Manuel Luis Quezon University

School of Graduate Studies

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY IN PSYCHOLOGY

Quiapo, Manila, Philippines

COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY

First Semester SY 2014-2015

INTRODUCTION

Why do we remember people whom we met years ago, but sometimes seem to forget what we learned in a course shortly after we take the final exam (or worse, sometimes right before)? How do we manage to carry on a conversation with one person at a party and simultaneously eavesdrop on another more interesting conversation taking place nearby? Why are people so often certain that they are correct in answering a question when in fact they are not? These are just three of the many questions that are addressed by the field of cognitive psychology.

Cognitive psychologists study how people perceive, learn, remember, and think. Although cognitive psychology is a unified field, it draws on many other fields, most notably neuroscience, computer science, linguistics, anthropology, and philosophy. Moreover, cognitive psychology interacts with other fields within psychology, such as psychobiology, developmental psychology, social psychology, and clinical psychology.

Cognitive psychologists study a wide range of psychological phenomena such as perception, learning, memory, and thinking. In addition, cognitive psychologists study seemingly less cognitively oriented phenomena, such as emotion and motivation. In fact, almost any topic of psychological interest may be studied from a cognitive perspective.COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY DEFINEDCognitive Psychology is the study of how people perceive, learn and remember, and think about information. A cognitive psychologist might study how people perceive various shapes, why they remember some facts but forget others, or how they learn language (Sternberg, 2012).Cognitive Psychology focuses on the study of how people think, understand, and know. They emphasizes on learning how people comprehend and represent the outside world within themselves and how our ways of thinking about the world influence our behavior.From a cognitive learning perspective, learning involves the transformation of information in the environment into knowledge that is stored in the mind. Learning occurs when new knowledge is acquired or existing knowledge is modified by experience. Among the main issues studied and discussed by cognitive psychologists are:

The cognitive theories present a positive view of development, emphasizing conscious thinking.

The cognitive theories (especially Piagets and Vygotskys) emphasize on the individuals active construction of understanding.

Piagets and Vygotskys theories underscore the importance of examining developmental changes in childrens thinking.

The information processing theory offers detail descriptions of cognitive processes.

In cognitive psychology, the ways of addressing fundamental issues have changed, but many of the fundamental questions remain much the same. Ultimately, cognitive psychologists hope to learn how people think by studying how people have thoughts about thinking.

The progression of ideas often involves a dialectic. A dialectic is a developmental process where ideas evolve over time through a pattern of transformation. What is this pattern? In a dialectic:

A thesis is proposed. A thesis is a statement of belief. For example, some people believe that human nature governs many aspects of human behavior (e.g., intelligence or personality; Sternberg, 1999). After a while, however, certain individuals notice apparent flaws in the thesis.

An antithesis emerges. Eventually, or perhaps even quite soon, an antithesis emerges. An antithesis is a statement that counters a previous statement of belief. For example, an alternative view is that our nurture (the environmental contexts in which we are reared) almost entirely determines many aspects of human behavior.

A synthesis integrates the viewpoints. Sooner or later, the debate between the thesis and the antithesis leads to a synthesis. A synthesis integrates the most credible features of each of two (or more) views. For example, in the debate over nature versus nurture, the interaction between our innate (inborn) nature and environmental nurture may govern human nature.

The dialectic is important because we may be tempted to think that if one view is right, another seemingly contrasting view must be wrong. For example, in the field of intelligence, there has been a tendency to believe that intelligence is either all or mostly genetically determined, or else all or mostly environmentally determined. A similar debate has raged in the field of language acquisition. Often, we are better off posing such issues not as either/or questions, but rather as examinations of how different forces covary and interact with each other. Indeed, the most widely accepted current contention is that the nature or nurture view is incomplete. Nature and nurture work together in our development.

Nurture can work in different ways in different cultures. Some cultures, especially Asian cultures, tend to be more dialectical in their thinking, whereas other cultures, such as European and North American ones, tend to be more linear (Nisbett, 2003). In other words, Asians are more likely to be tolerant of holding beliefs that are contradictory, seeking a synthesis over time that resolves the contradiction. Europeans and Americans expect their belief systems to be consistent with each other.

Similarly, people from Asian cultures tend to take a different viewpoint than Westerners when approaching a new object (e.g., a movie of fish in an ocean; Nisbett & Masuda, 2003). In general, people from Western cultures tend to process objects independently of the context, whereas people from many Eastern cultures process objects in conjunction with the surrounding context (Nisbett & Miyamoto, 2005). Asians may emphasize the context more than the objects embedded in those contexts. So if people see a movie of fish swimming around in the ocean, Europeans or Americans will tend to pay more attention to the fish, and Asians may attend to the surround of the ocean in which the fish are swimming.

The evidence suggests that culture influences many cognitive processes, including intelligence (Lehman, Chiu, & Schaller, 2004). If a synthesis seems to advance our understanding of a subject, it then serves as a new thesis. A new antithesis then follows it, then a new synthesis, and so on. Georg Hegel (17701831) observed this dialectical progression of ideas. He was a German philosopher who came to his ideas by his own dialectic. He synthesized some of the views of his intellectual predecessors and contemporaries. You will see that psychology also evolved as a result of dialectics: Psychologists had ideas about how the mind works and pursued their line of research; then other psychologists pointed out weaknesses and developed alternatives as a reaction to the earlier ideas. Eventually, characteristics of the different approaches are often integrated into a newer and more encompassing approach.PHILOSOPHICAL ANTECEDENTS OF PSYCHOLOGYRATIONALISM VS EMPIRICIM

Rationalist believes that the route to knowledge is through thinking and logical analysis. That is, a rationalist does not need any experiments to develop new knowledge. A rationalist who is interested in cognitive processes would appeal to reason as a source of knowledge or justification.An Empiricist believes that we acquire knowledge via empirical evidence that is, we obtain evidence through experience and observation (Figure below). In order to explore how the human mind works, empiricists would design experiments and conduct studies in which they could observe the behavior and processes of interest to them. Empiricism therefore leads directly to empirical investigations of psychology.

