Climate Summit for a Living Himalayas Bhutan 2011 … Paper...Climate Summit for a Living Himalayas – Bhutan 2011 (Thematic Area- Biodiversity; Contribution for Indian Part of East

Climate Summit for a Living Himalayas – Bhutan 2011 (Thematic Area- Biodiversity; Contribution for Indian Part of East Himalaya)

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Contribution towards Developing a Roadmap for Biodiversity and

Climate Change

Indian Part of East Himalaya

Contribution from:

G.B. Pant Institute of Himalayan Environment & Development

Kosi-Katarmal, Almora 263 643 (Uttarakhand), India

eMail [email protected], [email protected]

Draft prepared by: L.M.S. Palni, Ranbeer S. Rawal & K.C Sekar

mailto:[email protected]

mailto:[email protected]


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Contents

Scope of the Report 2

Introduction 3-6 The Mountains

The Himalayan Region

Indian East Himalaya

Indian East Himalaya-

Indian East Himalaya- 6-9

Ecological & evolutionary significance

Socio Economic & Demographic Considerations 9-11

Land-use & Practices – A cultural landscape 11-15 Forest as major land cover class

Shifting cultivation landscape

Indian East Himalaya – Biodiversity 15-33 Flora

Fauna

Biodiversity of economically important groups

Effective valuation – forests of NE region

Biodiversity conservation initiatives

Key threats to biodiversity

Climate Change Vulnerability of NE region 33-36

Biodiversity & Climate Change – Key Challenges 36-40

Challenges & Opportunities in NE Region 40-42

National Commitments 42-46

Recommendations & Suggested Action Areas 46-54


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Scope of the Report:

As per the decisions taken in the meeting of „Consultative Group on

Himalayan region for Water Livelihoods and Bio-cultural heritage‟ on

March 28, 2011, under the chairmanship of Shri. J.M. Mauskar, Special

Secretary, MoEF, the report considers the North Eastern States of Indian

Himalayan Region (IHR).

The report considers diversity of biological components, including wild and

domesticated, social and ecological systems prevailing in the NE States of

India and provides insight on hitherto underexplored biological resources

with potential role in food security and the improvement of rural

livelihoods towards adaptation to changing climate.

The broad challenges, opportunities and possible priority areas of action

have been described for the target region. Also, the major commitments

of India towards maintenance and sustainable use of biodiversity and

addressing the issues of climate change have been highlighted.

Recommendations and suggestions have been drawn on the basis of the

existing state of knowledge for the Indian part of east Himalaya, for

consideration of inclusion in the regional roadmap.


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1. Introduction

1.1. The Mountains

The mountains, which cover nearly one quarter of Earths‟ land area, host over

12% of global human population. More importantly, >50% of global human

population draws benefits directly or indirectly from resources and services

emanating from the mountains. These regions are repositories of biological and

cultural diversity and provide vital services with tangible economic value-such as

water, power, tourism, minerals, medicinal plants, and fibres – to mountain

communities and, even more importantly, to often heavily populated

downstream areas. Mountains also influence the climates of their surroundings

and serve as important carbon sink1.

Across the globe, traditional production agriculture and extractive forestry is the

mainstay of food security and subsistence livelihoods in mountain regions.

Livelihood strategies in these areas are largely built around indigenous

knowledge and traditional practices of ecological sustainability in natural resource

management. Mountain farming systems integrating arable agriculture,

horticulture, livestock, and silviforestry have moderated utilization with

conservation ethos to ensure that ecosystem services are not exploited beyond

their renewable capacity2.

Mountain regions, although well recognized for their evolutionary significance

and ecological value manifested by ecosystem integrity, adaptability and

services, have largely remained marginalized from economic development

perspectives3. These ecosystems and their inhabitants are subject to a variety of

drivers of change including globalization, economic policies, and increasing

1 ICIMOD (2010): Mountains of the World – Ecosystem Services in a Time of Global and Climate Change. 2 Tse-ring, K, Sharma, E., Chettri, N. & Shrestha, A. (2010 eds): Climate Change vulnerability of Mountain

Ecosystems in the Eastern Himalayas. ICIMOD. 3 Palni, L.M.S. & Rawal, R.S. (2010): in Nature at Work: the ongoing saga of evolution at play (VP Sharma,

ed). Springer.


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pressure on land and mountain resources due to economic growth and changes

in population and lifestyle. Global climate change acts as an additional stress

which is expected to exacerbate the impacts of other drivers of change1.

1.2. The Himalayan Region

Amongst the global mountains, the Himalaya, which represents the youngest,

still evolving, and a complex mountain system on the surface of earth has been

recognized as one of the 34 global biodiversity hotspots4. On account of it being

in a evolving state, the ecosystem components in the region exhibit great

dynamism. The region has a discrete geographic and ecological entity. It

produces a distinctive climate of its own and influences the climate of much of

Asia5. The region serves as a rich repository of plant and animal wealth in

diverse ecological systems. These ecosystems reflect a mosaic of biotic

communities at various spatial and organizational levels.

The Indian Himalayan Region (IHR), with geographical coverage of over 5.3 lakh

Km2, constitutes a large proportion of this hotspot and, therefore, contributes

greatly to richness and representativeness of its biodiversity components at all

levels (i.e., genes, species and ecosystems). Administratively IHR (Figure 1)

covers 10 states entirely (i.e., Jammu & Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh,

Uttarakhand, Sikkim, Arunachal Pradesh, Nagaland, Manipur, Mizoram, Tripura,

Meghalaya), and two states partially (i.e., hilly districts of Assam and West

Bengal). The region represents nearly 3.8% of total human population of the

country and exhibits a great diversity of ethnic groups (171 out of a total 573

scheduled tribes in India) which inhabit remote inhospitable terrains6.

4 Conservation International [http://www.biodiversityhotspots.org] 5 Zobel DB, Singh SP (1997): Himalayan forests and ecological generalizations. BioScience, 47: 735–745. 6 Samal PK, Palni LMS, Agrawal DK (2003): Ecology, ecological poverty and sustainable development in

central Himalayan region of India. Int J Sustain Dev World Ecol, 10:157-168.


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1.3. Indian East Himalaya

Broadly the Indian East Himalayan region(sensu lato), which constitutes almost

52% of total East Himalaya (total 524,190 sq km), is often referred as North

Eastern Region (NER). It consists of the contiguous „Seven Sister‟ states namely

Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland, & Tripura

along with Sikkim7. This region is officially recognized as a special category of

states and covers an area of 2,62,179 km2, constituting 7.9% of the country‟s

total geographical area. Located at the tri-junction of Indo-Chinese, Indo-

Malayan and Palaearctic biogeographic realms8, the region exhibits diverse hilly

terrain with wide ranging altitudinal range. It is a true frontier region as it has

over 2000 km of common borders with Bhutan, Bangladesh, China, Myanmar,

and Nepal7 (Fig 1).

Figure 1. The North Eastern Region and its constituent states in India (based on 7)

The temporal and spatial variations caused by diversity in geological orogeny has

resulted in to a marked difference in climate and physiography, and

7 Ministry of Environment & Forests, GoI (2010) Climate Change and India – A 4X4 assessment a sectoral

and regional analysis for 2030. 8 Takhtajan A (1969) Flowering plants: origin and dispersal. Oliver Byod, Edinburgh, U.K.


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consequently in distribution pattern of biotic elements, including the

domesticated ones. Also, the spatial position and heterogeneous dispersion of

biodiversity elements has caused complexity in biogeographical patterns of the

region. Following the more recent biogeographic classifications9,10,11 the region

represents three biogeographic zones (Trans Himalaya, Himalaya and NE India)

and 5 provinces (Table 1).

Table 1: Biogeographic divisions of Indian East Himalaya 9,10,11

2. Indian East Himalaya -Ecological and Evolutionary Significance

The region holds great significance from ecological and evolutionary point of

view. This region is rich in biodiversity and harbours largest number of endemics

and Schedule I species as compared to any other part of India12. This region

represents a confluence of the Indo-Malayan and Indo-Chinese biogeographical

realms. Also, it exhibits intermixing of the Himalayan and Peninsular Indian

elements. The region was considered a cradle of flowering plants7, which

represents some of the primitive angiosperm families including Magnoliaceae,

Degeneriaceae, Himantandraceae, Eupomatiaceae, Winteraceae,

9 Rodgers WA & Panwar HS (1988): Planning Wildlife Protected Area Network in India. Vol 1&2. Dehradun:

Wildlife Institute of India. 10 Rodgers WA, Panwar HS, Mathur VB (2000): Wildlife protected areas network in India: a review

(executive summary), Dehradun: Wildlife Institute of India. 11 Ministry of Environment & Forests, GoI (2009): India‟s Fourth National Report to the Convention on

Biological Diversity 12 MacKinnon J, MacKinnon K (1986): Review of the Protected Areas System in the Indo-Malayan Realm.

Gland:IUCN.

Bio geographic Zones

Bio geographic Provinces % of India

Representative Indian States

Trans Himalaya 1 C: Trans Himalaya Sikkim <0.1 Sikkim

Himalaya 2C: Central Himalaya

2D: East Himalaya

0.2

2.5

Sikkim & West Bengal Hills

Arunachal Pradesh

Northeast India 9A: Brahamputra Valley

2.0 Assam, Nagaland, Meghalaya

9B: Northeast Hills 3.2 Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland, Tripura and Assam


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Trochodendraceae, Tetracentraceae, and Lardazabalaceae. The specific primitive

genera include Alnus, Aspidocarya, Betula, Decaisnea, Euptela, Exbucklandia,

Haematocarpus, Holboellia, Houttuynia, Magnolia, Magnolietia, Pycnarrhena and

Tetracentron13,14. The region is known for high evolutionary activities

which are clearly evident from the cytogeographic studies on selected genera like

Rhododendron, Camellia, Magnolia, Budleia, etc.

The region contributes considerably in the form of wild relatives of several crop

plants and domesticated animals. Of the total 8 sub-centers of plant origin, the

region represents 2 sub-centers (i.e., Eastern Himalaya and North Eastern

Region, Fig. 2). These sub-centers respectively contribute 82, and 132 species of

wild relatives - Table 215,16.

Table 2: Distribution of diversity of wild relatives in the Himalayan sub centers

Category Distribution in Himalayan Sub-Centers

West Himalaya Eastern Himalaya North Eastern Region

Cereals and millets 29 07 16

Legumes 09 05 06

Fruits 37 32 51

Vegetables 25 12 27

Oilseeds 06 03 01

Fibers 04 04 05

Spices and condiments 10 09 13

Miscellaneous 05 10 13

Total spp. Diversity 125 82 132

13 Khoshoo TN (1996): In Banking on Biodiversity (Pei Shengji, ed.). Nepal: ICIMOD. Pp. 181-256 14 Malhotra CL, Hajra PK (1977): Status of floristic studies in Arunachal Pardesh. Bull. Bot. Surv. India,

19:61-63. 15 Arora RK, Nayar ER (1984): Wild relatives of crop plants in India. New Delhi : National Bureau of Plant

Genetic Resources, Monogr. No. 7. 16 Arora, RK (1997): Diversity and distribution of wild relatives of crop plants in the Himalaya. In Himalayan

Biodiversity: Action Plan (Dhar U, ed.). Nainital: Gyanodaya Prakashan. Pp 43-52.


