampa de Sallalli. You can reach thereusing a four wheel drive vehicle, along a dirt road which heads directly off the Arequipa-Chivay road,at Solarpampa. The journey lasts four or five hours from Arequipa, and approximately two hours fromChivay. The climb up to the crater is long and a guide is recommended. You must sleep the night atthe mountain pass between Sabancaya and Ampato.

Misti

The Misti volcano is the most well known of the Peruvian volcanoes, not only for its symmetricalbeauty but also, and most of all, for its proximity to Arequipa.

Its activity has been known of for at least 35,000 years, when the most ancient eruption occurred.During this long period of time, up until the present, several dozen significant eruptions haveoccurred. The latest eruption took place 2000 years ago. This eruption started with the emission ofvolcanic material which fell on Arequipa. It is probable that over the last 2000 years, several minoreruptions have taken place.

If a significant eruption of Misti did occur, Arequipa would be in a critical position. An eruptionwith an unfavourable wind, could cover the city in ash and pumice stone causing severe damage. Itis possible that serious avalanches could occur. For example, the city is partly built on the remainingsediment of the collapse of the Pichu Pichu volcano. An avalanche of this nature would completelydestroy the city of Arequipa in a few minutes.

How to visit Misti

The climb up Misti usually takes two days there and back. There is no technical difficulty inclimbing it, but it is essential to be physically fit. A mountain guide is advisable. You can descend into


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the exterior crater, but it is dangerous to venture into the small central crater.

Ashlar stone

The beauty of Arequipa lies partly in the white ashlar stone used for building all of the colonialbuildings in the centre. In the Colca Valley, the Lari church has also been built completely out of this

stone.

Ashlar is a volcanic rock which comes from a particularly violent eruption which took place overtwo million years ago. It is the product of monstrous streams of fire and lava which submerged thewhole Arequipa basin. At the time of its emplacement and due to the high temperature, it solidifiedand formed the compact consistency which enables it to be used as construction material. If aneruption similar to that of the ashlar ever occurred again, the city of Arequipa and the neighbouringplains would disappear without a trace.

Seismic aspects of the Colca

The south of Peru is well known for its strong seismic features. The seismic activity in the Colcavalley is significant. In July 1991 an earthquake of 5.2 degrees occurred and completely destroyed

Maca and its church.

The geyser and the hot springs

The Colca valley has several hot mineral springs, probably associated with the vulcanism. Theirorigin is in the rain water which filters in the subsoil and is heated in the depths due to its proximity toa magmatic chamber. Thus the water is lighter than the surrounding cold water and it rises to thesurface. If there are cracks in the earth, they favour a rapid rise to the surface, the water does notlose its heat. In some cases the magma transfers a certain quantity of carbonic gas to the water,changing it into high quality mineral water.

To the south of Pinchollo, in the Colca river canyon, there is a constant jet of water vapour. Thereare also hot spring baths at Chivay and Ichupampa.

Mineral resources in the Colca Valley: mines

The Colca valley has two mines. The Maca and the Madrigal mines.

The Maca mine contains diatomite. This contains the same typology as carbon, petroleum andnatural gas. The mine is located in the Jatun Chicta region.

The Madrigal mine contains metalic minerals. Up until a few years ago, copper, zinc, lead andsilver were mined here. Due to economic measures, their mining ceased to be profitable and atpresent the mine is abandoned. The mine also contains quartz, calcite, galena, sphalerite,chalcopyrite and pyrite.

THE CANYON: A DEEP AN ANCIENT GORGE

High up, in the desolate places of Imata, near the Jayuchaca lagoon, the many Colca tributariesspread out over an Andean arch of over sixty kilometres. They run down the hills and, like theChilamayo river, the headwaters of the Colca, they join the new river bed. It is here that the riverbegins its wilful journey which ends in the Pacific Ocean under the name of the Camana river.

The torrent runs through parts of the canyon which only the midday sun touches and on its


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journey it lays bare the geological formations which have gathered since ancient times.

HISTORY OF THE CANYON

Seventy million years ago, during the Senonic period, the first Peruvian Andean upheaval, thePeruvian Uplift, ocurred. This wide-ranging orogenic movement of mountain building was followed by

abundant volcanic outlets which spread all along the meridional mountain range, forming a strongplatform. Much later, towards the end of the Tertiary period, the great volcanoes which stretch fromthe 150 parallel latitude to Tierra del Fuego, began to rise. Simultaneously, igneous (crystalline)rocks appeared which, after extensive erosive processes caused by differences in temperature,became exposed to the outside world. Thus, the Huaraz, Volcabamba and Urubamba mountainranges had been formed.

During the Oligocene period, thirty five million years ago, the Continental Mountain Rangeemerged with heights of up to a thousand or two thousand metres, causing new foldings of thesedimentary strata. Much later, towards the end of the Tertiary period, during the Miocene and thePliocene periods, new eruptions occurred causing a great accumulation of volcanic layers.

Tangential thrusts, particularly in the Pliocene period, produced the Quichano folding and liftedthe range up to the altitude which it has today. During this period and the Pleistocene period,

volcanic activity begins again and forms, among other outstanding mountains in the south of thecountry, the Coropuna and the Ampato.

The eroding effect of the water which descends from the glaciers and from the differentglaciations which occurred in the heights of the range millions of years ago, has laid bare theenormous upheavals in the geological formation. The fluvial lake terraces located above the presentriver bed on which the terraces are, are a clear indication of the above.

That is, the break in the base level due to sudden (in geological time, naturally) and sharpupheaval of the Andes, caused the narrowness of the river and molded the terraces which stretch allalong both sides of the valley. The deep vertical cut in the crust, the canyon, is, then, ageomorphological occurrence, a product of erosion.