(a) According to the rationalist, the only route to truth is reasoned contemplation; (b) according to the empiricist, the only route to truth is meticulous observation. Cognitive psychology, like other sciences, depends on the work of both rationalists and empiricists.

Psychological Antecedents of Cognitive Psychology

Cognitive psychology has roots in many different ideas and approaches. The approaches that will be examined include early approaches such as structuralism and functionalism.Understanding the Structure of the Mind: StructuralismStructuralism seeks to understand the structure (configuration of elements) of the mind and its perceptions by analyzing those perceptions into their constituent components (affection, attention, memory, sensation, etc.).Consider, for example, the perception of a flower. Structuralists would analyze this perception in terms of its constituent colors, geometric forms, size relations, and so on. In terms of the human mind, structuralists sought to deconstruct the mind into its elementary components; they were also interested in how those elementary components work together to create the mind.One of the methods used was introspection. Introspection is a deliberate looking inward at pieces of information passing through consciousness. The aim of introspection is to look at the elementary components of an object or process.Understanding the Processes of the Mind: Functionalism

Functionalism seeks to understand what people do and why they do it. This principal question about processes was in contrast to that of the structuralists, who had asked what the elementary contents (structures) of the human mind are. Functionalists held that the key to understanding the human mind and behavior was to study the processes of how and why the mind works as it does, rather than to study the structural contents and elements of the mind. They were particularly interested in the practical applications of their research. Functionalists were unified by the kinds of questions they asked but not necessarily by the answers they found or by the methods they used for finding those answers. Because functionalists believed in using whichever methods best answered a given researchers questions, it seems natural for functionalism to have led to pragmatism. Pragmatists believe that knowledge is validated by its usefulness: What can you do with it? Pragmatists are concerned not only with knowing what people do; they also want to know what we can do with our knowledge of what people do. For example, pragmatists believe in the importance of the psychology of learning and memory. Why? Because it can help us improve the performance of children in school. It can also help us learn to remember the names of people we meet.An Integrative Synthesis: Associationism

Associationism, like functionalism, was more of an influential way of thinking than a rigid school of psychology. Associationism examines how elements of the mind, like events or ideas, can become associated with one another in the mind to result in a form of learning. For example, associations may result from:

contiguity (associating things that tend to occur together at about the same time);

similarity (associating things with similar features or properties); or

contrast (associating things that show polarities, such as hot/cold, light/dark, day/ night).Key Themes in Cognitive PsychologyRemember, each of the topics in this text (perception, memory, and so on) can be examined using these seven major themes in cognitive psychology:1. Nature versus nurture

Thesis/Antithesis: Which is more influential in human cognitionnature or nurture? If we believe that innate characteristics of human cognition are more important, we might focus our research on studying innate characteristics of cognition. If we believe that the environment plays an important role in cognition,

we might conduct research exploring how distinctive characteristics of the environment seem to influence cognition.

Synthesis: We can explore how covariations and interactions in the environment (e.g., an impoverished environment) adversely affect someone whose genes otherwise might have led to success in a variety of tasks.

2. Rationalism versus empiricism

Thesis/Antithesis: How should we discover the truth about ourselves and about the world around us? Should we do so by trying to reason logically, based on what we already know? Or should we do so by observing and testing our observations of what we can perceive through our senses?

Synthesis: We can combine theory with empirical methods to learn the most we can about cognitive phenomena.

3. Structures versus processes

Thesis/Antithesis: Should we study the structures (contents, attributes, and products) of the human mind? Or should we focus on the processes of human thinking?

Synthesis: We can explore how mental processes operate on mental structures.

Cognitive Development Theory And Its Effects On Human DevelopmentThe emergence of the Cognitive Development Theory took place in the middle of the twentieth century after researchers began the Cognitive Revolution in response to popular behaviorist theories. The theory of cognitive development is a model of the evolution of thinking abilities in people, particularly children, over time. The theory of cognitive development is really a combination of many ideas by different theorists that has evolved over time. As with most theories, the theory of cognitive development is continuously being revised and improved.The two primary beliefs about learning and teaching today are behaviorism and cognitivism. Behaviorists feel that learners are passive in the learning process, while cognitive theorists believe that learners actively seek out information to better understand their environment In a cognitive sense learning is defined as the changing of a persons mental perception of their environment which affects their behavior. With the acceptance of theories of cognitive development some of the older behaviorist theories have gone out of style. The central premise of cognitive development is that learners are actively engaged in their surroundings and attempt to process the information they receive. Cognitive development is the interaction between the learner and the environment. When a student is immersed in a situation they will try to make sense of it and this does not always mean that they will reason the situation appropriately. Depending upon their stage of cognitive development a student may interpret the same situation radically different (Kauchak, Eggen, & Carter, 2002).Jean Piaget was one of the earliest proponents of the study of cognitive development. Additionally, Piaget helped pioneer the study of educational development and was one of cognitive developments earliest, most famous and most out spoken philosophers. Happily, unlike his decades pervious contemporary Sigmund Freud, Piaget was more concerned with the way children learn rather than their psychosexual development. The world only has room for one Freud. Another great developmental theorist is the Russian psychologist, Lev Vygotsky who is renowned for his study of the relationship between a persons sociological factors and their psychological state.Jean Piaget- Major Cognitive Development TheoristJean Piaget is celebrated for his stage theory which gained popularity in the 1960s and 1970s (Flavell, et al. 1963). He has had the foremost impact on the field of cognitive development to date, although, like Freud, some of his principles have been criticized in recent times due to more recent research. Piaget studied the development of intelligence extensively and concluded that intelligence is demonstrated by the way a person interacts with their environment. Piagets theories, or Piagetian theories as they have come to be known, can be organized into two groups: the theory of adaptation and stages of development (Flavell, et al. 1963).Adaptation theory asserts that each person is born with certain reflexes that facilitate interaction with their environment. As the individual matures, these reflexes are replaced by developing mental processes that enable them to adapt to their environment Piaget pictured cognitive development in conjunction with a biological perspective. He proposed that two major values drive in cognitive development and growth: adaptation and organization.

