China in the Reform Era

Nixon in ChinaPresident Nixon’s visit to China in 1972 is often heralded as the “opening of China”. Nixon’s visit ultimately resulted restored relations between the U.S. and mainland China. Moreover, it paved the way for China’s re-entrance into the international community.

Nixon and Mao carved an agreement that became known as the Shanghai Communique, a carefully orchestrated statement affirming each nation’s stance on Korea and Vietnam, yet agreeing on the principle of “one China” in regards to Taiwan.

The Death of Mao/ End of the Cultural Revolution

Early in 1976, Zhou Enlai died. There was a massive outpouring of grief. Later, in the “year of the dragon”, Mao died. The emotional response was less.

Throughout 1976, political jockeying had ensued between radical leftists led by Hua Guofeng, Mao’s wife and her cohorts in the Cultural Revolution Authority -The Gang of Four and progressives led by Deng Xiaoping. (Spence p. 610-17)

Lower left: The Gang of Four (Jiang Qing, Wang Hongwen, Yao Wenyuan, Zhang Chunqiao)

Hua Guofeng/ Deng Xiaoping

Zhou Enlai

The Reform Era (1978–Present)It Doesn’t Matter if a Cat is Black or White so Long as it Catches Mice – Deng Xiaoping

In 1978, Deng Xiaoping launched reforms that would transform China into an economic superpower.

The Four Modernizations – Agriculture, Industry, Defense, Science/Technology

The Responsibility System - Citizens were given profit incentives and allowed to start “side industries”

Special Economic Zones – Designated cities that were meant to entice foreign corporations through cheap labor and low overhead costs.

Rewards - Responsibility System

Shenzen S.E.Z.

Deng Xiaoping

Photos – Deng in Houston, Shenzhen, S.E.Z., Starbucks (International Herald Tribune), Mao with Coke (Sydney Herald)

A New Open Door Policy

Shortly after the Four Modernizations campaign began, China announced a new “Open Door Policy” that would allow Western companies to invest in China on favorable terms.

Nearly three decades later, many Chinese have begun to ask themselves whether tradition is being modernized.

China’s Family Planning Program

In 1978, with a population approaching 1 billion, China implemented a “one-couple, one-child” population control program.

Despite a drop in the birth rate from 3% to 1%, the policy has been controversial. In many rural and minority areas, exceptions to the policy are granted. With rising incomes, some couples have willfully paid fines in order to have more children.

Most controversial have been accusations of forced abortions and sterilizations to enforce the program, as well as the skewed sex ratio of male to female births. Less attention has been paid to consequences associated with a generation of “onlies”.

Growing PainsFor some, the transformation of society meant an end to a comfortable system of fixed incomes and guaranteed employment, sometimes referred to as The Iron Rice Bowl.

Q. What economic systems does the cartoon contrast?

The Universal Declaration of Human Rights

On December 10, 1948 the General Assembly of the United Nations adopted and proclaimed the Universal Declaration of Human Rights.

The Charter (agreement) attempted to define both basic and universal human rights for citizens across the world. Here are a few:

Article 1 - All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. Article 2 – Everyone is entitled to all the rights and freedoms set forth in this Declaration, without distinction of any kind, such as race, colour, sex, language, religion, political or other opinion, national or social origin, property, birth or other status. Article 5 – No one should be subjected to torture.

Note: China’s perception of human rights contrasts sharply with that of the West’s. See Scott Morton’s interpretation – CHINA: Its History and Culture p. 247-49

Wei Jingsheng

1978 Democracy Wall

Many interpreted the new economic reforms of the Reform Era to mean more political expression as well.

In 1978, thousands of Chinese posted essays in Beijing calling for greater democracy. Later known as the Democracy Wall movement, it was reminiscent of the 1956 Hundred Flowers Campaign which initially encouraged free expression, yet ended in arrests and imprisonments.

Most famous of China’s dissidents was Wei Jingsheng who wrote The Fifth Modernization.

Democracy Wall

1989 Tiananmen Square Protests

The 1989 “Beijing Spring” saw the largest protests in China’s history. Millions gathered in Tiananmen Square and other cities to protest the slow pace of political change, limited opportunities for advancement, and corruption.

The short term cause of the protests were the announcement on April 15, 1989, that Hu Yaobang, a reform minded member of China’s politburo and former CCP General Secretary had died.

Hu Yaobang

Students Gathered at Tiananmen Square

Moderates vs. Hard linersA scramble for power played out that pitted a moderate faction led by CCP Secretary General Zhao Ziyang, and a hard line faction led by Prime Minister Li Peng.

