Embed Size (px)
Citation preview
This article was downloaded by: [North Dakota State University]On: 02 November 2014, At: 11:15Publisher: RoutledgeInforma Ltd Registered in England and Wales Registered Number: 1072954Registered office: Mortimer House, 37-41 Mortimer Street, London W1T 3JH,UK
Educational GerontologyPublication details, including instructions forauthors and subscription information:http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/uedg20
Chinese Text Spacing on MobilePhones for Senior CitizensLin Wang a , Hitomi Sato b , Pei-Luen Patrick Rau a ,Kaori Fujimura b , Qin Gao a & Yoko Asano ba Department of Industrial Engineering , TsinghuaUniversity , Beijing, Chinab Nippon Telegraph and Telephone Corporation ,Yokosuka City, JapanPublished online: 16 Dec 2008.
To cite this article: Lin Wang , Hitomi Sato , Pei-Luen Patrick Rau , Kaori Fujimura ,Qin Gao & Yoko Asano (2008) Chinese Text Spacing on Mobile Phones for SeniorCitizens, Educational Gerontology, 35:1, 77-90, DOI: 10.1080/03601270802491122
To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/03601270802491122
PLEASE SCROLL DOWN FOR ARTICLE
Taylor & Francis makes every effort to ensure the accuracy of all theinformation (the “Content”) contained in the publications on our platform.However, Taylor & Francis, our agents, and our licensors make norepresentations or warranties whatsoever as to the accuracy, completeness,or suitability for any purpose of the Content. Any opinions and viewsexpressed in this publication are the opinions and views of the authors, andare not the views of or endorsed by Taylor & Francis. The accuracy of theContent should not be relied upon and should be independently verified withprimary sources of information. Taylor and Francis shall not be liable for anylosses, actions, claims, proceedings, demands, costs, expenses, damages,and other liabilities whatsoever or howsoever caused arising directly orindirectly in connection with, in relation to or arising out of the use of theContent.
This article may be used for research, teaching, and private study purposes.Any substantial or systematic reproduction, redistribution, reselling, loan,sub-licensing, systematic supply, or distribution in any form to anyone isexpressly forbidden. Terms & Conditions of access and use can be found athttp://www.tandfonline.com/page/terms-and-conditions
Dow
nloa
ded
by [
Nor
th D
akot
a St
ate
Uni
vers
ity]
at 1
1:15
02
Nov
embe
r 20
14
CHINESE TEXT SPACING ON MOBILE PHONESFOR SENIOR CITIZENS
Lin Wang
Department of Industrial Engineering, Tsinghua University, Beijing, China
Hitomi Sato
Nippon Telegraph and Telephone Corporation, Yokosuka City, Japan
Pei-Luen Patrick Rau
Department of Industrial Engineering, Tsinghua University, Beijing, China
Kaori Fujimura
Nippon Telegraph and Telephone Corporation, Yokosuka City, Japan
Qin Gao
Department of Industrial Engineering, Tsinghua University, Beijing, China
Address correspondence to Lin Wang, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China. E-mail:
Educational Gerontology, 35: 77–90, 2009
Copyright # Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
ISSN: 0360-1277 print=1521-0472 online
DOI: 10.1080/03601270802491122
77
Dow
nloa
ded
by [
Nor
th D
akot
a St
ate
Uni
vers
ity]
at 1
1:15
02
Nov
embe
r 20
14
Yoko Asano
Nippon Telegraph and Telephone Corporation, Yokosuka City, Japan
In recent years, more and more elderly citizens have begun using mobilephones. However, most text presentations on mobile phones are notsuitable for those whose vision has declined with age. The objective of thisstudy was to discover how different Chinese text spacing would affectolder adults’ reading performance (time and error), text readability,visual fatigue, and preferences. The experimental results show that whenthe font size is 15� 15 pixels (8 points), the recommended inter-line spa-cing is 6–8 pixels and the inter-character spacing is 2–4 pixels for highertext readability, lower visual fatigue, and higher user preference.