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Figure 2: Indian Himalayan Region with three centers of plant origin (based on17 ).

Based on extensive explorations across the world, Vavilov considered the north

eastern region of India as „Hindusthan Centre of Origin of Cultivated Plants‟,

which is very important for tropical and subtropical fruits, cereals, etc.

This region forms the richest reservoir of genetic variability of many groups of

crop plants. The taxonomical and cytogenetic studies have revealed Assam-

Burma-Siam-Indo-China region as the center of origin of Musa18. Greatest

diversity, with some being endemic, of this genus is known from this region.

Banana in north east India grows wild along the hilly slopes of Arunachal

17 Ministry of Environment and Forests, GoI (2009) Governance for Sustaining Himalayan Ecosystem

(GSHE): Guidelines and Best Practices. New Delhi: Ministry of Environment and Forests. 18 Chakravorty AK (1951): Origin of cultivated banana of south-east Asia. Ind Jour Genet, 11:34-46.


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Pradesh, Meghalaya, and Assam. The region is also rich in Citrus wealth with

nearly 64 taxa of Citrus growing wild. Also, it is regarded as the center of origin

for 5 species of palms of commerce – coconut, areca nut, palmyra palm, sugar

palm and wild date palm 19.

In addition, it contributes a whole range of medicinal and aromatic plants with

their origin in the region and wild progenitors of a number of ornamentals like

Primula, Rhododendron and a huge diversity of Orchids. Among wild and

domesticated faunal elements, region harbours wild chicken, zebu, mithun, yak,

etc13.

The prevailing primitive agricultural system of raising crops under stress

conditions in the region have resulted in much variability, particularly in adaptive

traits. Most of the hilly terrain in the eastern Himalaya is under shifting

cultivation and several promising, agronomically and physiologically well adapted

types/land races belonging to diverse crop species occur in this region. In

addition, in isolated pockets, various ethnic groups grow their own preferred

locally selected cultivars. All these factors have contributed to enormous

enrichment of genetic diversity in land races through conscious and unconscious

selections by indigenous farming communities in the Himalaya16.

3. Socio-Economic and Demographic Considerations

The region is marked by uneven spatial distribution of population among the

constituent states. The plains and valleys support a higher population density

than the difficult hilly terrains. About 38.5 million people inhabit the region of

which 88% population is rural and 12% urban20. The human population and

growth in different NE states of IHR is presented in Table 3. During the last two

19 Rao RR (1993): In Himalayan Biodiversity (Dhar U, ed). Nainital: Gyanodaya Prakashan. Pp. 133-151. 20 Kushwaha, SPS (2006): In (PS Ramakrishnan et al, eds), Shifting Agriculture and sustainable

development of North Eastern India: Tradition in Transition. UNESCO, Oxford & IBH Publ Co., New Delhi


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decades most of the NE states (Sikkim, Arunachal Pradesh, Nagaland, Manipur,

Mizoram, Megalaya) have consistently registered higher percent decadal growth

rate as compared to the National average (Table 3). Other selected demographic

parameters of NE states are given in Table 4.

Table 3: Human population and growth in various NE states of the IHR

India/ NE States

Geographical Area

(Km2)

Human Population 2001 Percent Decadal Growth

Male Female Total 1981-1991 1991-2001

Sikkim 7,096 288,484 252,367 540,851 28.47 33.06

Arunachal

Pradesh

83,743 579,941 518,027 1,097,968 36.83 27.00

Nagaland 16,579 1,047,141 942,895 1,990,036 56.08 64.53

Manipur 22,327 1,161,952 1,131,944 2,293,896 29.29 24.86

Mizoram 21,081 459,109 429,464 888,573 39.70 28.82

Meghalaya 22,429 1,176,087 1,142,735 2,318,822 32.86 30.65

Tripura 10,486 1,642,225 1,556,978 3,199,203 34.30 16.03

Assam 78,438 13,777,037 12,878,49

1

26,655,528 24.24 18.92

Assam Hills

15,322 NA 3,313,896 NA NA

WB Hills 3,149 NA 1,605,900 NA NA

India 3,287,263 532,223,090; 496,514,346

1,028,737,436 23.87 21.54

Source: Human Population- Census of India 2009, Registrar general Of India, New Delhi

Table 4: Comparative scenario of selected Demographic Parameters for NE States

State %

contribution to the total

IHR

population

Decadal

Growth rate

Annual

average exponential

growth rate

Population

density

Sex

ratio

Literacy

rate (+7yr)

Sikkim 1.36 (0.05) 32.98 3.01 76 875 69.68

Arunachal

Pradesh

2.75 (0.11) 26.21 2.94 13 901 54.74

Meghalaya 5.82 (0.22) 29.94 2.74 103 975 63.31

Mizoram 2.25 (0.09) 29.19 3.02 42 938 88.49

Manipur 6.03 (0.23) 30.02 2.8 107 978 68.87

Nagaland 5.02 (0.19) 64.41 4.21 120 909 67.11

Tripura 8.05 (0.31) 15.74 2.57 304 950 73.66

Assam

Hills

2.52 (0.10) 22.74 2.56 65 915 60.68

WB Hills 4.05 (0.16) 23.54 2.38 510 943 72.87 Source: Census of India 2001


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Considering the socio-economic status of the inhabitants, as per the records for

year 2000, barring Mizoram (19.47%) the NE states have higher proportion of

the people below poverty line (Arunachal Pradesh – 33.47; Meghalaya-

33.87;Manipur -28.54; Nagaland -32.67: Tripura- 34.44; Sikkim-36.55%) as

compared to the national average (26.10%).

Another striking feature of the socio-economic profile of the region is prevalence

of tribal culture. The region is predominantly inhabited by distinctive ethnic

groups (often referred to as „tribals‟) having unique socio-cultural practices17.

From time immemorial, the region has been the meeting point of many

communities, faiths and cultures. It is the home for over 166 separate tribes, 160

schedule tribes and over 400 other tribal and sub-tribal communities and groups,

speaking a wide range of languages. These groups retain their cultural traditions

and values but are beginning to adopt to contemporary lifestyles7.Table 5 gives

an account of the contribution of NE states to total tribal population of India and

to the population of the state. As reflected, the tribal population in these states

contributes significantly to the state‟s population. In this context, it is worth

mentioning that states like Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland are having >85% of

the population as tribal (Table 5).

Table 5: Tribal Population in the NE States of India (2001)

States % to India’s total

Scheduled Tribe

Population

% of total population of State

Sikkim 0.13 20.6

Arunachal Pradesh 0.84 64.2

Manipur 0.88 32.3

Meghalaya 2.36 85.9

Mizoram 1.0 94.5

Nagaland 2.1 89.1

Tripura 1.18 31.1

Assam 3.9 12.4 Source: Census of India 2001


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4. Landuse & Practices – a cultural landscape perspective

The broad land-use classification of the region is presented in (Table 6). The

statistics is indicative of the fact that most of the states in the region have large

proportion of land under forests. In general over 54% of the geographic area of

the region is recorded as notified forests – reserve, protected and un-classed

forest under the control of forest Department20.

Table 6. Land Use Classification of different NE States (thousand ha)

Source: 2006-07 Ministry of Agriculture, GoI

Besides forests, a large chunk of the land is not available for cultivation due to

various reasons (Table 6).

4.1. Forests as major land cover class

Details of the predominant land cover class (i.e., forests) under different classes

are given in Table 7. The statistics is indicative that Assam (34.21%) and

Sta

te

Geo

gra

ph

ica

l

are

a

Rep

ort

ing

are

a f

or

lan

d u

tili

zati

on

sta

tist

ics

Fo

rest

Not available for cultivation Other uncultivated land

excluding fallow land

Are

a p

ut

to n

on

ag

ricu

ltu

ral

use

s

Ba

rren

& u

ncu

ltu

r-a

ble

la

nd

Total

Per

ma

nen

t p

ast

ure

s &

oth

er

gra

zin

g l

an

ds

Land

under

Misc.

Tree

Crops

&

groves

not

inc. in

net

area

sown Cu

ltu

rab

le w

ast

e la

nd

To

tal

Sikkim 710 728 319 143 107 250 4 5 2 12

Arunachal Pradesh 8374 5547 5154 32 32 46 28 74

Manipur 2233 1950 1693 26 1 27 1 66 1 8

Meghalaya 2243 2227 942 90 137 227 158 453 611

Mizoram 2108 1951 1594 125 9 134 5 10 5 21

Nagaland 1658 1582 863 75 75 120 56 177

Tripura 1049 1049 606 131 3 134 27 1 28

Assam 7844 7850 1933 1081 1453 2533 160 209 77 445


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Meghalaya (42.34%) are having relatively less forested area. Sikkim has the

highest forest land under government control managed by the Forest

Department. Among other states, the land is owned by communities, and the

land is often allotted to villagers for jhum and other uses by the village headman

or the land council.

The overall status of forest area in different states of the region, between 1997

to 2007, is presented in Table 8.

Table 7: Recorded Forest Area in NE states (2007)

State Recorded Forest Area (sq.km)

% of Forest

Area to G.A. Reserved

Forest

Protected

Forest

Un-classed

Forest

Total Forest

Area

Sikkim 5452 389 -- 5841 82.31

Arunachal Pradesh

10546 9528 31466 51540 61.65

Manipur 1467 4171 11780 17418 78.01

Meghalaya 1113 12 8371 9496 42.34

Mizoram 7909 3568 5240 16717 79.30

Nagaland 86 508 8628 9222 55.62

Tripura 4175 2 2117 6294 60.02

Assam 17864 -- 8968 26832 34.21 Source: State Forest Report (2001, 2005, 2009) FSI, Dehradun

Table 8: Forest Cover over time in different NE States (1997-2007)

State Assessment Year (Area Km2)

1997

1999

2001

2003

2005

2007

Arunachal Pradesh

68,602 68,847 69,760 67,692 67,777 67,335

Sikkim 3,129 3,118 3164 3,262 3,262 3,357

Manipur 17,418 17,384 17,889 17,259 17,086 17,280

Meghalaya 15,657 15,633 16,535 16,925 16,988 17,321

Mizoram 18,775 18,338 16,397 18,583 18,684 19,2401

Nagaland 14,221 14,164 13,980 14,015 13,719 13,464

Tripura 5,745 5,745 8,869 8,123 8,155 8,073

Assam 23,824 23,688 25,290 27,735 27,645 27,692

Assam Bengal

Hills

-- -- 2,196 2,221 2,221 2,289

Assam Hills - -- 13.024 13,158 13,051 13,003

Source: State Forest Report (2001, 2005, 2009) FSI, Dehradun


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Reports of RS data analyses suggest that the forests in the region, however,

exhibit varying ranges of fragmentation (Table 9). The statistics is indicative that

states like Meghalaya and Tripura have no forest which can be considered intact.