The Colca river bed is at 1,300 metres altitude, and the average height of the volcanic peaks is of

over six thousand metres. There is then, a real difference of about five thousand metres: the ColcaCanyon is, without a doubt, one of the deepest in the world.

RIVER EROSION

Like the other rivers located in the north and south, the Colca's winding route cuts through threewell defined geomorphological layers: the western slopes of the Andes mountain range, scatteredwith formidable volcanoes; the arid plains of the constantly wind-blown deserts; and the low ridges ofthe coastal range, a projection of the Paracas peninsula.

The Colca river descends from 4,500 metres to sea level. The violent erosive activity which itleaves on its way is the result of the accentuated unevenness in the land on most of itsapproximately 450 kilometre journey.

From its origins on the high plateau right to its mouth, under the names of Majes and Camanasuccessively, rocky strata can be seen along its banks. The most ancient rest at the bottom and themost recent at the top at ground level; except where the Tectonic compression, the crushing of thecrust structure, has caused such an upheaval that it has inverted the sequence. But this does notoccur in the Colca region.

In the stratigraphic sequence that the Majes river reveals, however, some strata have beendeposited or the million year erosion factor has purged them. In the area which corresponds to thePaleozoic Period, the Cambrian, Silurian, Carboniferous and Permian periods are missing; and in the


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area that corresponds to the Mesozoic Period, the Triassic period is missing. However, all theCenozoic periods are registered, from the Eocene to the Pliocene periods; and the Neozoic Period isalso present.

This cut in the coastal mountain range which the Majes river pierces, is also a deep 40 kmcanyon (all the rivers which descend from the Andes to the Pacific Ocean and towards the AmazonBasin have the characteristics of the Canyon). Rocks from the basal complex of the Coast, from thepre-Cambrian period, can be seen there; examples of the primitive crystalline base of the crust. Thin,calcareous and sandy strata cover the outcrop; and on it lies a unique surface of Tertiary perioderosion with the sediments of the Camana formation. Along both banks, subvertical strata can beseen covered by Tertiary period deposits.

Up river, in the high plateau area, the volcanic layers cover all the underlying formations,particularly basalt and andesite. The aborigenes used these blocks which had fallen from the heightsfor the impressive petroglyphs at Toro Muerto.

On the rough escarpments of the Colca canyon, sandstone, slate, quartzites and oil shale can beseen, formed in the Jurassic Period. And it is all covered by volcanic layers which end in theCoropuna and the Ampato. The stratigraphic sequence which appears in the former is very vast: itrepeats the succession studied in the area surrounding Arequipa and on the basis of which all theoutcrops in the south of the country have been determined. The above sequence includes nearly allof the Jurassic Period (Yura formation) and the Cretaceous Period (Aucurquina limestone).

Evidence of how the Orogenic impulses carried ancient sedimentary formations to great heights,can also be found between the Colca and Callalli. There, at 4,600 metres above sea level, thequartzites can be seen in the Yura formations and the Aucurquina limestone from the Jurassic andCreatceous Periods. Such is the intimate and exciting panorama which the endless erosion of theColca river is determined to show us.

THE HISTORICAL PROCES

. THE FIRST GUANACO HUNTING AND GATHERING INHABITANTS

In the Colca Valley, in 10,000 BC, geographical conditions were more or less the same as they are

today. During this period, which is also called "pre-ceramic", groups of hunters and gatherers weresettling in the highlands and on the coast. Seed, fruit and bird egg gathering was selective. Thesame happened with guanaco and bird hunting. This method of avoiding the collapse of differentspecies encouraged early settling in the Andes. Although the inhabitants did not know ceramics, theymade arrow heads from stone. The Sumbay cave painting are a good example of life as it was then.This cave was inhabited between 5,800 BC and 3,000 AD. On the walls, the hunters had paintedanimals such as camelidae, pumas, foxes and other extinct animals running away. One ancientgroup of arrow heads were made of black volcanic rock. Another later group made arrow heads ofobsidian. There are also disc shaped knives, scrapers and burins for sewing.

2. AGRICULTURE AND LIVESTOCK

A similar revolution to the Neolithic one in Europe, began in the Andes as from 3,000 BC. In theColca valley where the climate is arid, irrigation agriculture became the main factor of the society's

transformation. The place where this change is clearly noted is the Mollepunco cave. This caveshows camelidae and the domestication of these animals over many years. Later, sculpturedpictures in the cave show camelidaes with ropes around their necks as well as corrals. Studies haveshown that the llama was the result of the domestication of the guanaco and the alpaca was theresult of the domestication of the vicua.

3. ARCHAEOLOGICAL SITES

Sumbay


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Mollepunco

Pumunuta

Yanque Viejo

Uyo Uyo

Uska Llacta

Inca Houses

YanqueLari

Cabanaconde

USKA LLACTA

This is a prehispanic village with a cemetery and a colonial mill. It shows different eras includingthe Inca and colonial ones. The most important sector shows rectangular dwellings made of stone.They have a very narrow central door. Nearly all had two floors.

There is evidence of the fires that were caused by the Spanish captain, Lope de Suazo, whoburned these buildings in about 1570 to force the Collagua indians to move to the Spanish Chivay.The indians farmed the terraces. There are stone tombs and a colonial mill. There is evidence of

Inca and Chucuito ceramics as well as earlier examples. This site has a magnificent view of thevalley as well as the opportunity to observe the colourful costumes of the inhabitants. In fact, it is animpressive experience to watch the ancient customs during the harvest or when seed is being sownin Uska Llacta. Despite all of these attributes, Uska Llacta is not well known to tourists and is not welladvertised.