With the rapid development of wireless technology, a growingnumber of older adults are now using mobile phones. The wide usageof mobile phones enriches older adults’ lives; however, it also poseschallenges for designers and researchers. The past research findingson computers could not be directly used on mobile phones due tothe capability limitations, small screen size, and variety of contextsof use. Take the font size, for instance. On the screen of aconventional computer, 14 points is the recommended font size forolder adults (Becker, 2004; Bernard, Liao, & Mills, 2001; Bernard,Chaparro, Mills, & Halcomb, 2003). But on a mobile phone screen,8–12 points is the recommended font size for older adults (Darroch,Goodman, Brewster, & Gray, 2005). Besides the font size, whichalready has guidelines, inter-line and inter-character spacing areimportant factors that greatly influence reading. Due to the effectsof aging on vision, designing suitable inter-line and inter-characterspacing for mobile phones can greatly increase text readability andreading performance and decrease visual fatigue.
The research objective is to find the appropriate Chinese inter-linespacing and inter-character spacing when the font size is fixed as8 pt (15� 15 pixels on the mobile phones in the experiment) as recom-mended by Darroch et al. (2005). This research addresses the questionof what is the appropriate text spacing for mobile phones used byolder adults. The answer to this question could make a significant con-tribution to our theories of text presentation, and it could be used asan important reference for other studies on pictorial languages besidesChinese. The findings of this study conceivably will enable more eldersto use mobile phones and, thereby, enrich the quality of their lives.
As people age, they usually experience declines in many of theircapabilities, which can be classified as physical aging effects
78 L. Wang et al.
Dow
nloa
ded
by [
Nor
th D
akot
a St
ate
Uni
vers
ity]
at 1
1:15
02
Nov
embe
r 20
14
(Zhao, Rau, & Yang, 2005) and cognitive aging effects (Hawthorn,1998a, 1998b, 2000; Rau & Hsu, 2005; Zhang, 2007). Among all theage-related declines, progressive visual impairment is one of the mostcommon and clear-cut declines associated with aging (Hawthorn,1998b; Kline & Scialfa, 1996; Zaphiris, Ghiawadwala, & Mughal,2005). After the age of 55 years, due to changes in the retina andnervous system and sometimes due to degenerative diseases (glaucoma,cataracts, and macular degeneration), many elders experience visionchanges, including visual acuity declines, contrast sensitivity declines(Helve & Krause, 1972; Owsley, Sekuler, & Siemsen, 1983), and effec-tive visual field reduction. Vision impairment is the most common dif-ficulty for elders reading text. The types of vision problems reportedare mostly associated with text presentation including font size, textand background color, font style, and text spacing (Hanson 2001;Hawthorn, 1998b). Studies on font size (Bernard et al., 2003; Chan& Lee, 2005; Darroch et al., 2005), font type (Bernard et al., 2003;Boyarski et al., 1998; Chan & Lee, 2005; Chi et al., 2003; Ling &Schaik, 2006), line length (Ling & Schaik, 2006, 2007; Mills &Weldon, 1987), columns (Dyson & Kipping, 1997), inter-line spacing(Chan & Lee, 2005). The color of the characters and the background(Garcia & Caldera, 1996; Mills & Weldon, 1987) for computerdisplays are comparatively well researched, with many reportedresearch results, recommendations, and guidelines.
Research on computer displays shows that users perform muchbetter with double line spacing than with single line spacing (Chan& Lee, 2005; Ling & Schaik, 2007). Thus, larger inter-line spacingon mobile phones might improve the performance of mobile phoneusers, too. However, there has been little research investigatinginter-line spacing on mobile phones because many people think thatlarger inter-line spacing is a waste of the limited space on a mobilephone screen. There has been almost no research concerning inter-character spacing on mobile phones. It might be a waste of spacefor young people, but for the elderly suitable inter-line spacing andinter-character spacing could significantly improve text readabilityand decrease their visual fatigue. Based on this background, thepurpose of this study was to find the best inter-line spacing andinter-character spacing on mobile phones. The following relatedstudies are important references.