Forests in Mizoram (71.7%) and Nagaland (53.3%) are relatively intact. Sikkim

and Manipur, Tripura have considerable area of forests which is facing high to

very high degree of fragmentation (Table 9).

Table 9: Status of Forest Fragmentation in different NE states of India

State Fragmentation (%Forest)

Intact Low Moderate High Very High

Sikkim 30.3 31 33.6 5.15

Manipur 27.4 31.6 38.2 27.2

Meghalaya 40.1 32.9 10.5 15.9

Mizoram 71.7 24.4 2.74 1.1

Nagaland 53.3 27.9 16 2.72

Tripura 33.9 28.7 20.8 16.6 Source: Biodiversity Characterization at Landscape level in Western Himalayas, India using Satellite Remote sensing and GIS, 2002, IIRS, Dehradun

4.2. Shifting-Cultivation Landscape

The landscapes in eastern Himalaya are predominated by a prevailing age old

agricultural practice – Jhum (shifting cultivation). It is a predominant traditional

land use associated with the socio-cultural framework of the local communities of

the region21, 22. It has been emphasized by the workers that in this region Jhum

does not operate in isolation rather there exist various other traditional land-use

practices linked with Jhum, namely valley rice cultivation, home gardens and

traditional plantation systems23. The area under Jhum cultivation differs widely

amongst the states (Table 10).

21 ICIMOD (2006): Debating shifting cultivation in the eastern Himalaya. 22 Planning Commission, GoI (2010): Report of the Task Force to look into problems of hill states and hill

areas and to suggest ways to ensure that these states and areas do not suffer in any way because of their peculiarities.

23 Ramakrishnan, PS et.al. eds (2006): Shifting Agriculture and sustainable development of North Eastern India: Tradition in Transition. UNESCO, Oxford & IBH Publ Co., New Delhi


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Table 10: Variation in the Estimates of Area under Jhum Cultivation in Different NE

states of India

Source: Report on Task force on Mountain Ecosystem (Enviornment and Forest sectrol) For Elevanth Five Year Plan. Planning Commission, GOI. 2006

In the past traditionally the Jhum cycle was used to be longer than 15 years and

enabled regeneration of forests before the same land was cultivated again.

However, in recent decades, due to increased population pressure and socio-

cultural changes in traditional lifestyle of indigenous communities, the Jhum cycle

has come down to 5-6 years and even 1-2 years in extreme cases. With this

shortening of Jhum cycle, these Jhum sites are unable to regenerate and hence

have become severely degraded22.

5. Indian East Himalaya - Biodiversity

The region is considered a geographic gateway for much of India‟s flora and

fauna, and harbours exceptional biodiversity and has relatively complex

biogeography. Roughly, the region contains more than one-third of the country‟s

total biodiversity. Besides representing the Himalayan Biodiversity Hotspot, the

State Sources and Area under Shifting Cultivation (Km2)

Task Force MoA, 1983 Wasteland

Atlas 2000

Satapathy2003 NRSA

2005 No of Families

Area

Arunachal

Pradesh

54000 700 3088.08 2610 1613.1

Assam 58000 696 8046.75 3100 3930.9

Manipur 70000 900 12014.10 3600 4816.6

Meghalaya 52290 530 2086.77 2650 743.8

Mizoram 50000 630 3761.23 450 4071.9

Nagaland 116046 192 5224.65 6330 1917.9

Tripura 43000 223 400.88 1080 395.2

Total Area Under Jhum Ciltivation

3869 34622.40 19820 17435.4

% of total Geographical

area

2.0 17.7 10.1 8.9


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region also represents an important part of the Indo-Burma (Myanmar) global

biodiversity hotspot, amongst the 34 recognized global biodiversity hotspots24,25.

5.1. Flora

The region has at least 7,500 species of flowering plants, including 700 orchids,

58 bamboos, 64 citrus. Besides, it has over 28 conifers, 500 mosses, 700 ferns,

and 728 lichen species. Some of the important gene pools of citrus, banana, and

rice are reported to have originated from this region. About one-third of the flora

of northeast India is endemic to this region. The eastern Himalaya supports one

of the world‟s richest alpine flora, with high level of endemism and the temperate

broadleaved forest type in the eastern Himalaya is among the most species-rich

temperate forests in the world24. Nearly 50 percent of the total flowering plants

recorded from India are found in the Northeastern Region of India26. As indicated

earlier, Takhtajan8 had termed this region as the “cradle of flowering plants”.

The region is the habitat of many botanical curiosities and rarities, including

Sapria himalayana Griff. (family Rafflesiaceae) - one of the largest root parasites.

Among insectivorous plants Nepenthes khasiana Hk. f., endemic to Meghalaya

and listed in Appendix I of CITES and placed in Schedule VI of the Wildlife

(Protection) Act, 1972, and two species of Drosera peltata Sm. and D. burmanii

Vahl. are important. Many families represented in India by a solitary genus with

one or two species are found in this region, for example Coriariaceae,

Nepenthaceae, Turneraceae, Illiciaceae, Ruppiaceae, Siphonodontaceae, and

Tetracentraceae27.

24 Chettri N, Sharma E, Shakya B, Thapa, et al (2010): Biodiversity in the Eastern Himalayas: Status, trends

and vulnerability to climate change; Climate change impact and vulnerability in the Eastern Himalayas – Technical report 2. Kathmandu: ICIMOD, Nepal.

25 Pawar, S, Koo MS, Kelley C, et al. (2007) Conservation assessment and prioritization of areas in Northeast India: priorities for amphibians and reptiles. Biol. Cons 136:346-361.

26 Mao, AA & Hynniewta, TM (2000): Floristic diversity of North East India. J. Assam Sci. Soc. 41(4): 255-266.

27 Rao, RR and Murti, SK (1990): North-East India: A major centre for plant diversity in India. Indian J. For. 13 (3): 214-222.


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Of an estimated 800 species consumed as food plants in India, about 300

species occur in the eastern Himalaya alone28. Diversity of Orchidaceae, the most

fascinating and highly evolved group of plants, in NE region is amazing and it

represents over 57% of total orchids in India. In particular, Arunachal Pradesh

with 545 species (122 genera) of orchids [12 species - endangered, 16-

vulnerable, and 31 – threatened] holds a unique position29.

The genus Rhododendron (family Ericaceae) is another remarkable group of

showy plants with nearly 98% of the total Rhododendrons reported from India

(72 species, 20 subspecies, and 19 varieties) are confined to the Himalayan

region30. Of these, 98.6% (71 species) representation is in NE region wherein

Arunachal Pradesh has 9 species and 1 subspecies endemic, followed by Manipur

and Sikkim with 3 species and 1 subspecies, and Mizoram with 2 species31 as

endemic.

Rattan, commonly known as cane, is one of the most important no timber forest

products from northeast India. Of 60 species of canes reported from India, the

NE Region has over 26 species28. Likewise, of 150 species of bamboo found in

India, 63 species in 22 genera are found in target region. About 25 species of

bamboo are considered rare in NE region.

The region, being remote and inaccessible in most cases has not been explored

completely and holds great potential for new plant discoveries. For an instance,

during year 2010, two new genera and 24 new plant species have been

discovered/ described by different workers from NE region of India (Table 11)32.

28 Ramakantha V, Gupta AK & Kumar, A (2011). Biodiversity of Northeast India: An overview.

http://wiienvis.nic.in/rain_forest/chapter1.htm; accessed on 21.06.2011. 29 Choudhery H J (1998). Orchid Flora of Arunachal Pradesh. Bishen Singh Mahendra Pal Singh, Dehradun,

India. 30 Singh KK, Kumar S, Rai LK & Krishna AP (2003). Rhododendrons conservation in the Sikkim Himalaya.

Curr. Sci. 85(5): 602-606. 31 Mao AA, Singh KP & Hajra, PK, (2002). In: Floristic Diversity and Conservation Strategies in India (N P

Singh and D K Singh,Eds.), BSI, Calcutta, pp. 2167-2202. 32 Botanical Survey of India (2011): Plant Discoveries 2010.

http://wiienvis.nic.in/rain_forest/chapter1.htm


18 | P a g e

Table 11: New plant discoveries during year 2010 from NE region of India32

S.N. New species/var./sub spp. Family NE State from

where discovered

Angiosperms

New Genera

1. Larsenianthus (4 spp) Zingiberaceae NE India

2. Stapletonia (1 sp) Poaceae Arunachal Pradesh

New Species/varieties/sub species

1 Bambusa dampaeana Poaceae Mizoram

2 Boehmeria listeri Urticaceae Arunachal Pradesh

3 Boehmeria manipurensis Urticaceae Manipur

4 Cephalostachyum longwanum Poaceae Nagaland

5 Coelogyne pendula Orchidaceae Mizoram

6 Dendrocalamus manipureanus Poaceae Manipur

7 Epigeneium arunachalense Orchidaceae Arunachal Pradesh

8 Heteropanax dhruvii Araliaceae Arunachal Pradesh

9 Larsenianthus arunachalense Zingiberaceae Arunachal Pradesh

10 Larsenianthus assamensis Zingiberaceae Assam

11 Dendrobium falconeri var. senapatianum

Orchidaceae Manipur

12 Morus macroura var. laxiflora Moraceae Arunachal Pradesh

13 Tibetoseris depressa sub sp gauri Asteraceae Sikkim

Ferns and Fern allies

14 Pteris mawsmaiensis Preridaceae Meghalaya

Bryophytes

15 Leptolejenea mirikana Lejeunaeceae West Bengal Hills

16 Leptolejenea udarii Lejeunaeceae Sikkim

17 Notoscyphus darjeelingensis Jungermanniaceae Sikkim

Lichens

18 Leirreuma subpatellum Graphidaceae Arunachal Pradesh

19 Pyrenula darjeelingensis Pyrenulaceae

Fungi

20 Russula khanchanjungae Russulaceae Sikkim

21 Russula tsokae Russulaceae Sikkim

22 Phallus calongei Phallaceae Sikkim

23 Russula griseocarnosa Russalaceae Sikkim

Algae

24 Stigeoclonium iyengarii Chaetophoraceae Sikkim

5.2. Fauna

Like plants, the region is rich in faunal diversity. The remoteness and difficult

terrain has, however, resulted in poor documentation of the faunal diversity in

NE region. The occurrence of a new species of barking deer, the leaf deer

(Muntiacus putaoensis), recently discovered in Myanmar and reported from the


19 | P a g e

forests of Arunachal Pradesh33 and more recent discovery of the Tawang

macaque (Macaca munjala) as a new record for India, justify that much is yet to

be identified, named and studied in northeast region of India28. In general, the

contribution of NE region for faunal diversity can be gauged from following:

Of the 15 known species of primates in India, 9 occur in northeast India28.