ACHACHUA

This is a walled, prehispanic village with public areas and cemeteries. It is strategically located bythe canyon at 1,200 m above the river, offering magestic views. Condors can also be seen. Themajority of the dwellings are still buried. This is the best place to explain the urban process in thevalley and its links with the Ayacucho capital , Wari, during the era. It was very defensive andcontrolled agricultural production which at present is corn.

This site is not visited often by tourists, nor is it well advertised.

INCA HOUSE IN CABANACONDE

These houses were occupied by the Incas in Cabanconde for administration purposes. The housesare rectangular with one door facing East. They are built in Cuzco style. Previously the village wasoccupied by the Cabana ethnic group. The town is at present inhabited and although the buldingsare known and admired, they are not well cared for or visited much by tourists.

INCA HOUSE IN YANQUE

These are houses from the time of the Inca occupation of Yanque for the Cuzco administration ofthis area of the valley. The Spaniards also arrived there. They are two storey, rectangular houseswith one door. The architecture is in Cuzco style and ceramic was also found there. The site waspreviously inhabited by the Collagua ethnic group.

UYO UYO or YANQUE VIEJO (Ichupampa)

This is a prehispanic village. There are terraces and channels surrounding it. The rectangulardwellings are made from stone and have one central door. Nearly all of them have two floors. Thevillage is divided into two sectors by a channel. This place shows clearly the organization of a rural


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Inca village.

This village had a local population of farming Collagua Yanque inhabitants. The Spaniards foundthe Collagua indians living in this village and they forced them to move to the present town ofYanque. There is a myth about this event.

The place has a spectacular view of the terraces and landscape. The colourful costumes of thelocal farmers are attractive. Despite its easy access from the road and from Ichupampa this site isnot visited regularly by tourists. It is not well advertised either.

SAN ANTONIO - CHURA (Coporaque)

This is a prehispanic village with cemeteries and terraces as well as abandoned wells andchannels. It lies at the foot of the Pumachiri hill. There are various sectors which correspond todifferent eras. The dwellings are rectangular and made of stone with one tall, narrow door. Nearly allof these houses had two floors. These houses were also burned by Captain Lope de Suazo as heforced the Collagua indians to move to Coporaque. There is a rectangular chapel which stands onthe top of the San Antonio hill. It is a solitary, rectangular structure.

Despite its spectacular landscape and its archaeological significance, the site is not visited

regularly by tourists and information about it is not readily available.

CHININEA (Yanque)

These are tombs built into the side of the canyon, known also as hanging tombs. They areindividual and group tombs built in stone and mud in caves dug into the wall of the canyon, followingancient traditions. They have small doors. The tombs were looted by the Spaniards. They can onlybe reached using ropes.

They are directly related to the San Antonio - Chijra complex inhabited by Collagua indians.

Despite its archaeological importance and magnificent view, the site is not regularly visited bytourists. It is easily accessible by means of a 20 minute walk to visit Coporaque, San Antonio,

Chininia and Yanque. More information should be made available.

AGRICULTURE IN THE COLCA VALLEY

The first types of agriculture in the area were irrigated by flooding and later systems of irrigationextended to the highlands. There is no record of when agriculture began in the Colca valley however,research shows that the first fields were on the high slopes of the valley near the glacial watersources.

These are typical characteristics of the Colca valley. It is difficult to determine the age of theterraces as research shows the existence of different periods of farming and occupation. Terraces(Andenes) are generally modified and so soil is mixed and provides confusing results for analysis.

Terraces and their functions

1. The terrace provides soil on non farmable land or retains soil which can be eroded.2. Erosion control.

3. Microclimate control: the terraces can create favourable microclimates for crops, protecting themagainst freezing temperatures, wind and sun.4. Humidity control: the terraces retain humidity and enable irrigation to be uniform.


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Types of agriculture

Land is classified by its access to irrigation sources. Some fields which have access to water arenot being farmed. Some fields which are irrigated have terraces and others do not. These latter fieldsare slightly sloping. Some terraces are not called this by the inhabitants if they are on topographicallynamed plains. Farmers maintain that sloping fields can be irr igated if the water is carefully managed.

Vegetable Gardens

These gardens are irrigated by means of a system of channels which flow through the streets.Gardens usually produce vegetables such as lettuce, carrots, onion and garlic. Some families growflowers or eucalyptus trees.

Irrigation

The inhabitants have a saying which says that to irrigate is to teach the water. They must force thewater to flow in the appropriate directions and at the right speed. The inhabitants are concernedabout saving water. They tend to value land according to its access to water sources.

Irrigation in the valley has three purposes:

1. To bring forward the growth period for the crops to September, before the rains start;2. To enable crops to ripen before the cold sets in April and May.3. To rescue crops if the rains do not come after sowing.

The Majes Project developed during the eighties consisted of the use of the Colca and Siguasrivers to facilitate irrigation for 12,000 hectares of the coast on the Pampa de Majes. This modernsystem has also regulated and improved the water sources for the left hand side of the Colca valley.The right hand side uses the Colca river and its streams.

Terrace Rehabilitation

The terraces in the Colca valley have slowly been deteriorating and there are fewer and fewerareas for farming. Therefore, annual improvement and rehabilitation are necessary. The process isas follows: the deteriorated terraces are selected; work teams are organized and then cleaning,digging and repairs are carried out.