Arditi, Knoblauch, & Grunwald (1990) compared the effects offixed and variable spacing of English on users’ reading speeds. Theyfound variable spacing between English letters would yield better per-formance at medium and large character sizes (Arditi et al., 1990).Dyson (2004), and Kolers, Duchnicky, and Ferguson (1981) studied
Chinese Text Spacing on Seniors’ Mobile Phones 79
Dow
nloa
ded
by [
Nor
th D
akot
a St
ate
Uni
vers
ity]
at 1
1:15
02
Nov
embe
r 20
14
how different character density would affect the users’ performance ona computer screen. In their experiment, the character density waschanged by changing the characters’ widths but not their height(Dyson, 2004; Kolers et al., 1981). This method was a distortion ofcharacter shape; thus, the research was not to find the influence ofthe spacing but, to some extent, to discover the influence of the fonttype. Very few researchers have studied inter-character spacing.Research done by Lin and Shieh (2006) found that layouts that usedwords as presentation units (using spacing between words) were betterthan the conventional layout (no spacing between words) (Lin &Shieh, 2006). However, they only studied Chinese inter-word spacingrather than inter-character spacing in a single-line display. Theirresearch results are useful for single-line information displays used inpublic places such as train stations, metros and department stores.They could greatly assist non-Chinese speakers who are not proficientin punctuating sentences, which is one of the greatest difficulties forpeople learning Chinese. But for native speakers of Chinese, who arefamiliar with the normal presentation without spacing between words,inter-word spacing is redundant and a waste of space. In the presentresearch, the subjects were older adults with decades of experiencereading Chinese characters without inter-word spacing. They werenot accustomed to the use of inter-word spacing. Furthermore, theinter-word spacing greatly increased the possibility of skipping a line.
Because there has been almost no research investigating inter-linespacing and inter-character spacing on mobile phones, determiningthe appropriate levels of independent variables is very difficult. Formost mobile phones in China, there is almost no spacing betweenChinese characters (0–1 pixel), and the inter-line spacing is rathersmall (2–6 pixels). Take the mobile phones (NEC N6305) used inthe experiment, for example: the inter-character spacing is one pixeland the inter-line spacing is four pixels. Considering the effects ofaging on vision, larger inter-line spacing levels and inter-characterspacing levels were added in the experiment. After determiningthe levels of independent variables, it was very important to designan appropriate measurement method to investigate which level wasthe best. Most studies use readability and legibility measurements totest different text presentations. Readability is normally focused oncontinuous, meaningful text and refers to the difficulty or ease withwhich the meaning of a text can be understood (Lee, 2003). Themost widely used readability measuring methods are to measureby reading rate (De Bruijn, De Mul, & Van Oostendorp, 1992;Hansen & Haas, 1988; Lee, 2003) and reading comprehension (DeBruijn, De Mul, & Van Oostendorp, 1992; Dillon, Richardson, &
80 L. Wang et al.
Dow
nloa
ded
by [
Nor
th D
akot
a St
ate
Uni
vers
ity]
at 1
1:15
02
Nov
embe
r 20
14
McKnight, 1990; Lee, 2003). Readability could be affected byseveral factors like screen size, space of margin, font type, font size,display polarity, and spacing between characters and lines.Legibility generally refers to the degree to which text items can beidentified, and it is usually measured by identification of singleletters or a small array of letters (Mills & Weldon, 1987). Legibilityis mostly affected by letter parameters such as contrast, font type,letter size, and inter-spacing (Lee, 2003). In this study, readabilitywas measured by performance time, errors, and subjectiveevaluation using two groups of reading tasks. The legibility wasmeasured by performance time and errors using two groups ofvisual search tasks. After the experiments, data regarding levels ofthe users’ visual fatigue and preference were also collected.