The golden langur (Trachypithecus geei) is one of the most localized

species endemic was discovered in the Chakrashilla Hills Reserve in Dhubri

District of Assam34, and the area has been turned into a wildlife sanctuary.

This Schedule-I animal is listed in Appendix-I of CITES. In Tripura, within

5.8 percent of the state‟s protected area, seven species of primates are

distributed35. The stump-tailed macaque (Macaca arctoides) and the

northern pigtailed macaque (M. leonina) have sympatric distributions in

northeast India and both have become endangered. The slow loris

(Nycticebus bengalensis) is an inhabitant of tropical forests south of the

Brahmaputra River in northeast India. This highly endangered animal is

listed in Schedule I, and in Appendix I of CITES.

Among 6 big cats recorded from India, four– the tiger (Panthera tigris),

the leopard (Panthera pardus), the snow leopard (Uncia uncia), and the

clouded leopard (Neofelis nebulosa) have been reported from the region.

Of these, the Indian population of the clouded leopard is restricted to the

Northeastern Region. The tiger, which has become a very rare animal in

the entire region, is still finds good habitats for survival in Assam. In spite

of poor information base, presence of snow leopard has been confirmed

in the Khangchendzonga National Park of Sikkim and the Mago Chu valley

of Tawang District of Arunachal Pradesh and is likely to be present in the

Dzong Wildlife Sanctuary and Tolung Wildlife Sanctuary in Sikkim, and the

Dibang valley and Namdapha National Park in Arunachal Pradesh28.

33 Dutta, A., Pansa, J., Madhusudan, M.D. and Mishra, C., 2003. Discovery of the leaf deer Muntiacus putaoensis in Arunachal Pradesh: an addition to the large mammals of India. Curr. Sci. 84(3): 454-458.

34 Budruk M (1996). Chakrashila golden langur haven. Sanctuary Asia XVI(2): 26-31. 35 Gupta AK (1994). In: Current Primatology, Vol.1: Ecology and Evolution (B Thierry, JR Anderson, JJ

Roeder & N Herrenschmidt, Eds.). University of Louis Pasteur, Strasbourg.


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The red panda, protected under Schedule I of the Indian Wildlife

(Protection) Act, 1972, and listed in Appendix I of CITES and listed as

endangered by IUCN, is also reported in the region with nearly 90 percent

of population being in Arunachal Pradesh36. All the bear species that occur

in India are recorded from the Northeastern Region. The region forms the

western end of the range of the Malayan sun bear (Helarctos malayanus).

The foothill grasslands and broadleaved forests of NE region harbor

important populations of Asian elephant, one-horned rhinoceros, and wild

water buffalo. The elephant population of the north bank of the

Brahmaputra River in Assam is one of India‟s largest and most

important28. In northeast India the great Indian rhinoceros (Rhinoceros

unicornis) is now restricted to Kaziranga, Pabitora, and Orang in Assam.

The brow-antlered deer (Cervus eldi eldi), locally known as the sangai, is

endemic to Manipur and is one of rarest and the most localized subspecies

of deer in the world. The pygmy hog (Sus salvanius) is the smallest and

the rarest wild suid in the world, and only a few isolated wild populations

survive in northeast India. Arunachal Pradesh is home to some fascinating

large herbivores, such as the newly discovered Chinese goral

(Naemorhedus goral), the red goral (Naemorhedus baileyi), the takin

(Budorcas taxicolor), and the serow (Capricornis sumatraensis)28.

Of the seven endemic bird areas (EBAs) in the country, two EBAs - the

eastern Himalaya and Assam plains, are in the NE region. This region

perhaps supports the highest diversity of bird species in the

Orient.Arunachal Pradesh alone has over 760 bird species28. Elliot‟s

laughing thrush (Garrulax elliotii) and the brown-cheeked laughing thrush

(G. henrici) are two species that have been recently added to the region‟s

list, from Arunachal Pradesh. Both these species had previously been

recorded only in China. The white-winged duck, which has been reported

from the D‟Ering Wildlife Sanctuary in Arunachal Pradesh, is identified as

36 Choudhury AU (2002): Tail carriage in Pigtailed Macaque (Macaca nemestrina). Tiger Paper XXXIX(1): 1-

2.


21 | P a g e

highly endangered. The Sangte valley of Arunachal Pradesh is the only

habitat for wintering black-necked crane (Grus nigricolis). The greater

adjutant (Leptoptilos dubius) is a globally threatened bird, with the

majority of the world‟s population now found in Assam. The spot-billed

pelican (Pelicanus philippensis), the black-necked stork (Ephippiorhyncus

asiaticus), the lesser adjutant (Leptotilos javanicus), and the pale-capped

pigeon (Columba punicea) are only a few of the globally threatened birds

found in the region. The swamp francolin (Francolinus gularis), found in

northeast India, is endemic to the Indian subcontinent. The Bengal

florican (Houbaropsis bengalensis), globally one of the rarest bustards,

has largest global population in the Manas National Park in Assam. The

lesser fish eagle (Icthyophaga humilis) is the rarest of the fish and sea

eagles, and there are reports of its sightings in Namdapha in Arunachal

Pradesh. The highly endangered eastern population of the rufous-vented

prinia, regarded as the separate species swamp prinia (Prinia

cinerascens), is reported from the Pobitora Wildlife Sanctuary in Assam.

The beautiful nuthatch (Sitta formosa) is a resident of the primary forests

of northeast India.

Among lower vertebrates, so far 137 species of reptiles have been

recorded from northeast India, with greatest affinity to the Oriental, Indo-

Malayan, and Indo-Chinese regions. The gharial (Gavialis gangeticus),

found in the Brahmaputra River, is of great conservation significance.

Northeast India has the highest diversity of turtles. As recently as 2000, a

chelonian species, Amyda cartilaginaea, was reported from Mizoram as a

first record for India, the previous range for this species being from

southern Myanmar to central Vietnam, Laos, Cambodia, and Thailand. The

black softshell turtle (Aspideretes nigricans), once considered extinct, and

has been rediscovered recently from the Assam valley28. Twenty lizard

species have been recorded from the state of Assam. Of the three species

of monitor lizard found in the region, Varanus flavescens is listed in

Schedule I of the Wildlife (Protection) Act and also listed in Appendix I of

CITES. The Tokay gecko (Gekko gekko) is the largest gecko alive today

and is found in northeast India.


22 | P a g e

Fifty-eight species of snakes have been recorded in Assam, 34 from

Manipur, and 92 from Arunachal Pradesh. Python reticulatus, the largest

snake in India, is found in northeast India, and Python molurus bivittatus

is the most commonly known in the region. Both species can be seen in

Mouling National Park in Upper Siang District in Arunachal Pradesh. The

king cobra (Ophiophagus hannah) is the most awe-inspiring reptile of the

region. Typhlops jerdoni, T. tenuicollis, Stoliczkaia khasiensis, Elaphe

mandarina, Oligodon melazonotus, Xenochrophis punctulatus, Bungarus

bungaroides, and Trimeresurus jerdoni are just a few examples of elusive

and rare snakes of northeast India.

So far 64 species of amphibians have been recorded from northeast India.

A survey of amphibians conducted in Nagaland from 1998 to 2002

resulted in 19 species as new records for the state and 5 species

(Megophrys wuliangshanensis, M. glandulosa, Amolops viridimaculatus,

Rana humeralis, and Rhacophorus gongshanensis) as new records for

India. The Orang Wildlife Sanctuary in Assam is the only known site for

the Orang sticky frog (Kalophrynus orangensis)28.

The northeast ecoregion has reported 3,624 species of insects and 50

molluscs. Butterflies and moths are by far the best-studied invertebrate

organisms in northeast India, and the region contributes the greatest

number of species for the group in the country. Over 689 species of

butterflies have been recorded from the state of Sikkim. One of the

largest known tropical Lepidoptera is the atlas moth (Attacus atlas), not

uncommon in many parts of northeast India. Princeps polyctor ganesa,

which occurs in northeast India, is one of the most beautiful butterflies in

the country, while Erysmia pulchella and Nyctalemon patroclus are very

beautiful moths that occur in the region.

5.3. Biodiversity of Economically & Socio-culturally Important Groups

5.3.1. Medicinal Plants

The rich plant diversity of the Himalaya has been a source of medicines for

millions of people in the country and elsewhere in the world. IHR supports over


23 | P a g e

1748 (23.4% of India) plant species of known medicinal value37. Of these,

considerable representation of medicinal plants is from NE region. The unique

diversity of medicinal plants in the region is manifested by the presence of

number of native, endemic and threatened elements. The economic potential of

Himalayan medicinal plants, including those of NE region, and their contribution in

providing novel bio-molecules is well recognized38,39,40.

While setting priorities for medicinal plants of IHR, it is reported that: (i) of the

nearly 280 medicinal plants being used in industry, 175 are from IHR; (ii) more

than two third (122: 69.7%) of identified species from IHR are exposed to

destructive harvesting, thereby adversely affecting the resource base; (iii)

industry extensively uses non-natives, particularly in robust life forms (shrubs

96.8%; trees 90.9%); (iv) native percentage among exploited herbs is relatively

high (20.2%) and most of them are restricted to specialized alpine habitats; (v)

contribution of wild-cultivated forms of medicinal plants is poor (20%).

5.3.2. Wild Edible Plants

Among the economically important bioresources of IHR, the wild edibles have

emerged as potential resources for addressing issues of rural development and

biodiversity conservation, particularly on account of their nutritional and

pharmaceutical potential41,42. Over 675 species (Angiosperms 647,

37 Samant SS, Dhar U, Palni LMS: Medicinal plants of Indian Himalaya. Himvikas Publ 13. Kosi-

Katarmal, Almora:GBPIHED 1998. 38 Nautiyal AR, Nautiyal MC Purohit AN (1997): Harvesting Herbs -2000. Dehradun: Bishen Singh

Mahendrapal Singh. 39 Dhawan BN: Biodiversity (1997): a valuable resource for new molecules. In Himalayan

Biodiversity: Action Plan (Dhar U, ed.). Nainital: Gyanodaya Prakashan, Pp 111-114. 40 Dhar U, Rawal RS, Upreti J (2000): Setting priorities for conservation of medicinal plants – a

case study in the Indian Himalaya. Biol Cons, 95:57-65. 41 Maikhuri RK, Rao KS, Saxena KG: Bioprospecting of Wild edibles for Rural Development in the

Central Himalayan Mountains of India. Mount Res Devel 2004, 24(2), 110-113. 42 Bhatt ID, Rawal RS, Dhar U: The availability, fruit yield and harvest of Myrica esculenta Buch-

Ham ex D.Don in Kumaun (West Himalaya), India. Mount Res Devel 2000, 20: 146-153.


24 | P a g e

Gymnosperms 7; Pteridophytes 12; Fungi 7 and Lichens 2 species) of wild edible

species belonging to 384 genera and 149 families are known from IHR43,44.