Farming

The Colca has very limited mechanized farming due to the following facts:

Uneven topography

Low profitability

Lack of means of communication and transport between the production and commercialization points

Yield limited due to climate

Agricultural machinery is needed less as there is sufficient manual labourLittle diffusion of information about improved technology

Traditional farming tools used

The Chakitaqlla is a foot plough

The spade

The threshing stick


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Plough pulled by oxen

Division of the Colca land

At present there is a significant extension of more than 3000 hectares of abandoned terraces. Agreat investment is needed to repair them. Although the increase in population has not been great,

there has been an increase in small farms.

Seeds

32 varieties of corn seed, 12 of broad beans and up to 54 varieties of quinua seeds have beenrecorded.

Farming system in the Colca Valley

1. Monoculture

This consists of farming one crop such as

Corn in fertile areas not affected by cold and with good water retention

Barley in areas exposed to cold

Broad beans in flat areas not affected by cold

Alfalfa in flat areas and terraces with good water retention.

2. Mixed Farming

This system particularly applies to sectors with some climatic, water or fertility limitations.

Corn / Borad beans on terraces with lack of water

Corn / Peas on terraces not affected by cold and with good water retention

Broad beans / Quinua in flat areas and terraces which have low fertility and are exposed to cold

Corn / Potato in cold areas with abundant water and high fertility

Broad beans / Potato in cold, fertile areas with abundant water areas

Corn /Quinua /broad beans in terraces with little water and soil fertility problems.

3. Crop rotation

Crop rotation is based on programming different crops which diversifies the crop production andimproves weed control, improving too the farmers economic possibilities for commerce. Theadvantages are as follows:

Pest control

Rational soil exploitation

The need for large quantities of supplies is reduced

Weed control

Two or more harvests a year.

4. Ploughing

The advantages of this are:

Weeds rot


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The earth softens, breathes and rests

Worms are eliminated

The soil absorbs the sun's rays

The soil is looser

Pests and plagues are avoided

Fruit growing

The main fruit production is apples, pears, peaches, quinces, figs, pacaes, lucumas, custardapples, guavas, citrus fruit and avocado pears. The fruit production is low and the orchards are oldand not maintained adequately.

Main Crops

POTATO (Solanum tuberosum)

According to records potatoes have been identified as having existed for 9000 years on theAndean coast. The Spaniards discovered the potato on arrival in Peru and by 1573 it was being usedin Seville, Spain. Soon the plant was taken illegally into France and most European countries. There

are over 3000 varieties.

CORN (Zea mays)

Some consider corn to be originally Mexican. It was found in Cuba by Columbus' men and it wassoon taken to Spain and by 1525 had spread over all the peninsula. By the XVIII century it wasaccepted as food for human consumption. There are approximately 10 local varieties in the Colca.

QUINUAQuinua was the basic staple diet of the prehispanic peoples. According to research it originates inLake Titicaca. It is not easy to cultivate it out of the Andes as it depends on a great deal of sun.

Other crops in the Colca

Caihua (grain)

Kiwicha (grain)

Trawl (Grain)

Olluco (tuber)

Oca (tuber)

Au, Isau (tuber)

Achira - Maca (tuber)

Arracacha (tuber)

Yacon (tuber)

The Colca agriculture and its place in the regional and national economy. The localmarket depends on supply and demand and manual labour is also offered.

This latter involves a temporary migration. Participation in the financial market is limited as this isrestricted by credits from financial entities.

1. Farmers who are integrated into the market. They keep part of their produce for their ownconsumption and the rest is commericalized.2. Farmers with little participation in the market. This category includes farmers who give priority tosubsistence farming and reciprocity.3. Farmers with two types of different produce. These are the fruit farmers who produce fruit for their


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own consumption and for exchange and cochineal for the local market.

Often other activities or the offer of their own manual labour must be carried out for subsistence. Allmembers of the family participate in the production and economy of the home.

Role of the women in the Colca farming

The women participate actively in farming such as preparing the land, selecting the seed andsowing, fertilizing the soil and weeding.The men drive the plough, level the ground, control pests and irrigate.

All the family participates in the harvest. The women also run the home and are responsible for thedomestic activities, the garden, the children, etc.

ANDEAN RESTORING IN THE CALLUMAYO: LARI MICRO BASIN

PRESENTATION

According to the inventory carried out by the National Office for Natural Resources in 1988, theColca Valley holds a total of 10,220 hectares of terraces. Some of these are abandoned and

deteriorated, others are partly maintained and 4,760 hectares are in good use. The conservation andmaintenance of these terraces are important for the area. Without terraces this land could not befarmed. The inhabitants who should carry out this maintenance and these repairs, require training inthe techniques for repairing and maintaining this important productive resource which is also a greattourist attraction.

I. TERRACES AND THEIR IMPORTANCE

The terraces or "pata patas" are man made modifications on the slopes of hills which form steps orhorizontal platforms sustained by carefully built stone walls in order to keep the earth firm and so beable to cultivate crops in adverse topographical and climatic conditions.

IMPORTANCE OF THE TERRACES

The following are the many advantages of the terraces:

1. They keep the earth firm on the sloping hills avoiding the erosion of farming land by water.2. They take greater advantage of the irrigation and rain water.3. They make the most of fertilizers and maintain their natural fertility better.4. The terraces facilitate farming on slopes for the inhabitants, making it easier for ploughing andother activities.5. They create an appropriate climate for crops, reducing the effect of frost due to the fact that theymaintain the heat of the sun during the day.6. The wind on terraces does not cool or dry the soil as much and so reduces the effect of the cold

winds.7. The terraces as a whole generate a diversity of microclimates which enable the inhabitants tocultivate a variety of crops.