METHOD
This study addressed the following research questions:
1. Is the text spacing commonly used suitable for elders?2. Does text spacing influence the reading performance (time and
error) of older adults?3. Does text spacing influence older adults’ perception of text
readability, visual fatigue, and their text preference?4. Is inter-line spacing correlated with inter-character spacing?
Based on the previous discussion, it is believed that older adultswould prefer larger inter-line spacing and inter-character spacingon mobile phones. Larger inter-line and inter-character spacingwould increase older adults’ reading performance. However, beforethis study, it was not clear how large the spacing should be.
Participants
A total of 12 older Chinese adults including 6 males and 6 femalesparticipated in this experiment. All were taking part in computerclasses at the senior citizens school called the University of the ThirdAge of the Railway Ministry of China. The mean age of the partici-pants was 66 years, with a standard deviation of 11 years. The meanmobile phone experience of the participants was 4.2 years, with astandard deviation of 2.1 years. All the older adults had normalvision or corrected to normal vision.
Chinese Text Spacing on Seniors’ Mobile Phones 81
Dow
nloa
ded
by [
Nor
th D
akot
a St
ate
Uni
vers
ity]
at 1
1:15
02
Nov
embe
r 20
14
Apparatus
NEC mobile phones (NEC N6305) were used for the experiments. Thescreen size was 30� 38 mm. The resolution was 176� 220 pixels.The font size on this mobile phone was 8 points (15� 15 pixels).The programs utilized in this experiment were written using Java 2Micro Edition (J2ME), which could perceive the user’s activity onthe mobile phone. The development environment was Java SDK1.4.2 and Sun Java Wireless Toolkit 2.2. The java environment in thismobile phone conformed to MIDP (Mobile Information DeviceProfile) 2.0. Participants’ operations were timed automatically.
Task
Twelve modes with different inter-character spacing and inter-linespacing were used. For each mode, two reading tasks and two visualsearch tasks were designed. Each participant was required to learn tooperate the mobile phone and become familiar with the tasks beforethe experiment. After this familiarization session, each participant wasasked to conduct the tasks according to a task list. In the reading tasks,participants were asked to search for answers to specified questionsrelated to the two-screen-long article presented on the phone. The con-tents of the reading tasks were not too common or too specific. Theywere general information about geography, biology, architecture, andhistory extracted from Baidu Encyclopedia. In the visual search tasks,participants were asked to search for a specified character from a pageof pseudo-text presented on the screen, as shown in Figure 1.
Experimental Design
A two-factor repeated measured experiment design was used. Thetwo within-group factors were inter-character spacing and inter-linespacing, as shown in Figure 2. There were three levels of inter-character spacing (0 px, 2 px, and 4 px) and four levels of inter-linespacing (2 px, 4 px, 6 px, and 8 px). There were 12 modes of textspacing in this experiment. The 12 participants used all these 12 mod-els according to Latin square sequence.
The dependent variables included the objective measurement ofperformance time and number of errors and subjective evaluationof the text readability, elders’ visual fatigue, and preference. Perfor-mance time was the average time required to complete each task.Errors were the average number of errors that participants madeduring the tasks such as choosing a wrong answer to a question.
82 L. Wang et al.
Dow
nloa
ded
by [
Nor
th D
akot
a St
ate
Uni
vers
ity]
at 1
1:15
02
Nov
embe
r 20
14
Performance time and errors were recorded automatically by themobile phones. Participants were asked to rate the text readability,visual fatigue, and preference of the prototypes by their subjectivefeelings on a score sheet. The scores were ranged from 1 to 7 (7was the highest).
Procedure
The experiment was conducted in a quiet classroom in the seniorcitizens school called the University of the Third Age of the RailwayMinistry of China. The mobile devices used in the experiment hadthe same hardware and software. The experiment took the older
Figure 1. Reading tasks and visual search tasks in the experiment.