Across biogeographic provinces, richness of known wild edibles is maximum in

West Himalaya (344 spp.; 50.9%); followed by East Himalaya (221;32.7%),

Central Himalaya (173; 25.6%) and Trans/North West Himalaya (169;25.0%). Of

the total reported wild edibles, 39 (5.8%) species were reportedly restricted

range endemics and 93 (13.8%) near endemics44.

Frequent and large consumption of wild edibles poor tribal communities of NE

region meets their protein, carbohydrate, fat, vitamin and mineral

requirements45. Other reports suggest wild edibles also generate substantial

income to the poor rural populace in the region.

5.3.3. Orchids and other Wild flowers

Orchids which constitute an order royalty in the world of ornamental plants also

have immense horticultural potential. As indicated earlier largest proportion of

Indian orchid diversity is represented in NE region46. A large number of orchid

genera have been recognized with commercial value (e.g., Dendrobium,

Paphiopedium, Vanda, Phaius, Celogyne, cattleya, Cymbidium, etc.)46. However,

in spite of the great promise and potential, Orchid industry has not taken-up the

desired shape in the region. Likewise, states like Sikkim and Arunachal Pradesh in

NE region are well known for the diversity of Rhododendrons. The economic

potential is yet to be harnessed.

43 Samant SS, Dhar U (1997): Diversity, endemism and economic potential of wild edible plants of Indian

Himalaya. Int J Sustain Dev World Ecol, 4:179-191. 44 Samant SS, Dhar U, Rawal RS (2001): Diversity and Distribution of Wild Edible Plants of Indian Himalaya.

In Plant Diversity of the Himalaya (Pande PC, Samant SS, eds). Nainital: Gyanodaya Prakashan, Pp. 421-482.

45 Sundriyal M, Sundriyal RC (2001): Wild edible plants of the Sikkim Himalaya: nutritive value of selected species. Econ Bot, 55: 377-390.

46 Singh VB et al (1998): In (Sundriyal RC, et al., eds). Perspectives of planning and development in NE India. Pp 120-127.


25 | P a g e

5.4. Effective valuation – forests of NE region

While considering ecosystem approach, there is a growing concern to effectively

attach monitory value to biodiversity, specifically the ecosystem services and

make provisions for transfer of payments (compensations) to their protectors. An

emerging issue is attaching value to forests. Under the efforts to implement the

United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), with a

growing global realization that fuller valuation of forests is necessary if forests

are to be conserved by local people, progress has been made to develop carbon

markets. The trends on initiatives across the world are indicative of the fact that

forestry efforts could play an increasingly important role in achieving the

emission reduction targets agreed by signatories to the Kyoto Protocol.

The rough value of ecosystem services that have been estimated for forests in

Himalaya, including the forests in NE states is huge (Table 12). There is a need

to recognize value of such ecosystem services and develop mechanisms for

appropriate compensations/incentives for the people who have contributed

towards maintenance of such services.

Table 12: Forest Ecosystem Services Provided by different Northeast states of India47

47

Singh SP 2007, Himalayan Forest Ecosystem Services: Incorporating In National Accounting ,

CHEA, Nainital

Himalayan State Value of Ecosystem Services as of 1994

(billion rupees)

Sikkim 14.02

Arunachal Pradesh 232.95

Manipur 59.67

Meghalaya 55.16

Mizoram 56.61

Nagaland 49.39

Tripura 20.40

Total IHR 944.33


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5. 5. Biodiversity Conservation Initiatives

5.5.1. Protected Area (PA) Network

The Himalaya including the NE region, a global conservation priority, has

increasingly received attention of Government of India under its PA programme.

Till date, a total of 16 National Parks and 53 Wildlife sanctuaries have been

designated in different NE states covering an area of 6912 km2 and 11,261 km2,

respectively. Progression of PA network in NE region of India has been depicted

(Fig 3 & 4).

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

1950 or

Before

1951-

1960

1961-

1970

1971-

1980

1981-

1990

1991-

2000

2000-

till date

Years

Nu

mb

er

National Park

Wildlife Sanctury

Figure 3. Progression of PA numbers in Northeast region of India


27 | P a g e

0

2000

4000

6000

8000

10000

12000

1950

or

Before

1951-

1960

1961-

1970

1971-

1980

1981-

1990

1991-

2000

2000-

till date

Years

Are

a in

Sq

Km

National Park

Wildlife Sanctury

Figure 3. Progression of coverage area of PAs in Northeast region of India

In general, the PA coverage in the IHR (7.6%) is higher than the national

average (4.75%). The existing figures of PAs are apparently indicative of the

satisfactory state of network system for conservation of representative

ecosystems in the region. However, a more objective analysis of facts reveals the

following:

Broadly the random distribution of PAs and representative coverage is well

above the national average (4.75%) in each province, barring NE Hills

[Ladakh Mtn-3 units (8.22% of area); Tibetan Plateau-4 (9.63%); North

west- 29 (7.18%); West- 18 (12.02%); Central- 10 (10.29%), East- 13

(11.82%); Brahmaputra Valley- 23(5.96%) and NE Hills- 25 (2.29%)],

which supposedly takes care of representative habitats, ecosystems and

biota along longitudinal-east to west gradient of the region. The

representativeness of these elements along horizontal (latitudinal-South to

North) and vertical (low to high elevation) gradients needs to be looked

into for individual province. In this regard bigger PAs with adequate


28 | P a g e

vertical and horizontal expanse emerge as better candidates. The analysis

of size of existing PAs in IHR, however, reveals that: (i) PAs in Himalayan

zone have smaller average size (310.0 km2; n-=70) is small. Within this

zone, East Himalayan province (average size 761.3 km2, n=13) has

relatively large PAs; (iii) PAs in NE biogeographic zone are invariably

smaller in size- average size 132.3 km2 (Brahmaputra Valley – 171.8 km2,

n=23; NE Hills – 96.0 km2, n=25.These figures need to be viewed for

wider conservation implications, particularly considering the fact that small

PAs are usually considered inadequate to (a) preserve large contiguous

tracts of representative ecosystems/habitats, (b) viable populations of

large key stone species, and (c) safeguard overall ecological value of

ecosystems.

As reflected, the PA coverage in NE biogeographic zone, particularly in NE

hill province, is poor. Whereas, from the biodiversity point of view

especially considering the evolutionary significance as one of the center of

plant origin, this region holds great conservation significance. Therefore, it

would require immediate attention for bringing in adequate and

representative areas under PA network to ensure in situ protection of

important bioresources of the region.

Besides the legally designated PAs, the NE region of India is well represented

under coverage of Biosphere Reserves. A total of five biosphere reserves to

conserve the representative habitats, biota and to support the harmonious co-

existence of man and nature have been established in the Northeastern region

(Table 13).

Among others, three wetlands (i.e., Deepor Beel –Assam, 4000 ha; Rudrasagar

Lake – Tripura, 240 ha; Loktak Lake – Manipur, 26600 ) with global significance

in NE region have been listed as Ramsar sites48.

48

http://ramsar.org

http://www.wwfindia.org/about_wwf/what_we_do/freshwater_wetlands/our_work/ramsar_sites/deepor_beel_.cfm

http://www.wwfindia.org/about_wwf/what_we_do/freshwater_wetlands/our_work/ramsar_sites/loktak_lake_.cfm


29 | P a g e

Table 13. Biosphere Reserves in Northeast region of India.

S.

No.

Name of the

Biosphere Reserve

Area (in Km2) Location

1 Dehang-Dibang 5111.50 (Core 4094.80 & Buffer

1016.70)

Part of Siang and Dibang Valley in Arunachal Pradesh.

2 Dibru-Saikhowa 765

(Core 340 & Buffer 425)

Part of Dibrugarh and Tinsukia Districts

(Assam)

3 Khangchendzonga 2619.92 (Core 1819.34 & Buffer

835.92)

Parts of Khangchendzonga hills and Sikkim.

4 Manas 2837 (Core 391 & Buffer

2,446)

Part of Kokrajhar, Bongaigaon, Barpeta, Nalbari, Kamprup and Darang districts

(Assam)

5 Nokrek

820 (Core 47.48 & Buffer

227.92, Transition Zone 544.60)

Part of Garo hills (Meghalaya).

5.6. Key threats to Biodiversity of NE region

Among the major threats to biodiversity of the target region following deserve

mention:

The primary vegetation in extensive areas of the Northeast India has been

disturbed and modified both through natural and anthropogenic causes.

However, the first one has contributed only marginally to the change in

vegetation type; human induced activities have led to irreversible

transformation in the landscapes and resulted in colossal loss of

biodiversity in the entire region. The region has witnessed excessive

logging since the colonial days for revenue generation. Northeast India is

often quoted that it continues to be a forest surplus region. However, the

forest cover is rapidly disappearing from the entire region.


30 | P a g e

Shifting agriculture or slash-and-burn agriculture is the major land use in

Northeast India. This traditional practice has largely been blamed for

deforestation in the region.

The economy in the entire Northeast India is agrarian in nature and as

mentioned in the preceeding paragraph, little land is available for settled

agriculture. Agriculture has been the main source of livelihood amongst

the tribes and along with the settled agriculture (e.g., paddy cultivation),

„jhum‟ (shifting cultivation) is often carried out by many tribal groups.

Jhumming is one of the most ancient systems of farming, believed to have

originated in the Neolithic period, around 7000 BC. It is intricately linked

with the ethos of the social and cultural values of the tribal communities.

Literature available in general has blamed jhumming for the adverse

effects on ecology and conservation – including, destruction of soil

fertility, soil erosion in upper catchments resulting insedimentation of

water bodies, poor yield of crops, destruction of wildlife and natural

habitat, and floods.

Encroachment situation of forest land is alarming in some areas of NE

region. This has not only caused loss of forest area but has also created a

tool for perpetual degradation of forest resources.

Grazing pressure on forests and grassland of the region far exceeds the

carrying capacity and is one of the major factors for degradation of forests

especially near human habitations. Grazing therefore constitutes a threat

to forest conservation and biodiversity in the State. Enforcement of strict

control or imposition of restriction to such disturbance under existing

socio-economic conditions is practically impossible.

The North Eastern Region harbours important corridors for movement of

wild animals like elephants and reports of human-wildlife conflict are

widespread in locations like the foothills of Assam and Arunachal Pradesh

border along the North bank of Brahmaputra. Human deaths and crop


31 | P a g e

depredation are common and efforts of various organizations in mitigating

the conflicts have remained ineffective49.

Forest fires are common and frequent in the region. The fires at the end

of winters are a rule rather than exception. The villagers set fire to forest

floor, which is littered with inflammable dry leaves and twigs.

Regeneration (natural as well as artificial), is affected and wildlife is

impacted negatively50. The hill forests also get burnt due to jhum fires

going out of control and spreading to the surrounding areas.