Adaptation

Piaget believed that people desire a state of cognitive balance.Assimilation is the incorporation of new knowledge or information with something is already known.

Accommodation is the alteration of actions or thoughts in response something.

Organization refers to a persons natural inclination to organize information into related categories. The most basic structure of developmental organization is the system.Piaget claimed that learning follows development and that development is inspired by cognitive divergence.

Piaget proposed four chronological stages of cognitive development. According to Piaget a person must have social, physical, and logical (i.e. mathematical) knowledge in order to be successful in each of the cognitive development stages. Piaget defined the four stages of development as:

(Piaget, 2001)Sensorimotor: (0-2 yrs)

The earliest stage of development is when the child learns about themselves and their environment through basic motor skills and reflexes. At this stage the child should be able to separate aspects of their environment from themselves. Movement facilitates knowledge acquisition at this stage. An important facet of this stage is the concept of object permanence. At around seven months infants begin to understand the idea that objects continue to exist even when they cannot be seen.

Preoperational: (2-7yrs)

The second stage of development the child should begin about the time the child begins to talk. At this stage the child tends to personify objects, but is better able to comprehend that things which are not present still exist. The child will have some difficulty in comprehending the presence of time and is influenced by fantasy. He or she takes in information and then changes it to fit his ideas-cognitive development is happening

Concrete: (7-11 yrs)

During the third stage of Piagets theory of cognitive development the child develops the capability of abstract thinking and rational assessing with out physically manipulating the subject.

Formal Operations: (11-15 yrs)The final stage of Piagetian development is characterized by the presence of hypothetical and deductive reasoning. A child in the fourth stage of development will be able to consider many possibilities from a variety of perspectives.One weakness of Piagets stages is that he neglects to explain how and why a child progresses from one stage to another. Since his initial proposal of the four stages of development, subsequent developmental theorists have expounded on his original ideas.

Lev Vygotsky- Major Cognitive Development Theorist

Lev Vygotsky was a Russian psychologist and contemporary of Jean Piaget. Vygotsky is well known for his theoretical question, How is information from the external world transformed and internalized? (Slavin, 1994). Vygotsky hypothesized that people encode and represent our world through language, also known as Second Signal System. According to him, language is a symbolic system by which we communicate as well as a cultural tool. Vygotsky held that language has two primary purposes: communication and regulation. Communication is used in the passing of history and culture between individuals and groups. Regulation is the principal of control over ones behavior. The goal of development is to take a person from being externally regulated, such as by parents or teachers, to self-regulated (Slavin, 1994).

Vygotsky (1978) stated that social interaction is vital to the transformation and internalization processes. He argued that development initially occurs on the social plane. According to this belief, the child first observes the parents then tried to imitate them. The parents then guide the child in their efforts at imitation. Later the child develops an internal plane, when language becomes internalized, i.e. thinking to yourself or inner speech.

Vygotsky also had an interest in human intellectual development. Vygotsky (1978) claimed that individuals have a set range of potential learning Scaffolding, the process of guiding a learner from the currently known to new material, occurs in the Zone of Proximal Development which is defined as the range between the current development level and the potential development level (Vygotsky, 1978). He believed that learners would regard a person with more understanding or intelligence as the More Knowledgeable Other and would seek out their connection to gain deeper understanding (Vygotsky, 1978). Lev Vygotsky held that society and culture are central to cognitive development as expounded in his social development theory. He saw social interaction as the structural plane on which all learning and development takes place.

This principle asserts that all higher mental functions must be filtered through the external consciousness in the form of social context first. After an external assessment is made, the subject begins to internalize the ideals of society into their own consciousness and use those judgments in decision making. As a result of this, Vygotsky held that all higher functions initiate as interpersonal relationships between individuals (1978). Vygotsky (1978) supposed that two levels of mental processing are present in people: elementary and higher. Elementary mental functions are instinctual, meaning people are born with them. Higher mental functions are formed from response to stimuli.

Comparisons and Contrasts Between Piaget and Vygotsky

Both Piaget and Vygotsky were constructivists. Constructivism is based on the idea that cognition is the result of a mental construction (Cole & Wertsch, 1996). To simplify this means that people learn by fitting new information in with what they already know. Constructivists propose that cognitive development and learning is directly affected by the context in which the information is presented. Both Piaget and Vygotsky held that society influenced the boundaries of cognitive growth. Additionally, they both believed that cognitive development could result from cognitive conflict (Cole & Wertsch, 1996).

While Piaget's theory has four distinct stages, Vygotsky held that there are no set stages at all. Piaget believed that development stems from the individual to society, while Vygotsky believed that development headed from society to the individual (Solso, 1995).