Figure 2. Illustration of inter-character spacing and inter-line spacing of
text.
Chinese Text Spacing on Seniors’ Mobile Phones 83
Dow
nloa
ded
by [
Nor
th D
akot
a St
ate
Uni
vers
ity]
at 1
1:15
02
Nov
embe
r 20
14
participants approximately 40 minutes. All participants began bycompleting a questionnaire concerning individual differences (suchas age, years in school, and past mobile phone experience). Beforethe tasks were administered, a brief practice session was conductedto help subjects understand the operation of the system and the tasksto be performed. The purpose of this practice session was to helpsubjects understand keyboard operation of the mobile phone andthe system itself without interfering with the real tasks to beperformed. After this session, the experiment session began. In theexperiment session, the participants were required to perform readingtasks and visual search tasks according to a list of questions. Eachparticipant performed the tasks alone and was instructed not todiscuss the content of the experiment with the other participants.After finishing the tasks for each mode, the participants were askedto rate the text readability, visual fatigue, and preference of theprototypes according to their subjective feelings on a score sheet.All of the 12 participants used and evaluated the 12 modes of textspacing.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The intention of this study was to examine how different text spacingaffects the performance and subjective feelings of older adults. Thedescriptive statistics appear in Table 1.
All data collected were checked for normality and homogeneityassumptions. The performance time followed the normal distributionand satisfied the homogeneity of variances assumption after logtransformations. Other dependent variables including errors, read-ability, visual fatigue, and preference did not satisfy the criteria fornormal distribution. The testing results showed no significant differ-ences either in performance time or error in reading and visual searchtasks. However, there were significant differences for elder users’ sub-jective feelings about text readability, visual fatigue, and preference.As ANOVA was the most sensitive way to evaluate interaction, aboutwhich we were concerned, even some assumptions might be violated.AVOVA was still used to test the interactions first. Table 2 showsthat there was a significant difference among the three levels ofInter-character spacing (p¼ .076) and there was also a significant dif-ference among the four levels of inter-line spacing (p¼ .010). Therewas not a significant correlation between inter-character spacingand inter-line spacing for each of the three dependent variables ofreadability, fatigue, and preference.
84 L. Wang et al.
Dow
nloa
ded
by [
Nor
th D
akot
a St
ate
Uni
vers
ity]
at 1
1:15
02
Nov
embe
r 20
14
Ta
ble
1.
Des
crip
tive
sta
tist
ics
of
the
exp
erim
enta
lre
sult
s
Tim
eo
f
rea
din
g
task
(s)
Tim
eo
f
visu
al
sea
rch
task
(s)
Err
or
of
rea
din
gta
sk
Err
or
of
visu
al
sea
rch
task
Rea
da
bil
ity
Fa
tig
ue
Pre
fere
nce
Mo
de
Mea
nS
DM
ean
SD
Mea
nS
DM
ean
SD
Mea
nS
DM
ean
SD
Mea
nS
D
1(0
,2)
38.7
30.4
30.3
19.8
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
3.3
1.8
4.8
1.3
3.1
1.4
2(0
,4)
47.3
25.6
32.1
17.1
0.4
1.0
0.0
0.0
4.1
2.2
4.4
1.5
3.8
1.8
3(0
,6)
37.5
16.3
29.3
19.1
0.1
0.3
0.0
0.0
5.2
1.9
3.4
2.0
4.2
1.9
4(0
,8)
35.5
9.0
30.4
20.9
0.0
0.0
0.2
0.3
5.5
1.2
3.1
1.9
4.7
1.7
5(2
,2)
34.4
9.8
29.0
14.8
0.0
0.0
0.3
0.5
4.2
2.0
4.4
1.4
3.3
1.4
6(2
,4)
45.8
34.5
31.7
20.7
0.3
0.5
0.0
0.0
5.3
1.3
3.7
1.5
4.7
1.4
7(2
,6)
38.2
16.8
30.4
19.1
0.1
0.3
0.2
0.6
5.5
1.3
3.1
2.0
4.9
1.4
8(2
,8)
43.3
28.8
26.3
14.1
0.2
0.3
0.0
0.0
5.9
0.8
3.2
1.8
5.4
1.2
9(4
,2)
42.2
23.0
26.4
15.1
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
5.3
1.2
3.5
1.7
4.8
1.5
10(4
,4)
37.0
17.2
26.0
15.7
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
5.5
0.7
3.1
1.7
4.9
1.1
11(4
,6)
39.5
20.8
33.0
13.6
0.4
0.6
0.2
0.5
6.1
0.7
2.6
1.9
5.8
1.2
12(4
,8)
44.8
25.8
30.2
19.4
0.0
0.0
0.1
0.3
6.8
0.4
2.2
1.9
5.8
1.4
(Mo
de
1(0
,2)
mea
ns
the
inte
r-ch
ara
cte
rsp
acin
gw
as
zero
pix
els
an
dth
ein
ter-
lin
esp
acin
gb
etw
een
lin
esw
as
two
pix
els.