The uncontrolled movement of forest produce across the borders at

several locations of NE region is not uncommon. This is amongst the

major problems faced by the respective State Forest Departments. The

enormity & extent of such feelings can be judged from the annual revenue

earned from intercepted forest produce which may represent only a small

portion (around 10%) of the produce moved across the border.

Replacement of original mixed vegetation with monoculture plantations

like rubber in Tripura, Tea plantations in Arunachal Pradesh, etc. are also

posing threats to the unique biodiversity of the region. These commercial

plantations are not only replacing the original vegetation and flora but

also add to the damage through larger influx of people and by adding to

pollution through the enormous chemicals, fertilizers and pesticides

applied in the plantations.

Towards meeting the increasing demand of certain products such as food

grains, vegetables, milk and meat, some high yielding varieties of plants

and animals have been introduced in the region leading to reduced

propagation of indigenous varieties. In some cases, the indigenous

varieties have been altogether ignored. The current dominance of

49 Chatterjee, S., Saikia, A., Dutta, P. et al (2006): Background paper on Biodiversity significance of

Northeast India: for the study on Natural Resources, Water and Environment Nexus for Development and Growth in North Eastern India, WWF-India, http://mdoner.gov.in/writereaddata/sublink3images/40.pdf, accessed on 21.06.2011.

50 Semwal et al. (2003): Forest Fires in India. Lessons from case studies. WWF-India. New Delhi.

http://mdoner.gov.in/writereaddata/sublink3images/40.pdf


32 | P a g e

intensive agricultural production of HYV rice and vegetables has led to

significant reduction in the genetic diversity of these species. Similarly,

new varieties of poultry, fish, livestock and fruits have been brought in the

region for mass propagation and higher production. Though production

has increased, the cross-breeds are susceptible to diseases, sometimes

causing huge losses of livestock and birds. The major exotic flora are the

water hyacinth, hydrilla, water lily and lotus. Population increase of

aquatic insects like Notonecta sp., Ranatra sp., Geris sp., Nepa sp.,

Lithocerus sp., Cybistra sp., Dytiscus sp., Gyrinus sp., and dragon fly

nymph, are causing management problems51. Invasion of alien flora like

Parthenium, Tagetes minuta and Xanthium strumarium are causing

threats to the native flora of the region.

Unplanned activities of development infrastructure is resulting into a great

pressure on fragile ecosystems of NE region. The adequate facilities for

monitoring, baseline data, impact assessment and threat or risk

assessment still need to be developed in the NE states. Lack of

coordination between developmental departments and proper planning

may be taken as major factors. Mining has been a cause of concern in

Meghalaya. Coal extraction is done following primitive mining method

commonly called rat hole mining. Dumping of coal has been the cause of

air water and soil pollution.

The traditional wisdom of indigenous communities in the North Eastern

states has contributed greatly for the management of biodiversity.

However, the influx of human population from the neighboring states,

largely as laborers, is causing a disruption to this tradition. They have very

poor understanding of local sentiments and values for nature. In addition,

the exposure to western cultures and the so called new education system

51 SBSAP (State Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan Reports) for Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Manipur,

Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland and Sikkim. 2005.


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have contributed towards changed lifestyles that in turn affect the bio

resources and their sustenance.

6. Climate Change Vulnerability in NE region

The concern of climate change and its effects on biological diversity, its goods

and services, are now occupying the central stage of negotiations across the

globe. This issue has become more important for the mountain ecosystems

which are considered especially susceptible to global warming. In this context,

recognizing the biodiversity importance of east Himalaya for its diverse range of

goods and services, identification and understanding of ecological and

socioeconomic parameters of these ecosystems, including their sensitivity and

vulnerabilities to climate changes, has become crucial for planning and policy

making in the region2.

In this context the Indian Network for Climate change Assessment (INCCA), in its

report „Climate change and India: a 4x4 assessment a sectoral and regional

analysis for 2030s‟ has attempted to ascertain the impacts of Climate Change in

2030‟s. The report has considered NE region amongst four major eco-sensitive

target regions and biodiversity (i.e., Natural ecosystems and Forests) amongst 4

major targeted sectors in the country7. It would be imperative to take note of the

major outcomes/projections of the report while assessing the climate change

vulnerability of biodiversity in the region. A summary of projections and

vulnerabilities is as follows:

Northeast India is vulnerable to water-induced disasters because of its

location in the eastern Himalayan periphery, fragile geo-environmental

settins and economic-underdevelopment. The powerful hydrological and

monsoon regime of the region, especially the Brahamaputra and the

Barak (Meghna) river systems are both a resource and a source of


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vulnerability. Moreover, the average state of economic development and

growth in the Northeast Indian region is lower than other parts of the

country. The average per-capita income of the region is 30% less than

the national average. Assam and Manipur have the lowest per-capita

income in the region. The region has higher incidence of poverty, even

when compared with states having similar average per-capita income.

Increasing population and decreasing land productivity, relatively higher

dependence on natural resources (e.g., forests) are also constraints for

the region‟s environmental sustainability.

The projected mean annual rainfall for NE region is varying from a

minimum of 940 to 1330 mm. The increase with respect to 1970‟s is by

0.3% to 3%. The NE also show a substantial decrease in rainfall in the

winter months of January and February in 2030‟s with respect to 1970‟s

with no additional rain projected to be available during the period March

to May and October to December. However, the monsoon rainfall during

June, July and August is likely to increase by 5mm in 2030‟s with

reference to 1970‟s. A rise of 0.6%.

Surface air temperature in NE region is projected to rise by 25.8 to 26.8oC

in 2030‟s with a standard deviation ranging from 0.8 to 0.9. The rise in

temperature with respect to 1970‟s is ranging from 1.8 to 2.1oC.

Regarding extreme precipitation projections the simulation suggested

frequency of rain days is more in east and north east India. With respect

to temperature, Minimum temperature are likely to rise from 1oC to 2.5oC

and maximum temperature may rise by 1oC to 3.5oC.

The projected impacts of Climate Change on crops in 2030‟s in the NE

region indicates that the climate change may bring changes in rice yields

by about -10% to 5%, while the impacts on rain-fed rice are likely to be

in the range of -35% to 5%in A1B 2030 Climate scenario in NE region. In

the case of wheat, the yields are projected to b reduce by up to 20%.


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Potato yields are likely to be marginally benefitted up to 5% in upper

parts of NE region, but in the central part the yields are projected to

reduce by about 4% while in the southern parts of NE region the

negative impacts will be higher. Maize crop yields are projected to reduce

by 40% in NE region. Maize and mustard are also likely to experience

decrease in productivity in the entire region.

The TH Index (Temperature and Humidity Index) is likely to increase

between April-October months with THI >80 which may impact the

economic viability of livestock production system in this region.

Regarding the projected changes (2035 A1B) in forest vegetation of NE

region, only about 8% of forested grids are projected to undergo

changes. The projections of NPP for this region is projected to witness a

23% increase in NPP on an average. In this context, the region appears

least vulnerable.

The majority of the NE region, but for some parts of Mizoram, Tripura,

Manipur and Assam, shows an increase in ET during 2030s scenario. The

trends in water yield indicate the areas which have shown less increase in

precipitation show a correspondingly low water yield. The reduction in

water yield in Arunachal Pradesh is up to 20%. An increase in water is

seen in Assam and Manipur and the magnitude is up to 40%.

NE region also shows a considerable increase in sediment yield for

majority of the area which are expected to see increase in precipitation.

The increase in the sediment yield in the region is up to 25%.

Recently a report from ICIMOD on „Climate Change Vulnerability of Mountain

Ecosystems in the Easter Himalaya‟ has emphasized upon the fact that the stress

that potential climate change impacts on biodiversity occurs with other well

established stressors. In the context of East Himalaya a few specific examples

have been highlighted (Box 1)


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7. Biodiversity & Climate Change in NE region - Key challenges

(A) Defining conservation and management priorities/targets

Owing to extreme rugged topography, remoteness and lack of

infrastructure, the complete (or even near complete) inventories at

different organizational levels (e.g., genes, species, ecosystem and

landscape) are yet to be achieved in the target region, as a result it

represents very high degree of uncertainty about the status of its

biological resources (both wild and domesticated), and, therefore,

defining conservation targets at different organizational levels under

changing climate scenario is a fundamental challenge.

Considering the heterogeneity in bio-physical conditions and strong

variations in the relationship between people and nature, particularly

along the wide altitude/climate range and the extensive diversity of

scio-cultural systems in the target region, the social and ecological

values do manifest at different scales. Therefore, the successful

Box 1: Synergistic effects of climate change and other ecosystem stressors in the East Himalaya (Adopted from ICIMOD 20102).

1. Habitat loss and fragmentation: with temperature rises and reduced precipitation, alpine meadows and shrubs may migrate to places higher up the mountains. However, this process will be constrained by the environments that do not have soils of sufficient depth for anchorage and nutrient storage. Wetlands will shrink in response to high evaporation, which is further exacerbated by the expansion of settlements and other human activities.

2. Invasive species: The rising temperature of water bodies renders them more suitable habitat for invasive species that outcompete native species and synergistically interact with climate change to threaten native organisms.

3. Species exploitation: Synergistic action between commercial harvesting and climate change will have detrimental impacts on subtropical and temperate timber forests.

4. Environmental Contaminations: Nutrient enrichment from agricultural and runoff could act synergistically with warming water temperatures due to climate change to enhance eutrophication in freshwater systems.


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negotiations of trade-offs will come with reasonable attention to

political, social, economic and ecological dynamics at multiple spatial

and temporal scales, and are critically dependent on interaction across

these scales. This understanding of resources and their linkages with

human needs and aspirations is at very low ebb in the region and

poses a big challenge while defining conservation/management and

climate change adaptation targets at different levels and scales.

B. Understanding conservation and development trade-offs

While analyzing conservation and climate change adaptation

imperatives in the target region, the key challenge would be to

effectively use development in the service of conservation. This

implies, utilizing human welfare targets (development means) as the

best choice for achieving conservation and management. It would also

imply that the key challenge for attempting a conservation and/or

climate change adaptation strategy for the region is not to ignore the

human activities under existing socio-cultural systems and changing

perspectives of life, but to understand how they affect the status and

values of ecosystem goods and services.

In the context of above, the most prevalent challenge, to understand

and address, is the ongoing process of rural transformation which

includes rapidly disintegrating (i) socio-cultural value system, (ii)

indigenous knowledge and practices, and (iii) local institutions. This

has led to: (a) intensive migration from remote rural areas to the

urban centers within and outside the region, thereby resulting in

multifarious social and environmental problems ranging from changes

in land use to health and hygiene, (b) loosening of linkages of

inhabitants with natural resources resulting into deteriorating state of


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resource protection, (c) eroding genetic resources, especially from

traditional farming systems.

Considering that the environmental changes, especially the

weather/climate related changes have strong bearing on most of the

above, establishing mechanisms to ensure long-term monitoring of

these changes using standard protocols and state of the art technology

in the target region is a big challenge that required immediate

attention.

