ClassificationClassification

II

Comparative MethodComparative Method

Language ChangeLanguage Change

Contemporary EnglishContemporary English

Our Father, who is in heaven, Our Father, who is in heaven, may your name be kept holymay your name be kept holy

Old English (c. 1000) Old English (c. 1000)

Faeder ure thu the eart on heofonum, Faeder ure thu the eart on heofonum,

si thin nama gehalgod si thin nama gehalgod

Question 1Question 1

How do we know that the How do we know that the contemporary English and the old contemporary English and the old English, which look totally different English, which look totally different from each other, are actually from each other, are actually related? related?

Why are they so different? Why are they so different?

Early Modern English (c.1600)Early Modern English (c.1600)

Our father which are in heaven, Our father which are in heaven, hallowed be thy Namehallowed be thy Name

Middle English (c. 1400)Middle English (c. 1400)

Oure fadir that art in heuenes Oure fadir that art in heuenes halowid be thi namehalowid be thi name

Filling the GapFilling the Gap

A

B C D

Community Breaks UpCommunity Breaks Up

Any new changes in a particular group will not be spread over to the others.

Dialects

A

B C D

As Time Goes ByAs Time Goes By

More changes in different groups.

Languages

Language Family

Dialect ChainDialect Chain

Languages spoken in two adjoining Languages spoken in two adjoining regions are mutually intelligible, regions are mutually intelligible, but the mutual intelligibility does but the mutual intelligibility does not extend to the next region.not extend to the next region.

A B C D

Question 2Question 2

What does it mean to say that two What does it mean to say that two languages are “related”? If two languages are “related”? If two languages show some similarities, languages show some similarities, can we say that they are related?can we say that they are related?

A

B C D

Proto-languageProto-language

Daughter languages

Proto-language

Proto-Polynesian

Tongan Samoan Maori

Proto-PolynesianProto-Polynesian

Question 3Question 3

What is a subgroup? If two What is a subgroup? If two languages show some similarities, languages show some similarities, can we say that they belong to the can we say that they belong to the same subgroup? same subgroup?

SubgroupSubgroup

B C D

E F G H I

A

ReconstructionReconstruction

Principle 1Principle 1:

The existence of systematic similarities too great to be explained by chance, e.g., a set of regular sound correspondences in the vocabulary.

Sound CorrespondenceSound Correspondence

Māori Tahitian Hawaiian Meaning

ingoa i'oa inoa namemata mata maka eyematangi mata'i makani wind mate mate make deadngutu ‘utu nuku mouthtangata ta'ata kanaka persontangi ta'i kani weep

Sound CorrespondenceSound Correspondence

Māori Tahitian Hawaiian i i i o o o a a a e e e u u u m m m ng ' n

t t k

CognatesCognates

Corresponding words in related languages are called cognates.

Each of these cognates is a reflex of the proto-form from which it is descended.

ingoa - i'oa - inoa

*ingoa

Two Kinds of SimilarityTwo Kinds of Similarity Shared retentionShared retention

A feature F of the Proto language A feature F of the Proto language remains unchanged in both languages.remains unchanged in both languages.

Shared innovationShared innovation

A feature F of the Proto language has changed into F’ in A feature F of the Proto language has changed into F’ in both languages (i.e., the two languages underwent the both languages (i.e., the two languages underwent the same change. same change.

Shared InnovationsShared Innovations

Principle 2: Principle 2:

Within a family, subgroups will show shared innovations from the proto-language.

Question 4Question 4

Shared retention cannot be Shared retention cannot be used as evidence of a used as evidence of a subgroup. Why?subgroup. Why?

Shared InnovationsShared Innovations

The changes that took place between the breakup of A and the later breakup of B will be reflected in E, F, and G, but not in H or I.

A

B C D

E F G H I

Question 5Question 5

What can we learn about the What can we learn about the history of the speakers by history of the speakers by studying a linguistic family?studying a linguistic family?

DiversityDiversity

Principle 3: Principle 3:

Greater diversity of daughter languages implies a longer period of separation.

Shared InnovationsShared Innovations

Principle 4: Principle 4:

The larger the number of shared innovations in a subgroup, the longer the period of separate development before breakup of the proto-language.

Shared InnovationsShared Innovations

B and C share a few common innovations, forming a weak subgroup, while D and E share a great many, forming a strong subgroup.

A

B C D E

Homeland?Homeland?

Principle 5: Principle 5:

The homeland of a language family was some part of the territory over which its daughter languages are now spoken.

HierarchyHierarchy

Principle 6:Principle 6:

Assuming that the earliest migrations from the homeland were nearby areas, and that later migrations populated successively more distant areas, the highest order divisions in the family will be represented in the area near the homeland.

LexicostatisticsLexicostatistics

Swadesh List Swadesh List – First used in early 1950s.First used in early 1950s.– A list of 200 meanings intended to be, A list of 200 meanings intended to be,

as nearly as possible, universally as nearly as possible, universally known and culture independentknown and culture independent

e.g., e.g., ‘and’, ‘big’, ‘drink’, ‘head’, ‘and’, ‘big’, ‘drink’, ‘head’, ‘mother’,‘mother’,

‘ ‘skin’, ‘throw’ skin’, ‘throw’

Cognate PercentageCognate Percentage

Level of subgrouping Cognate percentage in core vocabulary

Dialects of a language 81-100% 81-100%

Languages of a family 36-81% 55-80%

Families of a stock 12-36% 28-54%

Stocks of a microphylum 4-12% 13-27%

Microphyla of a mesophylum

1-4% 5-12%

AssumptionsAssumptions Some parts of the vocabulary of a Some parts of the vocabulary of a

language are much less subject to change language are much less subject to change than other parts. than other parts.

This ‘core’ vocabulary is the same for all This ‘core’ vocabulary is the same for all languages. languages.

The actual rate of vocabulary replacement The actual rate of vocabulary replacement in the core vocabulary is the same for all in the core vocabulary is the same for all languages at any period of time.languages at any period of time.

Tested on 13 languages, an average Tested on 13 languages, an average vocabulary retention of 80.5% every thousand vocabulary retention of 80.5% every thousand years.years.

GlottochronologyGlottochronology

Based on the lexicostatistic data and Based on the lexicostatistic data and the following formula, the time-depth the following formula, the time-depth of a language can be calculated.of a language can be calculated.

t =logC

2logr where C is the percentage of cognates and r is the retention rate (.805)

Cognate percentage in core

vocabulary

Years of separation

66% 1000 (250)

44% 2000 (350)

28% 3000 (400)

18% 4000 (500)(Pawley 1996)

Time-depth of a LanguageTime-depth of a Language

Question 5Question 5

How reliable is lexicostatistics? How reliable is lexicostatistics? What kind of problems does it What kind of problems does it

have? have?

How Reliable?How Reliable?

Borrowing: Borrowing:

e.g., Tongan words in East Uveae.g., Tongan words in East Uvea (85%)(85%)

Name avoidance: Name avoidance:

e.g., Tahitian (White 1967)e.g., Tahitian (White 1967)

poopoo ‘night’ is replaced by ‘night’ is replaced by ru’i, ru’i,

mare mare ‘cough’ by ‘cough’ by hota hota

during the reign of Pomare Iduring the reign of Pomare I