)
85
Dow
nloa
ded
by [
Nor
th D
akot
a St
ate
Uni
vers
ity]
at 1
1:15
02
Nov
embe
r 20
14
In order to have a further understanding, as the assumption of nor-mal distribution was not satisfied, nonparametric tests were used toinvestigate the differences among different levels of text spacing.The statistical significance level (a) was adjusted to 0.01 (Bonferronicorrection) for all tests reported. There were five dependent variablesand only 12 participants. The adjustment could help to avoid risk ofshowing chance effects.
Comparison of Inter-character Spacing when Inter-line Spacingwas Fixed
For the dependent variable of text readability, as shown in Figure 3,when the inter-line spacing was two pixels, there was a significant
Table 2. Pillai’s Trace Multivariate test result
EffectReadability Fatigue Preference
F p F p F p
Inter-character spacing 5.078 .030 5.470 .028 3.368 .076
Inter-line spacing 7.490 .008 6.474 .016 6.895 .010
Inter-character spacing� Inter-line spacing .799 .604 .502 .787 .421 .842
Figure 3. Comparing the inter-character spacing when inter-line spacing
was fixed.
86 L. Wang et al.
Dow
nloa
ded
by [
Nor
th D
akot
a St
ate
Uni
vers
ity]
at 1
1:15
02
Nov
embe
r 20
14
difference between zero-pixel inter-character spacing and four-pixelinter-character spacing (p¼ 0.008). Older adults thought that the textreadability with four-pixel inter-character spacing (Mean¼ 5.3,SD¼ 1.2) was 60.6% higher than text readability with zero-pixelinter-character spacing (Mean¼ 3.3, SD¼ 1.8) when the inter-linespacing was two pixels. Readability comparison showed no significantdifferences when inter-line spacing was four pixels, six pixels, or eightpixels. There was also no significant difference among the three levelsof inter-character spacing when the inter-line spacing was fixed, eitherfor fatigue or preference.
From the results of the experiment, it could be concluded thatlarger inter-character spacing was better. Due to the uniquenessof Chinese characters—square shape and more strokes in a unitarea compared to English—larger inter-character spacing wouldsignificantly improve the subjective feelings of readability of thetext.
Comparison of Inter-line Spacing when Inter-character Spacingwas Fixed
For the dependent variable of readability, as shown in Figure 4, whenthe inter-character spacing was zero pixels, there was a significant dif-ference between two-pixel inter-line spacing and six-pixel inter-linespacing (p¼ 0.003). There was also a significant difference between
Figure 4. Comparing the inter-line spacing when inter-character spacing
was fixed.