II. PARTS OF A TERRACE AND HOW IT WORKS

The terraces are not simple structures but rather a complex system.


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1. WALL OR "ANCHACA"

The wall of the terrace is a retaining wall made of stones of different sizes placed precisely one ontop of the other.This provides stability. The wall follows the curve of the contour and slopes slightly inwards.The height of the wall depends on the width of the terrace and the slope. To fill in the terrace, small

stones are used behind the wall to give it greater stability and drainage.

2. TERRACE

This is the platform where the crops grow. Some of these are based on the side of the hill itself andothers are more man made. The man made terraces use stone for drainage, then sand and clayeysoil as well as fertile earth.

3. IRRIGATION DITCHES

These structures are used for watering the terraces. The terraces use four types of irrigationditches for different functions.

Ditches at the head of the terrace or "Orccoyas" control and take the water to each terrace. They aremade of stone and earth.Sloping ditches flow down the centre of the group of terraces and are made of stone. They havechannels which branch off to each terrace.Falls or "Pakchas" and "K'alchas" transfer the water from a higher terrace to another interior one.When the water fall is steep, it is called a "Pakcha" and when the fall is subdued by a channel, it iscalled a "K'alcha".Drains or "Wikchuras" are ditches which are at the end of a group of terraces to evacuate the waterto a main ditch.

4. PATHS OR ACCESS

These structures enable the farmers to reach the terraces with ease:

"Zarupas", "Charq'eas" or "patiqllos" are steps made of stone set in the wall."Pucaras" is a stairway which sticks out and is parallel to the wall. It is made of stone which has beencarefully tied to the wall and the terrace."Hatun Pukaras" is a side stairway which joins several terraces at one side and it lies parallel to theirrigation ditches.

III. REPAIRING OF THE DETERIORATED WALLS

When a wall falls, it must be rebuilt immediately.

IV. CONSTRUCTION OF NEW TERRACES

1. EVALUATION OF THE TYPE OF SOIL

It is important to design the type of terrace which is to be built according to the depth of the soil, theslope and the shape and size of the land.


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2. CALCULATION OF THE SIZE AND DESIGN OF THE TERRACES

According to the depth of the soil and the slope, the calculations can be made for the height of thewall and the width of the terrace.

3. PROCEDURE FOR BUILDING

Mark the lines according to the contour line of the hill.

Smooth the curves so that the terraces do not have sharp bends.

Dig the foundation at a reasonable depth.

Start building the foundation with stone.

Continue the wall using stone.

As the wall is built, the filling should be added and compressed.

4. OPERATION FOR FILLING THE TERRACE

The terrace is a flat platform. It is advisable to work in small spaces or stretches of land at a time.

5. BUILDING OF THE SECOND TERRACE.

The same method is used for the next terrace except that this time the building starts at theopposite end.

6. BUILDING OF COMPLEMENTARY STRUCTURES

During the building process, the stairs and irrigation ditches will also be built.

7. FINISHING AND CHECKING THE TERRACE

An edge is built along the wall to avoid water escaping during irrigation and the terrace is levelledoff to give a flat terrace. The A-Frame can be used to measure and check the level.

TERRACES MUST BE BUILT FROM ABOVE, MOVING DOWN. NEVER BUILD USING DRYEARTH.

V. TERRACE MAINTENANCE

1. Irrigation must be controlled

2. Vegetation must be constantly cleared from the walls.

3. The walls must be checked regularly.

4. The pathways must be repaired.

5. Ploughing must not be done parallel to the wall.

6. The yoke must be used carefully.

7. Use natural compost to improve the quality of the soil.8. Avoid loose animal grazing.

9. Never plant trees near the edge of the terrace.

THE A-FRAME

This is a simple instrument used for contour lines. It is made of 3 thin poles, some string and astone. The poles are tied in the shape of an "A" and the string with the stone on the end is hung from


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the top.

MANTEINENCE AND OPERATION OF IRRIGATION INFRAESTRUCTURE

INTRODUCTION

The Colca Valley agriculture is peculiar for its low irrigation technique. Among the main

problems of this area are the handling of water and the irrigation system deterioration

due to lack of maintenance.

On the last few years, private and government institutions have done works of irrigation

systems at a high cost; if maintenance work is not periodically done on these systems

they will not last as long as they are expected to do.

The rustic (stone, earth and others) and permanent (concrete) irrigation system

maintenance must be programmed as an extra activity of the farm work (canal, floodgate

and sand-clearer cleaning); This way the construction life-span is secured and greater

availability of water, which is scarce here, is also guaranteed. This work is also intended

for those farmers who use the irrigation system facilities and water administrators as well

as for the authorities that are directly involved in the control and supply of water. The

irrigation system maintenance works are directed to the Comisiones de Regantes

(Irrigators Commissions) but the people who actually use each canal are the ones who

will be interested in securing the proper use of water on their farms.

DESCO - Centre for the Research and Promotion of Development

APACOLCA - Association of Farmers in the Colca Vallet

Project: Seed Production and Resource Management in Ichupampa

Colca Valley Rural Programme

Team Work Lower Area

DESCO Garcilazo de la Vega 210, Chivay, caylloma, Arequipa Domingo Gamio 112,

Umacollo, Arequipa.

PARTS OF THE IRRIGATION SYSTEM

1. OUTLET

This is the hydraulic structure which collects the water and takes it to the channel.


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1.1 PARTS

Wall - for channeling the water

Barrier - to divert the water

Entrance for the water to enter the channel

Well for sand and stone removal

Scouring sluice for removal of material accumulated in the well

Overflow channel

Flood gate to regulate the water flow.