Impact on the Classroom

Since students attempt to gain understanding from their surroundings, teachers must overcome preconceived ideas that students may have formed earlier and may or may not be accurate. Students are actively engaged learners who dynamically seek to understand the environment around them. Students will link any new information to what they feel they already know. If a student believes they have knowledge and that knowledge is incorrect, then the teacher will have to either re-teach the original subject matter or find some other way to overcome that barrier. With the emergence of newer theories, such as the Cognitive Development Theory, teachers are learning that they need to provide purposeful examples and presentations in order to engage the active learner (Kauchak, Eggen, & Carter, 2002). Educators face difficulties in getting children to learn specific information, concepts and skills in ways that the children will be able to understand and retain for use later in life, because the children are already actively engaged in the learning process, these concepts must be taught to them correctly and in conjunction with what the students are already perceiving (Savin, 2006).

Because there are numerous theories it is impossible to follow a single set of recommendations when using a construnctivistic approach in the classroom. The most important thing is the development of meaning rather than many meaningless facts which will be forgotten quickly. It is important to apply only the theories that relate to the particular student.

Teachers and school systems could use either Vygotsky or Piagets theories of cognitive development, separately or in conjunction with one another. For example a school teacher may review and use Piagets stages of development in order to determine how to relate to a child of a particular age group. Another teacher could use Vygotsky's cognitive theory of social development to justify the recommended socialization of students with varying knowledge levels to increase the knowledge of those students on the lower end of the knowledge spectrum by means of peer learning.

Cognitive development is vital to the learning and thinking methods of children; as such, it is crucial to know in an effort to effectively teach those children. The insights of Vygotsky and Piaget provide teachers with possible ways children learn. By utilizing those theories it would be possible to enhance current teaching methods and to create an environment more conducive to learning.

Piaget (2001) strongly advocates waiting for the student to be ready to learn new information before presenting it. This would be useful in determining when to introduce a particular piece of coursework. Whether using one of Piagets theories or Vygotskys theories both theorists suggest connecting previous knowledge to new material in order for the new information to be retained.

Other Cognitive Theories

Cognitive theories of psychology are focused on internal states, such as motivation, problem solving, decision-making, thinking, and attention.

4 Explanations for Forgetting Attention Cognitive Dissonance Theory Left Brain vs. Right Brain Dominance Memory Perceptual Organization Theories of Intelligence Information Processing Theory The Schema TheoryExplanations for Forgetting

Reasons Why We Forget

Bottom of Form

What are some of the major reasons why we forget information? One of today's best known memory researchers, Elizabeth Loftus, has identified four major reasons why people forget: retrieval failure, interference, failure to store, and motivated forgetting.

1. Retrieval Failure Have you ever felt like a piece of information has just vanished from memory? Or maybe you know that it's there, you just can't seem to find it. The inability to retrieve a memory is one of the most common causes of forgetting.So why are we often unable to retrieve information from memory. One possible explanation retrieval failure is known as decay theory. According to this theory, a memory trace is created every time a new theory is formed. Decay theory suggests that over time, these memory traces begin to fade and disappear. If information is not retrieved and rehearsed, it will eventually be lost.

One problem with this theory, however, is that research has demonstrated that even memories which have not been rehearsed or remembered are remarkably stable in long-term memory.

2. Interferance

Another theory known as interference theory suggests that some memories compete and interfere with other memories. When information is very similar to other information that was previously stored in memory, interference is more likely to occur.

There are two basic types of interference:

Proactive interference is when an old memory makes it more difficult or impossible to remember a new memory.

Retroactive interference occurs when new information interferes with your ability to remember previously learned information.

3. Failure to Store

Sometimes, losing information has less to do with forgetting and more to do with the fact that it never made it into long-term memory in the first place. Encoding failures sometimes prevent information from entering long-term memory.

In one well-known experiment, researchers asked participants to identify the correct U.S. penny out of a group of incorrect pennies (Nickerson & Adams). Try doing this experiment yourself by attempting to draw a penny from memory, and then compare your results to an actual penny.

How well did you do? Chances are that you were able to remember the shape and color, but you probably forgot other minor details. The reason for this is that only details necessary for distinguishing pennies from other coins were encoded into your long-term memory.

4. Motivated Forgetting

Sometimes, we may actively work to forget memories, especially those of traumatic or disturbing events or experiences. The two basic forms of motivated forgetting are: suppression, a conscious form of forgetting, and repression, an unconscious form of forgetting.

However, the concept of repressed memories is not universally accepted by all psychologists. One of the problems with repressed memories is that it is difficult, if not impossible, to scientifically study whether or not a memory has been repressed. Also note that mental activities such as rehearsal and remembering are important ways of strengthening a memory, and memories of painful or traumatic life events are far less likely to be remembered, discussed, or rehearsed.

Theory on AttentionBottom of Form

Attention is a concept studied in cognitive psychology that refers to how we actively process specific information present in our environment. As you are reading this, there are numerous sights, sounds and sensations going on around you the pressure of your feet against the floor, the sight of the street out of a nearby window, the soft warmth of your shirt, the memory of a conversation you had earlier with a friend. How do we manage to experience all of these sensations and still focus on just one element of our environment?

According to psychologist and philosopher William James, attention "is the taking possession of the mind, in clear and vivid form, of one out of what may seem several simultaneously possible objects or trains of thoughtsIt implies withdrawal from some things in order to deal effectively with others."

Think of attention as a highlighter. As you read through a section of text in a book, the highlighted section stands out, causing you to focus your interest on that area. Attention allows you to "tune out" information, sensations and perceptions that are not relevant at the moment and instead focus your energy on the information that is important.