Chinese Text Spacing on Seniors’ Mobile Phones 87
Dow
nloa
ded
by [
Nor
th D
akot
a St
ate
Uni
vers
ity]
at 1
1:15
02
Nov
embe
r 20
14
two-pixel inter-line spacing and eight-pixel inter-line spacing(p¼ 0.004). When the inter-character spacing was four pixels, therewas a significant difference between four-pixel inter-line spacingand eight-pixel inter-line spacing (p¼ 0.004). There was no significantdifference among the three levels inter-character spacing when theinter-line spacing was fixed, either for fatigue or preference.
Although there was no significant correlation between inter-character spacing and inter-line spacing, some relationships stillexisted which could be reflected from both the testing result andFigure 4. When the inter-character spacing was zero pixels, therewas a significant difference between two inter-line spacing and sixinter-line spacing, which means that the readability grew very rapidlyfrom two inter-line spacing to six inter-line spacing. However, whenthe inter-character spacing was four pixels, a significant differencewas found between four pixel inter-line spacing and eight pixelinter-line spacing. Overall, the results validated the previous researchfindings. Increasing inter-line spacing would also increase the textreadability.
CONCLUSION
Because of the effects of aging on vision, designing appropriate inter-line spacing and inter-character spacing is very important for olderadults using mobile phones. This study investigated the effects ofinter-line spacing and inter-character spacing on the performanceand perceived text readability, visual fatigue, and preference of olderadults for texts with a fixed font size. Prior to this study, there hadbeen little research that investigated inter-character spacing. Theseresearch results show that increasing Chinese inter-character spacingis very important for older adults as well as inter-line spacing.
This research has certain limitations. For example, the number ofsubjects was not enough, and the levels of the text spacing were notincreased to a level that would cause positive subjective feelings todecrease. In later studies, more levels will be tested to find the besttext spacing for older adults.
REFERENCES
Arditi, A., Knoblauch, K., & Grunwald, I. (1990). Reading with fixed and variable
character pitch. Optical Society of America, 7(10), 2011–2015.
Becker, S. A. (2004). A study of web usability for older adults seeking online health
resources. ACM Transactions on Computer-Human Interaction, 11(4), 387–406.
88 L. Wang et al.
Dow
nloa
ded
by [
Nor
th D
akot
a St
ate
Uni
vers
ity]
at 1
1:15
02
Nov
embe
r 20
14
Bernard, M., Liao, C. H., & Mills, M. (2001). The effects of font type and size on the
legibility and reading time of online text by older adults. Paper presented at the
CHI 2001, March 31–April 5, 2001, Seattle, WA.
Bernard, M. L., Chaparro, B. S., Mills, M. M., & Halcomb, C. G. (2003). Compar-
ing the effects of text size and format on the readability of computer-displayed
Times New Roman and Arial text. International Journal for Human-Computer
Studies, 59, 823–835.
Boyarski, D., Neuwirth, C., Forlki, J., & Regli, S. H. (1998). A study of fonts
designed for screen display. Paper presented at the CHI 98, April 18–23,
1998, Los Angeles.
Chan, A., & Lee, P. (2005). Effect of display factors on Chinese reading times,
comprehension scores and preferences. Behaviour & Information Technology,
24(2), 81–91.
Chi, C.-F., Cai, D., & You, M. (2003). Applying image descriptors to the assessment
of legibility in Chinese characters. Ergonomics, 46(8), 825–841.
Darroch, I., Goodman, J., Brewster, S., & Gray, P. (2005). The effect of age and font
size on reading text on handheld computers. Lecture Notes in Computer Science,
3585, 253–266.
De Bruijn, D., De Mul, S., & Van Oostendorp, H. (1992). The influence of screen
size and text layout on the study of text. Behaviour & Information Technology,
11(2), 71–78.
Dillon, A., Richardson, J., & McKnight, C. (1990). The effect of display size and
text splitting on reading lengthy text from the screen. Behaviour & Information
Technology, 9(3), 215–227.
Dyson, M. C. (2004). How physical text layout affects reading from screens.
Behaviour & Information Technology, 23(6), 377–393.