1.2 MAINTENANCE

Stones deteriorate the infrastructure and therefore it requires repair using cement,

stones or other materials.

The main problem with the floodgates is corrosion.

2. MAIN CHANNELS

These are the most important in the irrigation system.

2.1 WHY DO THEY DETERIORATE?

The reasons for deterioration are as follows: Heavy rain, animals, lack of flow control,

plants.

2.2 MAINTENANCE

Channels must be cleaned at least twice a year by the community.

a. Slightly sloping earth channels.

When these are cleaned, digging must not be too deep. The interior sloping walls must

be cleaned inwards. When a channel has been affected by landslides or too much

filtration, compressing can be carried out to repair, using the following:

Clay

Stones


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Soil compacting

To compress adequately:

Measure the original channel (width of base and height of walls, as well as slope.)

Excavate to form a new channel.

Excavate for the walls.

Add the clay to the ditches and compress it in 10 cm layers.

Check the quality of the compression, using a pick.

Add rocks to slopes and floor to avoid erosion.

b. Concrete channels

The main problem with the concrete channels is fissures and cracks. In order to

maintain these, they must be repaired with cement and sand. Trees must be planted to

control landslides. Infiltration ditches can control the run-off.

3. THE RESERVOIR

The water that enters the reservoir drags the earth that accumulates causing a

diminished capacity for storing water; obstruction and corrosion of earth walls.

MAINTENANCE

Withdraw the earth deposits in the desilter and the reservoir. If the walls are made of

earth, always maintain the slope and use rocks. Grease and paint the valve of the flood

gate. Repair the fissures and cracks in the walls. Protect the walls and surroundings of the

reservoir with trees and bushes.

4. OTHERS

4.1 FLOW MEASURE

It is of great importance to regulate the quantity of water that the crops and land

require. In order to measure accurately, the channels must be cleaned frequently.

4.2 LATERAL CHANNELS

These are located in the high parts of each irrigation sector all along the main channel.


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The flood gate must always be made of wood or metal.

4.3 AQUEDUCT

Used for crossing a road or stream.

4.4 CHUTE

These are used for water from streams in the rainy season to flow over the channel

without damaging it.

4.5 DRAINS

These must be built in places where channels cross roads. They must be maintained to

avoid blockages.

4.6 FALLS

These are located in places where the land is very uneven. The water must fall vertically

into a well. This avoids erosion.

4.7 RAPIDS

These are structures which enable the water to pass over very uneven and steep land. A

well for calming the water torrent is necessary. It must be kept clean.

4.8 WATERFALL STEPS

These are used for taking the water over very steep and uneven ground.

4.9 IRRIGATION CONTROL STRUCTURES

These are lateral turnouts which divert the water to a natural stream for maintenance

purposes.

4.10 WATERING PLACE

These must be located in places where animals pass. Frequent maintenance is

necessary.

ARQUITECTURE AND URBANISIM IN THE COLCA VALLEY

INTRODUCTION

This article is a description of architectural and urban development in the Colca Valley. It alsointroduces the reader to an understanding of the architecture and urban development in the valley as


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an answer to the social, cultural, historical and physical factors of Collagua life.

ARCHITECTURE

Evolution of urban and architectural structures throughout history

Pre-hispanic period

The villages were spread along the Colca valley forming "Ayllus", divided into two parts: HananSaya and Hurin Saya.

The dwellings were organically organised around a central space. Religious symbols wererepresented by elements of nature (hills, snow capped mountains). The Incas imposed a politicalorganization represented by the "curaca" (chief) in each Ayllu.

Colonial period

The indian population was forced to live in new urban groups in order to collect taxes and havemanual labour easily accessible.

The streets were formed by blocks, around a central square, with a church and the town council.

A new type of rectangular dwelling was imposed, with the door facing onto the street. The villageswere still divided into two areas, socially and by location. The "Curacas" no longer had supremeauthority but shared it with the new mayors.

Republican period

The Independence did not constitute a social revolution. Colonial architecture did not change.However, a new concept of dwelling arose. The house looked inwards onto an interior patio.

The new State political system named the Colca villages as districts.

The 60's, 70's and 80' of the XX century

The Agricultural Reform brought about a substantial change in the ownership of the land in Peru.Many large estate owners disappeared and made way for small farmers.

Many new buildings appeared such as schools, markets and medical centres. New materials suchas cement, corrugated iron and iron were used.

Commerce and consumption of consumer goods increased due to the arrival of the MACONIrrigation Project and shops began to appear. Shops were an integral part of a house.

The villages are still organised into groups according to location. This facilitates communityparticipation for public works.

The present type of building

The buildings today are all organised around an interior patio. However, some houses are used forshops, others include animals pens. Houses can also be of different shapes.


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The dwellings - spatial distribution

Some areas are covered, such as the kitchen, the entrance, the bedroom, store room. Others areopen, such as the patio, pens and gardens. Some houses are very simple with the basic patio,kitchen, one all-purpose room and the animal yard. Others have more rooms.

The kitchen is used only for the purpose of cooking. It is small, dark and for the family.

The owner participates actively in building the house, choosing the materials and design and ingiving the house a name and status. Religious elements are always present in the house (candles,niches, etc.). The family, neighbours and some builders all help to build the house.

Social and Cultural Aspects

The dwellings are divided into common and more open areas where celebrations and get-togethers can take place, and more intimate areas which are only for the family members, such asthe kitchen, bedroom and store room.

Once the roof is finished, there is a ritual celebration which involves giving the house a name andspirit.

Social and community gatherings take place in the patio, the streets and the square. The calendarof these celebrations is based on the agricultural calendar.