References:James, W. (1890). The Principles of Psychology. New York: Holt.Theory on Cognitive DissonancePeople tend to seek consistency in their beliefs and perceptions. So what happens when one of our beliefs conflicts with another previously held belief? The term cognitive dissonance is used to describe the feeling of discomfort that results from holding two conflicting beliefs. When there is a discrepancy between beliefs and behaviors, something must change in order to eliminate or reduce the dissonance.

How exactly does cognitive dissonance work and how does it influence how we think and behave?

Psychologist Leon Festinger proposed a theory of cognitive dissonance centered onhow people try to reach internal consistency. He suggested that people have an inner need to ensure that their beliefs and behaviors are consistent. Inconsistent or conflicting beliefs leads to disharmony, which people strive to avoid.

In his book A Theory of Cognitive Dissonance, Festinger explained, "Cognitive dissonance can be seen as an antecedent condition which leads to activity oriented toward dissonance reduction just as hunger leads toward activity oriented toward hunger reduction. It is a very different motivation from what psychologists are used to dealing with but, as we shall see, nonetheless powerful."

The amount of dissonance people experience can depend on a few different factors, including how highly we value a particular belief and the degree to which our beliefs are inconsistent.

Cognitive dissonance can often have a powerful influence on our behaviors and actions. Let's start by looking at some examples of how this works.

Examples of Cognitive Dissonance

Cognitive dissonance can occur in many areas of life, but it is particularly evident in situations where an individual's behavior conflicts with beliefs that are integral to his or her self-identity. For example, consider a situation in which a man who places a value on being environmentally responsible just purchased a new car that he later discovers does not get great gas mileage.

The conflict:

It is important for the man to take care of the environment.

He is driving a car that is not environmentally-friendly.

In order to reduce this dissonance between belief and behavior, he has a few difference choices. He can sell the car and purchase another one that gets better gas mileage or he can reduce his emphasis on environmental-responsibility. In the case of the second option, his dissonance could be further minimized by engaging in actions that reduce the impact of driving a gas-guzzling vehicle, such as utilizing public transportation more frequently or riding his bike to work on occasion.

A more common example of cognitive dissonance occurs in the purchasing decisions we make on a regular basis. Most people want to hold the belief that they make good choices. When a product or item we purchase turns out badly, it conflicts with our previously existing belief about our decision-making abilities.

More Examples

"The person who continues to smoke, knowing that it is bad for his health, may also feel (a) he enjoys smoking so much it is worth it; (b) the chances of his health suffering are not as serious as some would make out; (c) he can't always avoid every possible dangerous contingency and still live; and (d) perhaps even if he stopped smoking he would put on weight which is equally bad for his health. So, continuing to smoke is, after all, consistent with his ideas about smoking."(Festinger, 1957) "Imagine that you prepared at great length for a dinner party at your home. You constructed the guest list, sent out the invitations, and prepared the menu. Nothing was too much effort for your party: you went to the store, prepared the ingredients, and cooked for hours, all in anticipation of how pleasant the conversation and people would be. Except it wasn't. The guests arrived late, the conversations were forced, and the food was slightly overcooked by the time all of your guests arrived. The anticipation and excitement of the great time you were going to have are discordant with your observation of the evening. The pieces do not fit. You're upset, partly because the evening did not go well, but also because of the inconsistency between your expectation and your experience. You are suffering from the uncomfortable, unpleasant state of cognitive dissonance."(Cooper, 2007)

How to Reduce Cognitive Dissonance

There are three key strategies to reduce or minimize cognitive dissonance:

Focus on more supportive beliefs that outweigh the dissonant belief or behavior

Reduce the importance of the conflicting belief

Change the conflicting belief so that it is consistent with other beliefs or behaviors

Why is Cognitive Dissonance Important?

Cognitive dissonance plays a role in many value judgments, decisions,and evaluations. Becoming aware of how conflicting beliefs impact the decision-making process is a great way to improve your ability to make faster and more accurate choices.

Observations

"The basic hypothesis I wish to state are as follows: 1. The existence of dissonance, being psychologically uncomfortable, will motivate the person to try to reduce the dissonance and achieve consonance. 2. When dissonance is present, in addition to trying to reduce it, the person will actively avoid situations and information which would likely increase the dissonance."(Festinger, 1957)

"Festinger's insistence that cognitive dissonance was like a drive that needed to be reduced implied that people were going to have to find some way of resolving their inconsistencies. People do not just prefer eating over starving; we are driven to eat. Similarly, people who are in the throes of inconsistency in their social life are driven to resolve that inconsistency. How we go about dealing with our inconsistency can be rather ingenious. But, in Festinger's view, there is little question that it will be done."(Cooper, 2007)

Have you ever heard people say that they tend to be more of a right-brain or left-brain thinker? From books to television programs, you've probably heard the phrase mentioned numerous times or perhaps you've even taken an online test to determine which type best describes you. Given the popularity of the idea of "right brained" and "left brained" thinkers, it might surprise you learn learn that this idea is just one of many myths about the brain.

Left Brain - Right Brain Theory?According to the theory of left-brain or right-brain dominance, each side of the brain controls different types of thinking. Additionally, people are said to prefer one type of thinking over the other. For example, a person who is "left-brained" is often said to be more logical, analytical, and objective, while a person who is "right-brained" is said to be more intuitive, thoughtful, and subjective.

In psychology, the theory is based on what is known as the lateralization of brain function. So does one side of the brain really control specific functions? Are people either left-brained or right-brained? Like many popular psychology myths, this one grew out of observations about the human brain that were then dramatically distorted and exaggerated.

The right brain-left brain theory originated in the work of Roger W. Sperry, who was awarded the Nobel Prize in 1981. While studying the effects of epilepsy, Sperry discovered that cutting the corpus collosum (the structure that connects the two hemispheres of the brain) could reduce or eliminate seizures.