C. Building participatory conservation alternatives

In view of the above and considering more inclusive notion of

conservation and sustainable use, finding new or strengthening

existing forms of community participation and local governance of

natural resources has emerged as a key challenge. This would mean,

not to deny urgency of protecting resources, but to explore alternative

and more participatory ways to reach this objective in order to seek

sustainability. Of late, across the globe, the participatory approaches

have been found to represent a reliable and widely accepted

complementary modality to operationalise conservation efforts.

D. Incorporating climate change adaptation and mitigation dimensions

Considering that the Climate Change is a reality and the mountain

ecosystems, their components and processes, are highly sensitive to

these changes, it is imperative to duly integrate Climate Change

dimensions into the conservation framework that to be developed for

East Himalayan region. However, development of such framework

would depend on various factors including the diversity of exposure,

level of sensitivity, adaptation capacity within the region, depending on


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the biophysical and geographic settings, accumulated social capital,

and economic status.

Our current understanding on the impacts of climate change on

components of biodiversity at different organizational levels is limited

and at a very low ebb. Also, we have a meager understanding of

impacts of CC on diverse sectors of society and their response system.

This gap in understanding accompanied by poorly understood process

of habitat destruction; land use change and whole range of socio-

cultural transformation processes pose a big concern. The future

biodiversity research, conservation strategies and the adaptation in the

region, would face challenge to re-orient focus and scope by

integrating spatially and conceptually more dynamic aspects of Climate

Change. Further, accommodating Climate Change adaptation

strategies that fully incorporate revised priorities for biodiversity and

the recognition of the rights and opportunities for involvement of

indigenous peoples becomes a formidable challenge.

E. Developing functional network of institutions

Realizing immediate need to address above mentioned challenges,

synergizing resources of various organizations to establish a functional

network of institutions in the region would be a big challenge. Bringing

together the local, national, regional institutions, making them agree

to take ownership of activities and assume responsibility for mobilizing

resources in synergetic manner to address issues of conservation is a

matter of real concern (and priority).


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8. Challenges and Opportunities for NE region

The major opportunity to address the issues is provided by the National

Biodiversity Action Plan (NBAP) of India52. This provides a country wide

framework for taking action by the multitude of stakeholders. The various

characteristics of target region, however, provide immense opportunities to

address issues and challenges within the broad NBAP framework. The major

opportunities and corresponding NBAP action areas to address the challenges in

NE region are as follows:

Identified Key Challenges

NBAP-India (Corresponding Action

Areas)

Opportunities in NE Region

Defining conservation and management

priorities/targets

Developing and

integrating biodiversity

databases

Building national

capacities for biodiversity

conservation and

appropriate use of new technologies

International

cooperation

Strong altitudinal/climate transition,

prevailing heterogeneity in bio-physical conditions and strong variations in the

relationship between people and nature.

Richness, representativeness, and

uniqueness of biodiversity elements and other bio-physical resources.

Clear zones/areas of wilderness (including

snow, alpine and sub alpine areas), sacred

and uniqueness values.

Discernible natural water zones (glaciers,

rivers, lakes, and springs).

Abundant forest zone with diversity of

forest types, goods and services.

Prevalence of indigenous farming systems,

knowledge and practices.

Understanding conservation and

development trade-

offs

Augmentation of

Natural Resource Base and its

sustainable

utilization: ensuring inter and intra

generational equity

Integrating

biodiversity concerns in

economic and

Diversified genetic heritage as a source for

livelihood.

Existence of diverse (8) agro-climatic

zones ranging from availability of fertile river valleys with irrigated land for

optimization of agricultural production to rich mosaic of traditional rain-fed

agriculture as a means of maintaining

genetic diversity and immense possibilities for adaptive management of agriculture

systems using models best suited for local

52 Ministry of Environment & Forests, GoI (2008): National Biodiversity Action Plan.


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social development

Use of economic

instruments/valuati

on in biodiversity

related decision making process

ecological/economic conditions.

Rich and diversified traditional ecological

knowledge to connect intangible with

tangible benefits.

Strong basis of cultural value systems and

local community institutions

Diverse range of ecosystem and cultural

services, ranging from maintenance of water flow to carbon sequestration, and

from recreations to spiritual values.

Building participatory

conservation alternatives

Strengthening and

integrating in situ

and ex situ conservation

Developing and

integrating

biodiversity databases

Regulating

introduction, and

managing invasive alien species

Long-term natural and cultural

interactions which have depended on local

level governance systems resulting into successful traditions of participatory,

culture based management of natural resources.

Rich representation of Biosphere Reserves

(Manas & Dibrusaikhowa – Brahmaputra

Valley; Nokrek – NE Hills; Dehang- Debang – East Himalaya; Kanchendzonga

– Central Himalaya) – the model

landscapes for biodiversity conservation and community-based development.

Existence of strong legally defined

protected area network.

Willingness of various stakeholders to

participate in the long term monitoring of

climate and other changes in the region and its likely impacts.

Incorporating climate

change adaptation and mitigation

dimensions

Assessment of

vulnerability and

adaptation to climate change and

desertification

Integrating

biodiversity

concerns in economic and

social development

Valuation of goods

and services provided by

biodiversity and use of economic

A typical mountain region with multiplicity

of climate sensitive resources, habitats

and ecosystem goods and services.

Diverse responses of endemic, sensitive

and key stone species.

Maintenance of global value of ecosystem

services emanating from the region.

Diversity in vulnerability distribution

Indigenous knowledge and practices to

cope with and adaptations to hazards,

changes and extreme events


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instruments

decision making

process

Impacts of

pollution

Develop a functional network of institutions

Strengthening

implementation of policy, legislative

and administrative measures for

biodiversity

conservation and management

Building national

capacities for

biodiversity conservation and

appropriate use of new technologies

International

cooperation

Enabling environment and policy back-up.

Major National level initiatives including– National Environment Policy, National

Action Plan on Climate Change – National Mission on Sustaining Himalayan

Ecosystems, Greening India Mission and

Specific task force of planning commission to look into problems of hill states and hill

areas, National Biodiversity Action Plan.

Existence of traditional systems of co-

existence and community based management

Commitments at local and national level

for environmental conservation and

sustainable development

Common agreement on socio-cultural,

socio-economic and bio-physical values, and their rapidly deteriorating state in the

target region.

9. National Commitments to Address Issues of Biodiversity Conservation & Livelihoods under Changing Climate

While considering the opportunities, the strong commitments shown by the

country towards addressing issues pertaining to Biodiversity Conservation, its

sustainable use and minimizing the impacts of Climate Change, has significant

bearing on the framework being developed for East Himalaya. Among others,

some of the important features of this commitment are summarized below:

India in order to fulfill its national obligations towards the international

agreements in the area of conservation has a comprehensive and

exhaustive framework of laws and policies to cover different components.

Also, India follows certain guiding principles in the area of conservation of


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its bio-cultural heritage. The Constitution of India, 1950, places directives

to the state through its section on Directive Principles of State Policy, inter

alia, “(f) to value and preserve the rich heritage of our composite culture;

(g) to protect and improve the natural environment including forests,

lakes, rivers and wild life, and to have compassion for living creatures;

Some of the prominent policies, legislation and action plans that drive the

conservation agenda of the country include- National Environment

Policy (NEP), 2006. The key theme of NEP is that while conservation of

environmental resources in necessary to secure livelihoods and wellbeing

of all, the most secure basis for conservation is to ensure that people

dependent on particular resources obtain better livelihoods from

conservation than from degradation of the resource. The National

Environment Policy 2006 recognizes mountains as the most fragile

ecosystems in terms of susceptibility to anthropogenic shocks. NEP is one

amongst the two policies in India that clearly seek regional cooperation in

the conservation of biological resources and protection of environment.

The policy acknowledges the transboundary character of environmental

pissues.

In pursuance to the CBD, India had enacted the Biological Diversity Act in

2002 following a widespread consultative process over a period of eight

years. The B.D. Rules were notified thereafter in 2004. The Act gives

effect to the provisions of the CBD. It also addresses access to biological

resources and associated traditional knowledge to ensure equitable

sharing of benefits arising out of their use to the country and its people,

thereby contributing to achieving the third objective of the CBD. India is

one of the first few countries to have enacted such legislation. The Act is

to be implemented through a three-tiered institutional structure: National

Biodiversity Authority (NBA), State Biodiversity Boards (SBBs) and

Biodiversity Management Committees (BMCs). NBA has been set up in


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2003. Various states, including East Himalayan States, have established

SBBs, and BMCs are in the process of being set up.

In this regards reference can be made to a recent comprehensive

document that reports on the progress of the country towards 2010

targets11.

The National Biodiversity Action Plan (NBAP), 2008 has been

formulated with the objective to augment natural resource base and its

sustainable utilization. It proposes to operationalise its mandate through

the PA network which includes consolidation of Biosphere reserves,

establishment of more reserves designated under Ramsar Convention, and

augmentation of ex situ efforts through the establishment of network of

Lead Gardens and initiatives in conservation of genetic resources, etc.

The Constitution of India in the recent decades has made an attempt to

devolve power to bodies of local self-governments to empower local

people and especially women and men from marginalized sections such as

the scheduled castes and scheduled tribes. Besides this, the recent years

has seen the enactment of several rights based laws such as the National

Rural Employment Guarantee Act 2006 and the Right to Information Act

2005.

The national policy on farmers which is premised on the fact that a

majority of the hungry live in rural India and also depend on agriculture

for their livelihood, lays emphasis on the economic well being of the

women and men feeding the nation (Serving Farmers and Saving Farmers,

Fifth and Final Report, 4 Oct 2006, revised draft National policy for

farmers, Ministry of Agriculture, National Commission on Farmers). It


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stresses that it is the opportune time to revitalize agricultural progress by

making agrarian prosperity and food security and sovereignty the bottom

line for government policies and priorities in agriculture and rural

development. The draft policy is sensitive to gender and human

dimension.

More recently, India has shown its commitment towards addressing the

emerging issues under Changing Climate scenario. The National Action

Plan on Climate Change (NAPCC), 2008 through eight National

Missions represents the multi-pronged, long term and integrated

strategies for achieving key goals in the context of Climate Change in

India. NAPCC envisages, among other things, a National Mission for

Sustaining the Himalayan Ecosystem. The Mission is aimed at evolving

management measures for sustaining and safeguarding the Himalayan

glaciers and the mountain ecosystem. The Mission also suggests need for

exchange of information between the countries that share the same

Himalayan ecology. Among others, a publication ‘Governance for

sustaining Himalayan Ecosystem (G-SHE): Guidelines and best

Practices’, which forms part of countries broader climate change

adaptation strategy, puts together guidelines and best practices related to

governance and management of Himalayan Ecosystem.