One source of bitter contention was an article published in the government run People’s Daily that referred to the students as conspirators and bourgeoisie individualists. Zhao sought to distance himself from the article.

Party elder Deng Xiaoping appeared to support the hard liners.

Prime Minister Li Peng

CCP General Secretary Zhao Ziyang

Students at the Monument to People’s Soldiers

The Protests MountBy mid-May, hundreds of thousands of Chinese students, workers and professionals had occupied Tiananmen Square confronting the ruling elite with a major dilemma.

Deng Xiaoping tried to go along with a previously scheduled visit from Soviet Premier Mikhail Gorbacev, who received a hero’s welcome. In the days before Gorbachev’s arrival, students launched a hunger strike in which 3,000 students participated.

Mikhail Gorbachev and Deng Xiaoping

Wang Dan - Student Leader

Symbolism and TiananmenChina’s student leaders invoked western symbolism, such as the “Goddess of Democracy”. Yet most participants in the protests later testified that their political goals were modest in comparison to the norms experienced in Western societies.

The P.L.A. in a DilemmaAn almost unspoken assumption was that the P.L.A. would never use conventional weapons against the people. Early on this appeared to be the case. Ultimately, this would prove untrue.

The Crackdown – “The sovereignty and security of the state must always be the top priority”. – Deng Xiaoping

On June 3rd, some 300,000 PLA soldiers were finally ordered to clear the square and surrounding streets. Though accounts of the number of dead varied, over time the consensus settled between 300 and 1000 deaths.

Photo – Jeff Widener - AP

An Enduring ImageAmong the many lasting images, the sight of a single person stopping a column of tanks was perhaps the most lasting.

Further Reading: The Black Hands of Beijing by George Back and Robin Munro

Recommended Viewing:PBS - Tank Man

The Unwritten ContractThe decades since the Tiananmen protests have witnessed an “unwritten contract,” wherein China’s citizens are encouraged to pursue economic goals, yet refrain from challenging Party authority.

This policy may appear successful, but close examination of the challenges facing China reveals a number of “stress cracks” most notably income disparities that could renew dissent.

Moreover, not everyone has remained silent: 2010 Nobel Peace Prize Recipient Liu Xiaobo.

Photo - Abraham

Empty Chair for Liu Xiaobo at 2010 Nobel Peace Prize ceremony.

Photo – Jingong, China (Abraham)

The “Great Firewall of China”

China’s efforts to censor the Internet have raised the question of how long and how successful the government can be in controlling access to information and freedom of speech for its 420 million plus netizens (January 2010 /

China Internet Network Information Center).

Until recently, Western companies such as Google, Yahoo, Microsoft and Cisco have mostly complied with China’s censorship efforts. The proliferation of blogs and an underground arts scene have been successful in exposing corruption and publicizing protests.http://video.nytimes.com/video/2009/01/23/arts/1231545688617/china-s-underground-hip-hop-movement.html?scp=1&sq=china%20hip%20hop&st=cse

New York Times Upfront

My Father is Li Gang!

Chinadigitaltimes.net

The Impact of Modernization and Westernization

“Socialism’s real nature is to liberate productive forces, and the ultimate goal of socialism is to achieve common prosperity.” - Deng Xiaoping

Increased consumer choice has led some to question whether China might be labeled a capitalist nation. The CPC refers to its brand of communism as “Socialism with Chinese Characteristics.”

New Demands

China has “leap-frogged” transportation technology going from bicycles to automobiles, bypassing motorbikes. Bicycles are now banned in Shanghai’s city center.

Photo - Abraham

Photo - Abraham Photo - New York Times

Tradition endures modernization

A major challenge for China is trying to preserve traditional aspects of its culture in an era of intense change.

Glimpses of Beijing’s vanishing hutongs

American fast food restaurant with traditional tile roofs and Chinese takeout meal

Canals traversing the city of Lijiang, Yunnan.

Beijing No. 2 Middle School Beijing Migrant Workers’ Dandelion School

Pangliu Village, Xian Elementary SchoolShandong No. 1 Experimental School

The Drive to SucceedA Confucian value, education was interrupted during the Cultural Revolution. Especially for “onlies” or “singletons,” education is once again viewed as an avenue to success.

Marriages: A mix of old and new customs

• Mutual agreement among bride, groom, and couple’s families but can also include a matchmaker or personal ads

• Exchange of modest gifts• Western dress for ceremony• Chinese dress during lavish feast

New Approaches in Chinese Cinema

4th Generation (50s–70s) Communist propaganda

5th Generation (80s–90s) examination of the Cultural RevolutionDirectors: Zhang Yimou and Chen Kaige

6th Generation (post 2000) focus on Reform era and globalization; documentary style independent films

“A Single Spark Can Start a Prairie Fire” – Mao

A Nation of PeasantsWith more than half of China’s population identified as farmers, China is still regarded as a nation of peasants.