However, these patients also experienced other symptoms after the communication pathway between the two sides of the brain was cut. For example, many split-brain patients found themselves unable to name objects that were processed by the right side of the brain, but were able to name objects that were processed by the left-side of the brain. Based on this information, Sperry suggested that language was controlled by the left-side of the brain.

Later research has shown that the brain is not nearly as dichotomous as once thought. For example, recent research has shown that abilities in subjects such as math are actually strongest when both halves of the brain work together. Today, neuroscientists know that the two sides of the brain work together to perform a wide variety of tasks and that the two hemispheres communicate through the corpus collosum.

"No matter how lateralized the brain can get, though, the two sides still work together," science writer Carl Zimmer explained in an article for Discover magazine. "The pop psychology notion of a left brain and a right brain doesnt capture their intimate working relationship. The left hemisphere specializes in picking out the sounds that form words and working out the syntax of the words, for example, but it does not have a monopoly on language processing. The right hemisphere is actually more sensitive to the emotional features of language, tuning in to the slow rhythms of speech that carry intonation and stress."

In one study by researchers at the University of Utah, more 1,000 participants had their brains analyzed in order to determine if they preferred using one side over the other. The study revealed that while activity was sometimes higher in certain important regions, both sides of the brain were essentially equal in their activity on average.

Its absolutely true that some brain functions occur in one or the other side of the brain. Language tends to be on the left, attention more on the right. But people dont tend to have a stronger left- or right-sided brain network. It seems to be determined more connection by connection," explained the study's lead author Dr. Jeff Anderson.

While the idea of right brain / left brain thinkers has been debunked, its popularity persists. So what exactly didthis theory suggest?

The Right Brain

According to the left-brain, right-brain dominance theory, the right side of the brain is best at expressive and creative tasks. Some of the abilities that are popularly associated with the right side of the brain include:

Recognizing faces

Expressing emotions

Music

Reading emotions

Color

Images

Intuition

Creativity

The Left Brain

The left-side of the brain is considered to be adept at tasks that involve logic, language and analytical thinking. The left-brain is often described as being better at:

Language

Logic

Critical thinking

Numbers

Reasoning

So Why Do People Still Talk AboutRight-Brain, Left-Brain Theory?

Researchers have demonstrated that right-brain/left-brain theory is a myth, yet its popularity persists. Why? Unfortunately many people are likely unaware that the theory is outdated. Today, students might continue to learn about the theory as a point of historical interest - to understand how our ideas abouthow the brain works have evolved and changed over time as researchers have learned more about how the brain operates.

While over-generalized and overstated by popular psychology and self-help texts, understanding your strengths and weaknesses in certain areas can help you develop better ways to learn and study. For example, students who have a difficult time following verbal instructions (often cited as a right-brain characteristic) might benefit from writing down directions and developing better organizational skills. The important thing to remember ifyou take one of the many left brain/right brain quizzes that you will likely encounter online is that they are entirely for fun and you shouldn't place much stock in your results.

References

Nielsen, J. A., Zielinski, B. A., Ferguson, M. A., Lainhart, J. E., & Anderson, J. S. (2013). An evaluation of the left-brain vs. right brain hypothesis with resting state functional connectivity magnetic resonance imaging. PLOS One. Retrieved fromhttp://www.plosone.org/article/info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0071275

Rogers, M. (2013). Researchers debunk myth of "right brain" and "left-brain" personality traits. University of Utah, Office of Public Affairs. Retrieved from http://www.plosone.org/article/info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0071275Theory on MemoryAn Overview of Memory and How it Works

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Have you ever wondered how you manage to remember information for a test? The ability to create new memories, store them for periods of time, and recall them when they are needed allows us to learn and interact with the world around us. Consider for a moment how many times a day you rely on your memory to help you function, from remembering how to use your computer to recollecting your password to log-in to your online bank account.

The study of human memory has been a subject of science and philosophy for thousands of years and has become one of the major topics of interest within cognitive psychology. But what exactly is memory? How are memories formed? The following overview offers a brief look at what memory is, how it works, and how it is organized.

What is Memory?

Memory refers to the processes that are used to acquire, store, retain, and later retrieve information. There are three major processes involved in memory: encoding, storage, and retrieval.

In order to form new memories, information must be changed into a usable form, which occurs through the process known as encoding. Once information has been successfully encoded, it must be stored in memory for later use. Much of this stored memory lies outside of our awareness most of the time, except when we actually need to use it. The retrieval process allows us to bring stored memories into conscious awareness.

The Stage Model of Memory

While several different models of memory have been proposed, the stage model of memory is often used to explain the basic structure and function of memory. Initially proposed in 1968 by Atkinson and Shiffrin, this theory outlines three separate stages of memory: sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory.

Sensory MemorySensory memory is the earliest stage of memory. During this stage, sensory information from the environment is stored for a very brief period of time, generally for no longer than a half-second for visual information and 3 or 4 seconds for auditory information. We attend to only certain aspects of this sensory memory, allowing some of this information to pass into the next stage - short-term memory.

Short-Term MemoryShort-term memory, also known as active memory, is the information we are currently aware of or thinking about. In Freudian psychology, this memory would be referred to as the conscious mind. Paying attention to sensory memories generates the information in short-term memory. Most of the information stored in active memory will be kept for approximately 20 to 30 seconds. While many of our short-term memories are quickly forgotten, attending to this information allows it to continue on the next stage - long-term memory.

Long-Term MemoryLong-term memory refers to the continuing storage of information. In Freudian psychology, long-term memory would be called the preconscious and unconscious. This information is largely outside of our awareness, but can be called into working memory to be used when needed. Some of this information is fairly easy to recall, while other memories are much more difficult to access.