Bull fighting is also a popular community celebration. If there is no bull-ring, it is carried out on anyconvenient open space.

Within community life there are three important moments when people get together: when the roofof a house is finished, a marriage and a funeral.

Building Materials

Traditional materials

Earth - The sand and clay proportions in the soil are ideal for building. The earth is also thermal. Itis used in the foundation and as bricks.

Adobe- This is a brick made of mud mixed with straw and ichu. It is thermal and mainly used forwalls. To make adobes the mud is prepared first with the appropriate addition of straw. Then it isplaced into moulds and dried in the sun.

Stone- This is used for various different parts of the house. It is easily acquired in the rivers ornearby and transported by truck or donkey and cart.

Wood- This is mainly used for roofs or doors and windows.

Straw- This is a material which has been used for hundred of years. It is mainly used for thatchedroofs and also to mix for adobes. The most common are straw made from ichu and also straw madefrom barley. Straw does need appropriate maintenance.

Industrial materials

The most common industrial and non- traditional material is corrugated iron. It is being used more


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and more to replace straw for roofs. Acoustically and thermally speaking, it is not appropriate.

RELIGIOUS ARCHITECTURE

Colca Churches

Churches were built in the Colca in order to present a symbol of Christianity within the indianvillages. The Collaguas built and decorated these large, impressive churches and were well knownfor their artistic abilities.

Most of the Colca churches are surrounded by vestibules or esplanades. Luis Enrique Tord statesthat most of the churches were built between the last third of the XVII century and the beginning ofthe XIX century.

Nearly all the churches are in the shape of a Latin cross, have a large nave, access to the towerfrom inside and chapels. Nearly all the churches have two square bell towers. They also have openchapels which were for celebrating mass with the indians in the open air.

IMMACULATE CONCEPTION CHURCH IN YANQUE

Construction

The old church was built by the Franciscans towards the end of the XVI century, but fell down in1690. Indians, in groups, organised by the Spaniards, worked on the building with the traditionalrituals and celebrations. Unfortunately the church went on fire in 1802 and many valuable objectswere destroyed. What was left was used, along with donations and community efforts, to repair thechurch. Several different types of craftsmen worked on the church, such as painters, sculptors,carpenters, brick-makers and tile-makers as well as stone masons and builders.

Church

This church has a typical architecture of the time with a long main nave, the shape of a cross and

two towers. The two extraordinary facades of this church are beautifully decorated with relief. Thereis a deteriorated image of the Virgin Mary. The decoration includes flowers, fruit and leaves. Saintsare also depicted there along with the figure of a Bishop on horse back with a sceptre in his hand. Hewas Bishop Antonio de Leon (1700 and 1702).

This facade is unique in the region but has similar characteristics to some in Cajamarca, CentralAmerica and Mexico.

The facade facing the square is different and shares Renaissance and Baroque designs, which isdifficult to explain. There are monograms of Christ and Mary as well as the Franciscan arms. Otherdecorative elements include lions, eagles, dragons and vegetables.

Cobbled stones

The entrance has coloured cobbled stone, which presents various decorative designs. The outlinesare mainly in brown and white. The following designs can be seen: a rhombus, two circles and thesun with eleven rays including two eyes, nose and lips. There are other circles and a half moon on arectangle.

THE PURISIMA CONCEPCION CHURCH IN LARI

Building


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This is one of the most spectacular churches in the Colca Valley and the only one which completedthe full design of the Latin cross and a dome.

The church was built during the second half of the XVIII century by the Priest Juan Bautista Ramoswho started it in 1758. The church was 83 metres long and 11 metres wide. The dome was made bythe Priest Luis Lazo de la Vega. Despite the grandeur of this church, the village had less than 1000inhabitants. The Priests and Church would donate large sums of money for these constructions andthe inhabitants would provide the manual labour. Repairs were made later to the church in the XIXcentury, due to an earthquake, a fire and also faults in construction. Certain parts of the church werebuilt in strict imitation of the large churches in Arequipa. Later a cemetery was also built.

The church

It is a strong, powerful church, but the towers seem somehow out of place with the main body ofthe grand church. This type of construction may have been carried out due to the fear ofearthquakes.

It is built in the shape of the Latin cross with a main nave and a dome. There are two bell towers,topped by small pinnacles. There are many similarities between this church and churches in

Arequipa, such as the San Francisco church. Decorations on the facade include white, green and

red images on a yellow background. The main altar has impressive carved stone and the pulpit andeasel paintings include indian images.

The church is separated from the square by a double entrance area, divided by stone pathways.These serve as separations between the profane universe (the village and the square) and thesacred universe (the church).

The impressive Lari church once again indicates the historical distinction of Lari as being high-ranking within the Collagua culture.

INTRODUCTION

This article describes the architecture in the Colca valley and in particular in the Province ofCaylloma.

This is an agricultural region which is well known for its spectacular terraces, its Barroque churchesand tourist attractions. The Colonial aspects of its villages and architecture, are obvious.

Yanque was the capital of the Collaguas province; Lari was equally important for the Colonialauthorities and Coporaque was the first village to be evangelized by the Franciscans. These threevillages were typical of indian villages converted to christianity and re-organized by the Spaniards.

The article is divided into two parts. The first part analyses the use of space in the village and thesecond part focuses on architectural details.

1. TERRITORIAL PLACEMENT AND SPATIAL FORMATION

1.1 Location characteristics

Yanque, Lari and Coporaque are located within the agricultural sector of the Colca valley between3,200 metres above sea level and 3,800 metres above sea level. Yanque and Lari are built on similarflat ground whereas Coporaque is built on a slope with water running through the middle whichbreaks the tradition of the typical square village.