While economic incentives and remittances ($45 bill. in 2004) have improved rural life, ongoing burdens such as educational, wedding, funerary costs and local corruption and land seizures continue to weigh heavily on China’s peasants.

Guizhou: Photo - Abraham

DaPuo Village, Guangxizhuang

A Rural-Urban Gap

Distinct social classes have appeared since the start of the Reform Era.

A middle class (PCI – $10,000 per year) has emerged that includes some 100 – 150 million people, mostly situated in coastal China. (Leslie Chang)

Yet, in 2005, the Asian Development Bank estimated that approximately 82 million of China’s 1.3 billion people live on less than $1.25 per day.

Beijing

China’s “Overnight” Cities1978 – 191 cities with 18% of total population 2005 – 661 cities and 44% of total population

Chongqing Photo Abraham

Shanghai Photo Liz Nelson

Seven cities and provinces – Beijing, Tianjin, Shanghai, Zhejiang, Jiangsu, Guangdong and Fujian – have absorbed 82 percent of cross-province migrant workers. In Beijing and Zhejiang about 1/3 of the total population are migrant workers, while in Shenzhen, which grew from a small town in the late 1970s to become a vast metropolis three decades later, 12 million of the total 14 million population are migrants. (china-labour.org.hk)

China’s Floating Population

China’s economic boom has increased the need for migrant laborers. In 2010 this “floating population” was estimated at 230 million people (china-labour.org.hk).

Moving from a rural township to an urban center was once illegal, but now migrant laborers can take advantage of schools for their children and even a choice of registering to vote where they live or work (“Grassroots elections in full swing.” 11/24/11 bjreview.com)

Photo - Abraham

Photo – Abraham

Photo – NY Times

Photo - Abraham

Migrant ChallengesProviding migrant laborers with adequate housing, health care and education is a major challenge for a nation which has come to depend on their labor.

There are ongoing concerns with unpaid wages, abuse of migrant laborers and their families, and severance of rural ties.

Recommended Resources: China’s Factory Girls by Leslie Chang Oracle Bones by Peter HesslerLast Train Home dir. Lixin Fan 2009

Photo - Liz Nelson

Photo – Last Train Homehttp://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5DXEP1TBM0w&feature=related

Contrasting Opportunities

The quality of education however varies greatly from the cities to the countryside. Moreover, China lags greatly behind the U.S. in percentage of college aged students entering universities – 11% compared to 64% in the U.S. as of 2008. (Chang)

Related Films: Not One LessPlease Vote for Me

Rural Classroom in Daya Cun Village

Art classroom in Jinan, Shandong’s capital city

Environmental ThreatsThe increase in the number and size of cities in China has magnified the need for coal. Moreover, the operation of factories, especially in the north, has endangered the nation’s water supply.

A few facts• 400 of China’s 600 largest cities lack adequate clean water.• Northern China houses 43% of population, but only 14% of nation’s water supply.

Map – New York Times

Photo – China and The World

The Quest for Sustainable DevelopmentChina has a long history of public works projects that include attempts to harness the forces of nature. China’s efforts to modernize quickly however have taken an unprecedented toll on its environment and the nation. The Three Gorges Dam controls deadly flooding and allows ocean-going vessels to reach Chongqing.

all photos - Abraham

Three Gorges Dam

Begun in 2003, this massive canal project is expected to take almost 50 years to construct. It will eventually divert 44.8 billion cubic meters of water annually to the population centers of the drier north, esp. Beijing and Tianjin. When finished, the work will link China's four main rivers – the Yangtze, Yellow River, Huaihe and Haihe – and requires the construction of three diversion routes, stretching south-to-north across the eastern, central and western parts of the country. The complete project is expected to cost $62bn – more than twice as much as the country's controversial Three Gorges Dam. (http://www.water-technology.net/projects/south_north/)

South-North Water Transfer Project

Preserves for endangered species, especially China’s most recognizable pandas, are threatened by demand for natural resources, industry, and development.

Long Road to Democracy

Trying to crack the CPC’s hold on power will not be easy.

Despite new trends such as local elections, protests and even experimental voting in schools, the CPC’s hold on power is as strong, or stronger today than it was at the height of Mao’s power.

Protest against land grabs in southern China

Government in China