Considering the importance and specific problems of the hill states, the

Planning Commission, Government of India constitute a task force to look

into problems of hill states and hill areas and to suggest ways to

ensure that these states and areas do not suffer in any way

because of their peculiarities (Planning Commission, GOI, 2010). The

task force report, among others, recommends reshaping of policies to

bring in the „Mountain Perspective‟ for the Indian Himalayan Region, in the


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national planning. Emphasis has also been laid on developing norms for

good governance and harnessing social capital at the grass roots. The

report also recommends bringing in concept of developmental zones and

states that the balance between natural resource exploitation and

conservation should tilt in favour of the latter, with strong emphasis in

capacity building of the primary stakeholders.

With respect to the rights of indigenous communities the Scheduled

Tribes and Other Traditional Forest Dwellers (Recognition of

Forest Rights) Act, 2006 recognizes and vests forest rights and

occupation in forest land in forest dwelling Scheduled Tribes and other

traditional forest dwellers who have been residing in such forests for

generations but whose rights could not be recorded. The Act also

provides a framework for recording the forest rights so vested and the

nature of evidence required for such recognition and vesting in respect of

forest land. This process of recognition of rights is based on two key

concepts: community forest resources and community forest rights.

10. Recommendations and Suggested Action areas:

Considering the uniqueness and richness of biodiversity in the target

region, intricate linkages of human and natural resources, and realizing

the sensitivity of biodiversity elements of the region for human and

climate induced changes, following recommendations can be made for

consideration as possible action area in intended regional roadmap:

Realizing that the entire Himalayan ecosystem including NE region is

highly vulnerable both due to natural reasons and on account of the

stress caused by increased pressure of population, exploitation of

natural resources and other related challenges, including climate

change, it needs special attention. These vulnerability aspects would


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be exacerbated due to the impact of climate change. It is possible, and

projected, that climate change may adversely impact these ecosystems

through increased temperature, altered precipitation patterns,

episodes of drought (and heavy rainfall events), and biotic influences.

This would not only impact the very sustenance of the indigenous

communities in uplands but also the life of downstream dwellers across

the region and much beyond. Therefore, there is an urgent need for

giving special attention to sustain the Himalayan Ecosystem17. This

would require conscious efforts for conserving all the representative

systems in the region and promoting natural resource based livelihood

options for indigenous communities.

Considering the general lack of biodiversity and climate datasets for

the region there is a need to have in place a systematic and robust

data/information generation mechanism, which also takes care of

collection, collation and consolidation of available information. An

integrated regional biodiversity and climate change information system

with distributive linkages for easy storage, retrieval and dissemination,

also having linkages with the national database, is essentially required.

In this context, establishment of a strong Himalayan Biodiversity &

Climate Change Knowledge Network (HBCC-KN) is proposed to (i) take

note of and build on existing knowledge and information base across

the region, and (ii) enhance information generation and knowledge

discovery through robust globally accepted protocols, as recommended

during the International Workshop (6-8 December 2010) at G.B. Pant

Institute of Himalayan Environment & Development (India).

Recognizing the value of long term ecological and climate monitoring

sites in generating authentic reliable datasets, there is imminent need

to establish a chain of such sites in the region using internationally

accepted protocols and state of the art technology, with suitable


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adaptations to local conditions, for ensuring continued availability of

compatible datasets over a long time frame.

Realizing the uniqueness and richness of genetic resources, there is a

need to place special attention to maintain the evolutionary

significance of Traditional Ecological Knowledge (TEK) of the region.

Apart from inventorization/documentation of such genetic resources,

their evaluation for use and maintenance by indigenous communities

both as in situ and ex situ assumes high priority. Eco-geographical

surveys in areas of diversity and having traditional use practices will be

required to mark out precise pockets for in situ conservation, and

integration of such efforts with monitoring of diversity in bioresources.

Among others, the practicable solutions for achieving conservation and

sustainable use goals with respect to these genetic resources may be

drawn from a diverse set of best practices performed by the

indigenous communities.

There is also a need to consciously encourage and promote the

practice of establishing “Community Conserved Areas” (CCAs)

prevalent in the region.

The concept of „natural cultural landscape‟ which sees cultural and

biological diversity as mutually supportive53 appears most appropriate

to ensure community support for maintaining and conserving the

uniqueness of biodiversity (both wild and domesticated). This calls for

proper integration of cultural values and Traditional Ecological

Knowledge (TEK) system with modern approaches of management. In

this context, one needs to find-out tangible dimensions of TEK derived

53 Ramakrishnan PS (2009): Linking traditional ecological knowledge systems with modern approaches. In

Biodiversity and Climate Change. Kathmandu, Nepal:ICIMOD 2009. Pp16-18.


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from „intangibles‟. It would, however, also require putting in place

adequate reward systems17.

There is a strong need to promote sustainable use concept which

attempts to establish linkages between conservation and economic

growth, and recognizes that the bioresources are a source for

sustainable income. Experiences from the region itself have revealed

that people become interested in biodiversity conservation when they

realize that it has immediate utility value (i.e., subsistence or income

generating opportunity) attached and they can harness benefits from

it.

Considering that most of the States in NE are registering the decadal

growth rate more than the national average, we need to give due

attention to this fact. The scenarios for future population projection

need to be build for each state and accordingly plans for meeting the

demand should be prepared. In this context, while preparing plans for

meeting demands of increasing population the region, it is also

important to integrate the projected climate change impacts on

agricultural production systems. As such agriculture has been

projected as highly sensitive and is expected to impact region

differently. Therefore, management of climate hazards and climate

change impacts in the agriculture sector and rural communities will be

critical for success. Among others, the rangelands and pastoral

production systems in the region are likely to be affected by a decline

in forage quality and quantity, heat stress, and diseases like foot and

mouth in livestock. Fisheries and fish production are also sensitive to

change in climate. Inland freshwater fisheries at higher elevations are

likely to be adversely affected. Both crops and livestock in the region

are expected to be affected by increased incidences of alien/invasive

pests and diseases2. Therefore, the need for appropriately


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incorporating these projections in planning process is imminent,

especially to develop mechanisms for promoting alternate livelihoods

for diverse vulnerable sectors of the society.

As the Jhum cultivation forms an important and integral part of culture

and value systems of the region. There are various forms of Jhum that

are practiced in the region, ranging from „good‟ to „bad‟, and from

„undistorted‟ to „distorted‟21. Therefore, considering its deep roots in

culture and traditions, there is a need to identify appropriate Jhum

practices and propagate those for benefit of people and environment

as well. Technologies to complement rather than those focused on the

replacement of Jhum are likely to work.

Given the huge contribution of the region for maintenance of

Ecosystem Services (e.g., forests and their goods and services), the

concept of PES (Payment for Ecosystem Services) needs to be given

due consideration in the region. In this context, the recently released

guidelines by the Ministry of Environment and Forests17 also

emphasizes upon the need to pay proper attention for harnessing

benefits from the programmes like „Reduced Emission from

Deforestation and Degradation‟ (REDD) under the United Nations

Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCC). This would

require integration and involvement of diverse stakeholder groups for

developing effective and feasible mechanisms to conserve carbon

within existing forests and through slowing down the rates of

deforestation and degradation of forests.

The forested mountain watersheds are now viewed as being vital for

the ecological health across the world. In addition to their important

protective role, they shelter immense biodiversity, provide food and

fodder, and are an important source of fresh water. These benefits are

realized not only by the upland watershed communities but also by


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those who live much beyond its physical boundaries in downstream

areas. Considering this value, integrated watershed management

approach for mountains has emerged as an effective solution. It is an

on-going process which actively involves local people and decision

makers – in both upstream and downstream areas- in analyzing the

problems and developing appropriate solutions to ensure that the

activities undertaken are well adapted to the local situations54.

Considering medicinal plants of the region as potential source of huge

revenue, extensive use of wild forms and destructive harvesting by the

industry is a serious threat. Further, dependence on relatively small

proportion of available stock and that too on non-native elements

suggests that currently the pharmaceutical industry in the country is

utilizing only a few true Himalayan medicinal plants40. However,

recognizing the importance of the medicinal plant resources of the

region and considering the emerging trends of global market,

particularly issues of commercial patenting, there is a need to build the

capacity of indigenous people to harness the opportunities through (i)

improved techniques of cultivation/post harvest, (ii) value addition and

value chain development. The strategy should be to maximize

economic benefits by adding value to less recognized biodiversity

components available in the immediate vicinity of indigenous

communities.

The traditional dependence of people from the region on wild edibles

provides great opportunity for diversification of food base as well as

for meeting the nutritional and income generation requirements of

indigenous communities. The studies have proved that wild edibles of

the region represent a promising source of nutrients and minerals. This

54 Price MF (2004): Conservation and sustainable development in mountain areas. Gland, Switzerland: IUCN.


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potential coupled with proven medicinal value of some of these

species, can be harnessed for promoting their use as health food

supplements. The nutritional attributes varied considerably among

species implying that potential of different species needs to be

harnessed for specific attributes. These results have significant bearing

on bio-prospecting of wild edibles for rural development in the region

wherein some of these can be projected as an important resource for

income generation through value addition.

The region has a rich tradition of using fermented foods and beverages

using local bioresources; there is a need to closely examine their

potential for sustainable and substantial economic gains.

Realizing the potential of mainstreaming medicinal, wild edible plants,

and fermented foods and beverages, there is a need to bring in the

much-needed coordination among different players for development of

these sectors. Effective measures to support marketing efforts with

appropriate fiscal and policy support are urgently needed. However, as

elsewhere in the world, there is a need to bring in a paradigm shift in

realizing the economic contribution of Himalayan biodiversity. The

attention needs to be focused on the value of ecosystem services.

Particularly, the globally referred/recognized concept of „PES‟ requires

serious efforts for implementation in the region under up-coming

international climate frameworks.

Recognizing the potential of certain plant groups such as Orchids and

Rhododendrons, and realizing the gaps in coordinated efforts for

promotion of such groups as a basis for ornamental/horticulture

industries, there is a need to put efforts for mass propagation,

cultivation, and marketing. The improved participation through

awareness and capacity building programmes seems a viable option.


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Notwithstanding that the above mentioned approaches deserve

immediate consideration for the adequate management of biological

and other natural resources; there is an urgent need for designing and

implementing programmes for creating mass awareness among

different stakeholders. The approaches need to take note of location

specific issues and specificities in the region. Also, these programmes

need to integrate issues of vulnerability to Climate Change. The

prevailing TEK systems, and potential economic values attached with

goods and services emanating from the region, provide enough space

to draw plans for long term maintenance of its resources. Such plans,

while addressing the issues of livelihood needs of indigenous

communities, would also accommodate the emerging needs under the

changing climate and economic scenario.

In addition, the acceptance of the fact that biodiversity and climate

change impacts do not recognize state or national boundaries, proper

coordinated efforts are required to be put in place for management of

biodiversity under changing climate scenario across various NE States

of India and neighbouring countries through appropriate Regional

Cooperation Frameworks on transboundary matters.

Documents

Climate Summit for a Living Himalayas Bhutan 2011 … Paper...Climate Summit for a Living Himalayas – Bhutan 2011 (Thematic Area- Biodiversity; Contribution for Indian Part of East