Yanque occupies a central place which facilitated political and administrative control. Its


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agricultural land is on both sides of the river. Lari and Coporaque have their fields surrounding them.

Most of the inhabitants of these villages are farmers and their lives are linked to the land and not tourban living.

1.2 Physical and spatial organization

1.2.1 Yanque

Yanque is a very regular village, in the shape of a grid. This was a characteristic of the indianvillages established by the Spaniards. There is a square in the middle. There are two main roadswhich cross at the square, one runs from East to West (Camino Real) and the other from North toSouth (Avenida Fray Martin de Porres). The cemetery is in the South. The village ends abruptly onthe east where the fields start. This was another Spanish characteristic. Whereas in the North, thevillage ends far less precisely with a mix of rural and urban characteristics.The village is divided intoblocks.

1.2.2 Lari

Lari is divided into two different areas: the "new town" which is compact and square, to the North ofthe church; and the "old town", to the South, which has semi-regular rectangular and trapezoidalblocks. There are buildings which are seemingly pre-Colonial such as one called the "Chief's house".

The church is the largest in the valley and the land surrounding it is vast. The limits of the villageare difficult to define as the houses have been abandoned and are in ruins.

1.2.3 Coporaque

Coporaque has a semi-regular shape with square, rectangular and trapezoidal blocks. TheChillintira river runs through the middle of the village from North to South. This does not howeverdeform the grid shape of the village around the square and church.The blocks around the edges of the village are mainly uninhabited.

1.3 Public space and architectural expression

The architectural structures show a desire to structure a new society on the basis of Europeanmodels. The symbolic value of the church was obvious as it was placed in the centre of the villageand was large and of different colours to the other dwellings. The portico or area in front of thechurch symbolized the transition between the sacred and the profane.

The square was fundamental and used for traditional feasts, dances and processions. It was alsoused for markets or transport.

1.4 Churches and convents

The churches in the Colca have been studied for their religious architecture. They are generally in

the shape of a Latin cross with one main, high nave. They usually have two square towers with bells.

They are built out of ashlar which is white, but black stone was also used in the case of Lari andCoporaque. The Coporaque church, which apparently dates back to the XVI or XVII century, has hadits old straw roof replaced by metal roof. Later churches, such as Lari and Yanque, have the typicaldomed roofs of stone and brick. The old convent in Yanque is still in use and is in good condition. Itis South of the church. Some fruit trees are grown in the patio and there is a well there.


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1.5 The squares

1.5.1 Yanque

The main square in Yanque occupies four blocks of land. It is rectangular with the church in theSouth and other buildings to the North. In the 1930's eucalyptus trees were sown there from East to

West. Later other modifications have been made which are alien to the local reality. These variationshave neither added to the square's beauty nor to its usefulness as an open space for publicgatherings.

1.5.2 Lari

The main square in Lari occupies nine blocks of the "new town" and has a trapezoidal shape. Thechurch, municipal stadium and other buildings are to the North, and other houses and shopssurround the rest of the square. Some buildings and modifications have been built which inhibit theuse of the square and affect the dominance of the church over the square.

1.5.3 Coporaque

Coporaque main square occupies around 10,000 m2 and is trapezoidal. The church is at the top of24 steps. The bull ring is also in the main square area. Fortunately the archways of stone and tiles,which provide access to the square, are still standing.

1.6 The Streets

The streets are approximately 4.80 to 6.80 metres wide. The use of cobbled stone to pave roadsand/or pavements , has died out. Ditches with water for washing, animals and gardens, run along themiddle or sides of the streets, some still in their stone channels.

1.7 Cemeteries

The cemeteries in the Colca valley are usually surrounded by a wall, with a doorway and a chapel.

In the three villages we have studied, the cemetery is separated by about 200m to 250m from theinhabited area.

The Yanque and Lari cemeteries are surrounded by mud brick walls the tomb stones face theentrance. Some cemeteries have tables and places where inhabitants drink after the funeral.

1.8 The bridges

The Yanque bridge, known as the Puente Cervantes, is a stone structure in the shape of atriumphal arch built at the end of the Colonial period. The bridle paths leading to it mean that carscannot cross it but it is well used by inhabitants.

1.9 Bull ring

Bull fights are traditional in the Andean villages and are carried out on religious and village feastdays. Yanque celebrates these on the 1st of May (Virgen de Chapi), 13th June (San Antonio) and16th July (Virgen del Carmen). The bull ring is circular and surrounded by a mud brick wall. TheCoporaque bull ring is very large compared to the Yanque one.

1.10 Public pools

Several public pools are used by inhabitants for washing and swimming. There are some built in


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Yanque. Coporaque has some spring baths which are used as public swimming baths.

1.11 Stadiums

The stadiums are built using standard football field dimensions and a free space for the public.

1.12 Public services infrastructure

The inhabitants of rural villages see their basic needs as different to those of the peopleaccustomed to the services offered by urban areas. The water used for domestic purposes comesfrom the thaw. Most houses have a tap and sink in an outside patio this water must be boiled fordrinking. There are no drainage systems. The inhabitants use the fields or animals pens for theirneeds.

Inhabitants get most of their food from their own crops. Meat is obtained through exchange withshepherds.

Many of the villages have a diesel operated generator for supplying electricity to the main streetsand square.

Nearly all the rubbish is organic so it is rapidly devoured by pigs. Other rubbish is burned. There isa medical centre in each village but inhabitants often use medicinal herbs as th

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Colca Valley 2