Dyson, M. C., & Kipping, G. J. (1997). The legibility of screen formats: Are three
columns better than one? Computers & Graphics, 21(6), 703–712.
Garcia, M. L., & Caldera, C. I. (1996). The effect of color and typeface on the
readability of on-line text. Computers & Industrial Engineering, 31(1–2),
519–524.
Hansen, W. J., & Haas, C. (1988). Reading and writing with computers: A frame-
work for explaining differences in performance. Communications of the ACM,
31, 1080–1089.
Hanson, V. L. (2001). Web access for elderly citizens. Paper presented at the
WUAUC’01, May 22–25, 2001, Alcacer do Sal, Portugal.
Hawthorn, D. (1998a). Cognitive aging and human computer interface design.
Paper presented at the Computer-Human Interaction Conference 1998,
November 30–December 4, 1998, Adelaide, Australia.
Hawthorn, D. (1998b). Psychophysical aging and human computer interface design.
Paper presented at the Computer-Human Interaction Conference 1998,
November 30–December 4, 1998, Adelaide, Australia.
Hawthorn, D. (2000). Possible implications of aging for interface designers. Interact-
ing with Computers, 12, 507–528.
Helve, J., & Krause, U. (1972). The influence of age on performance in the
Panel-D15 colour vision test. Acta Opthalmologica, 50, 896–901.
Chinese Text Spacing on Seniors’ Mobile Phones 89
Dow
nloa
ded
by [
Nor
th D
akot
a St
ate
Uni
vers
ity]
at 1
1:15
02
Nov
embe
r 20
14
Kline, D. W., & Scialfa, C. T. (1996). Sensory and perceptual functioning: Basic
research and human factors implications. In A. D. Fisk & W. A. Rogers
(Eds.), Handbook of human factors and the older adult (pp. 27–54). San Diego,
California: Academic Press.
Kolers, P. A., Duchnicky, R. L., & Ferguson, D. C. (1981). Eye movement measure-
ment of readability of CRT displays. Human Factors, 23, 517–527.
Lee, Y. S. (2003). A study of reading with a handheld computer. Unpublished thesis
proposal for a Master’s of Science, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State
University, Blacksburg, VA.
Lin, Y.-C., & Shieh, K.-K. (2006). Reading a dynamic presentation of Chinese text
on a single-line display. Displays, 27, 145–152.
Ling, J., & Schaik, P. V. (2006). The influence of font type and line length on visual
search and information retrieval in web pages. International Journal for Human-
Computer Studies, 64, 395–404.
Ling, J., & Schaik, P. V. (2007). The influence of line spacing and text alignment on
visual search of web pages. Displays, 28, 60–67.
Mills, C. B., & Weldon, L. J. (1987). Reading text from computer screens. ACM
Computing Surveys, 19(4), 329–358.
Owsley, C., Sekuler, R., & Siemsen, D. (1983). Contrast sensitivity throughout
adulthood. Vision Research, 23, 689–699.
Rau, P. L. P., & Hsu, J. W. (2005). Interaction devices and web design for novice
older users. Educational Gerontology, 31(1), 19–40.
Zaphiris, P., Ghiawadwala, M., & Mughal, S. (2005). Age-centered research-based
Web design guidelines. Paper presented at the CHI 2005, April 2–7, 2005,
Portland, OR.
Zhang, B. (2007). Cognitive aging effects on human-smart home interaction.
Shenzhen University Science and Engineering, 24(2), 127.
Zhao, Z., Rau, P.-L. P., & Yang, A. (2005). Enhancing hearing of computer
commands for the aging Chinese population by filtering the initial consonant
sounds. International Journal of Industrial Ergonomics, 35(12), 1133–1145.
90 L. Wang et al.
Dow
nloa
ded
by [
Nor
th D
akot
a St
ate
Uni
vers
ity]
at 1
1:15
02
Nov
embe
r 20
14