The Organization of Memory

The ability to access and retrieve information from long-term memory allows us to actually use these memories to make decisions, interact with others, and solve problems. But how is information organized in memory? The specific way information is organized in long-term memory is not well understood, but researchers do know that these memories are arranged in groups.

Clustering is used to organize related information into groups. Information that is categorized becomes easier to remember and recall. For example, consider the following group of words:

Desk, apple, bookshelf, red, plum, table, green, pineapple, purple, chair, peach, yellow

Spend a few seconds reading them, then look away and try to recall and list these words. How did you group the words when you listed them? Most people will list using three different categories: color, furniture and fruit.

One way of thinking about memory organization is known as the semantic network model. This model suggests that certain triggers activate associated memories. A memory of a specific place might activate memories about related things that have occurred in that location. For example, thinking about a particular campus building might trigger memories of attending classes, studying, and socializing with peers.

Gestalt Laws of Perceptual OrganizationHave you ever noticed how a series of flashing lights often appears to be moving, such as neon signs or strands of Christmas lights? According to Gestalt psychology, this apparent movement happens because our minds fill in missing information. This belief that the whole is greater than the sum of the individual parts led to the discovery of several different phenomena that occur during perception.

The image on the left illustrates the law of closure, which states that objects tend to be seen as part of a whole. There are no circles or triangles in this image, but our minds fill in the missing information to create these shapes.

Gestalt PsychologyGestalt psychology was founded by German thinkers Max Wertheimer, Wolfgang Kohler and Kurt Koffka and focused on how people interpret the world. The Gestalt perspective formed partially as a response to the structuralism of Wilhelm Wundt, who focused on breaking down mental events and experiences to the smallest elements. Max Wertheimer noted that rapid sequences of perceptual events, such as rows of flashing lights, create the illusion of motion even when there is none. This is known as the phi phenomenon. Motion pictures are based upon this principle, with a series of still images appearing in rapid succession to form a seamless visual experience.

According to Gestalt psychology, the whole is different than the sum of its parts. Based upon this belief, Gestalt psychologists developed a set of principles to explain perceptual organization, or how smaller objects are grouped to form larger ones. These principles are often referred to as the "laws of perceptual organization."

However, it is important to note that while Gestalt psychologists call these phenomena "laws," a more accurate term would be "principles of perceptual organization." These principles are much like heuristics, which are mental shortcuts for solving problems.

Law of Similarity

The law of similarity suggests that things similar things tend to appear grouped together. Grouping can occur in both visual and auditory stimuli.

Law of Pragnanz

The word pragnanz is a German term meaning "good figure." The law of Pragnanz is sometimes referred to as the law of good figure or the law of simplicity. This law holds that objects in the environment are seen in a way that makes them appear as simple as possible.

Law of Proximity

According to the law of proximity, things that are near each other seem to be grouped together.Law of Continuity

The law of continuity holds that points that are connected by straight or curving lines are seen in a way that follows the smoothest path. Rather than seeing separate lines and angles, lines are seen as belonging together.

Law of Closure

According to the law of closure, things are grouped together if they seem to complete some entity. Our brains often ignore contradictory information and fill in gaps in information.

According to psychologist Jean Piaget, children progress through a series of four key stages of cognitive development. Each stageismarked by shifts in how kidsunderstand the world. Piaget believed that children are like "little scientists" and that they actively try to explore and make sense of the world around them.

Through his observations of his own children, Piaget developed a stage theory of intellectual development that included four distinct stages: the sensorimotor stage, from birth to age 2; the preoperational stage, from age 2 to about age 7; the concrete operational stage, from age 7 to 11; and the formal operational stage, which begins in adolescence and spans into adulthood.Theories of Intelligence

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Numerous theories have emerged to define, explain and predict human intelligence.

While intelligence is one of the most talked about subjects within psychology, there is no standard definition of what exactly constitutes 'intelligence.' Some researchers have suggested that intelligence is a single, general ability, while other believe that intelligence encompasses a range of aptitudes, skills and talents.

The following are some of the major theories of intelligence that have emerged during the last 100 years.

Charles Spearman - General Intelligence:British psychologist Charles Spearman (1863-1945) described a concept he referred to as general intelligence, or the g factor. After using a technique known as factor analysis to to examine a number of mental aptitude tests, Spearman concluded that scores on these tests were remarkably similar. People who performed well on one cognitive test tended to perform well on other tests, while those who scored badly on one test tended to score badly on others. He concluded that intelligence is general cognitive ability that could be measured and numerically expressed. Howard Gardner - Multiple Intelligences:One of the more recent ideas to emerge is Howard Gardner's theory of multiple intelligences. Instead of focusing on the analysis of test scores, Gardner proposed that numerical expressions of human intelligence are not a full and accurate depiction of people's abilities. His theory describes eight distinct intelligences that are based on skills and abilities that are valued within different cultures.

The eight intelligences Gardner described are:

Visual-spatial Intelligence

Verbal-linguistic Intelligence

Bodily-kinesthetic Intelligence

Logical-mathematical Intelligence

Interpersonal Intelligence

Musical Intelligence

Intra personal Intelligence

Naturalistic Intelligence

Robert Sternberg - Triarchic Theory of Intelligence:Psychologist Robert Sternberg defined intelligence as "mental activity directed toward purposive adaptation to, selection and shaping of, real-world environments relevant to ones life." While he agreed with Gardner that intelligence is much broader than a single, general ability, he instead suggested some of Gardner's intelligences are better viewed as individual talents.

Sternberg proposed what he refers to as 'successful intelligence,' which is comprised of three different factors:

Analytical intelligence: This component refers to problem-solving abilities. Creative intelligence: This aspect of intelligence involves the ability to deal with new situations using past experiences and current skills.

Practical intelligence: This element refers to the ability to adapt to a changing environment.

Final Thoughts:While there has been considerable debate over the exact nature of intelligence, no definitive conceptualization has emerged. Today, psychologists often account for the many different theoretical viewpoints when discussing intelligence and acknowledge that this debate is ongoing.

References:

Gardner, H. (1983). Frames of mind: The theory of multiple intelligences. New York: Basic Books.Spearman, C. (1904). "General intelligence," objectively determined and measured. American Journal of Psychology 15, 201-293.

Sternberg, R. J. (1985). Beyond IQ: A Triarchic Theory of Intelligence. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Thurstone, L.L. (1938). Primary mental abilities. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

THE INFORMATION PROCESSING THEORYThe Information Processing Theory approach to the study of cognitive development evolved out of the American experimental tradition in psychology. Information processing theorists proposed that like a computer, a human mind is a system that processes information through the application of logical rules and strategies. The mind has a limited capacity for the amount and nature of the information it can process.

The terminology of the Information Processing Model as illustrated in the Figure emphasizing the significance of encoding (input) of information, the storage of information, and the retrieval (access) of information. The language and the metaphor often used is one of the minds of as computer. IPM theorist, U.Neisser, maintains that the correlation between cognition and computers is a powerful one(Benjafeld, 1992 in Tan, 2003). Most IPM theorists see the computer as only a metaphor for human mental activity.

Finally, just as the computer can be made into a better information processor by changing its hardware and its software (programming), so do children who become more sophisticated thinkers through changes in their brains and sensory systems (hardware) and in the rules and strategies (software) that they learn.

THE MULTI-STORE MODEL OF MEMORY

One of the major issues in cognitive psychology is the study of memory. The dominant view is labelled the stage theory and is based on the work of Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968). The Atkinson-Shiffrin model(also known as the Multi-store model, Multi-memory model and the Modal model) is a psychological model proposed in 1968 by Richard Atkinson and Richard Shiffrin as a proposal for the structure of memory. It proposed that human memory involves a sequence of three stages, which are sensory memory, short-term memory and long-term memory as shown in Figure on the next page:

The multi-store model is a very common model of memory assuming that there are different types of memory used for different tasks. It is an explanation of how memory processes work. You hear, see and feel many things, but you can only remember a few. These link together in an effective sequence as explained below.

This was discussed in the Theory of memory section in this paper.

THE SCHEMA THEORY

R. C. Anderson, a respected educational psychologist, developed schema theory. This learning theory views organized knowledge as an elaborate network of abstract mental structures which represent ones understanding of the world. The term schema was first used by Piaget in 1926, so it was not an entirely new concept. Anderson, however, expanded the meaning.

Contemporary learning theory embraces schema theory in an attempt to explain how information is best encoded in the long-term memory. The theory emphasizes the nature and purpose of schemata as the fundamental elements of cognitive processing (Douchy & Bouwens, 1990 in Tan et. al. 2003). They are prior knowledge linkages, and they influence the amount and proficiency of our learning. Research by schema theorists indicates that abstract concepts are best understood after a foundation of concrete and relevant information has been established (Schallert 1982:26). The general knowledge provides a framework into which the newly-formed structure can be fitted.

Lists some characteristics of schemata according to Anderson (1977:418--419):

Schemata are always organized meaningfully, can be added to, and, as an individual gains experience, develop to include more variables and more specificity.

Each schema is embedded in other schemata and itself contains subschema.

Schemata change moment by moment as information is received.

They may also be reorganized when incoming data reveals a need to restructure the concept.

The mental representations used during perception and comprehension, and which evolve as a result of these processes, combines to form a whole, which is greater than the sum of its parts.Diagram of a sample schema

Below shows a diagram that describes how a persons schema of egg might include.

Schemata are an effective tool for understanding the world. Through the use of schemata, most everyday situations do not require effortful thought which absolutely automatic thought is all that is required. People can quickly organize new perceptions into schemata and act effectively without effort.

This theory would suggests that our prior knowledge can facilitate or enhance transfer of a learning task. It is also true that prior knowledge can inhibit or interfere with our acquisition of new information (Leinhardt, 1992 in Tan et. al. 2003).

References:

Atkinson, R.C. and Shiffrin, R.M. (1968). Human memory: A proposed system and itscontrol processes. In K. W. Spence and J. T. Spence (Eds) The psychology of kearning and motivation (Vol 2). London: Academic Press.

Bloom, B. (1984). The Search for methods of group instructions as effective asone-to-one tutoring. Educational Leadership.

James, W. (1890). Principles of Psychology, New York: Holt.

Gagne, R (1970). The Conditions of Learning (Second Edition). New York: Holt, Rinehart, & Winston Holt.

Tan Oon Seng, Richard D. Parson, Stephanie lewis Hinson, Deborah Sardo-Brown (2003). Educational Psychology.Singapore : Thomson Learning.

Gagne, E.D., Yekovich, C. W., & Yekovich, F.R (1993). The Cognitive Psychology of School Learning.

Lahey, B. B. 2004. Psychology: an introduction. 8th ed. Boston: McGraw Hill.

MANUEL LUIS QUEZON UNIVERSITY

School of Graduate Studies

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY IN PSYCHOLOGY

SY 2014-2015

THEORIES ON COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY

Submitted to:

DR. NILDA WOOLSEY

Professor

Submitted by:

ARVELLA M. ALBAY

Phd Psych Student

Date

September 6, 2014

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