Children G4

7/31/2019 Children G4

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INFORMATION

PROCESSINGTHEORY

ATKINSON & SHIFFRIN

BY:

wan mohd ridzaudin bin wan majid

mohd asrul hafiz bin ali@ yusofnuranis farhana binti khamis

noor azma binti ab. Rahman

nasuha binti kamaruldin

siti norhanani binti che mat


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approach to the study of cognitive development

evolved out of the American experimental tradition inpsychology.

Information processing theorists proposed that like thecomputer, the human mind is a system that processesinformation through the application of logical rules andstrategies - the mind has a limited capacity for theamount and nature of the information it can process.

Finally, just as the computer can be made into abetter information processor by changes in its hardware

(e.g., circuit boards and microchips) and its software(programming), so do children become moresophisticated thinkers through changes in their brainsand sensory systems (hardware) and in the rules andstrategies (software) that they learn.


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Sensory MemoryInformation enters the human information processing system

via a variety of channels associated with the different senses.

Perceptual systems operate on this information to createperceptions.

But because of a limited processing ability at the higher levels,most incoming information cannot be immediately dealt with

Instead, we attendonly to certain information.

However, information not immediately attended to is heldbriefly in a very temporary "buffer" memory, making it possibleto attend to some of it a bit later -- as when you can still hearsomeone asking you a question even though you weren't reallylistening when they asked it.

This buffer memory is called sensory memory.


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Here are some characteristics of these two sensory memorysystems:

Iconic Memory (vision)Capacity: Essentially that of the visual system (Sperling)Duration: About 0.5 to 1.0 seconds (Sperling)Processing: None additional beyond raw perceptual

processing

Echoic Memory (hearing}Capacity: ????Duration: About 4 to 5 secondsProcessing: None additional beyond raw perceptual

processing

Sensory memory is really have many sensory memory systems,one associated with each sense. Eg:

for vision, called iconic memory,

for audition (hearing), called echoic memory


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Information that is attended to arrives in another temporary store

called short-term or working memory. The more recent term"working memory" is intended to convey the idea that information

here is available for further processing.

In general information in working memory is information you are

conscious of and can work with.

Here are some properties of STM:

Capacity: About 7 plus or minus 2 "chunks" of information

(Miller, 1956)

Duration: About 18 to 20 seconds (Peterson & Peterson, 1959)

Processing: To hold information in STM, it is often encoded

verbally, although other strategies may also be used such as

visualization.

These strategies make it possible to "rehearse" the information.

Short-term memories (STM)


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The low capacity of STM was first noted by George Miller in a famous

paper intitled The Magical Number Seven, Plus or Minus Two. Miller

concluded that about seven (plus or minus two) "chunks" of informationcould reside in STM simultaneously.

Miller defined a "chunk" as an independent item of information -- one

whose recall did not aid in the further recall of the other items. Random

letters such as "GJK" would each be considered a chunk, but lettersthat form a recognizable larger whole, such as "CAR" would not. (In this

case the word "car" is a single chunk.)

Information that enters STM fades away, ordecaysas soon as it is nolonger attended to. (The duration of 18-20 seconds assumes that the

information is not being actively rehearsed.)


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Information that is being actively attended to is represented

by a pattern of neural activity in the brain may become

represented more permanently by guiding changes in neural

connectivity in the brain, a process referred to as storage.

But information that is not more permanently stored is

simply lost shortly after attention is directed elsewhere.

Because STM presents severe limits on the amount of

information that can be held in mind simultaneously and on

the duration for which it lasts once attention is withdrawnfrom it, STM has been described as the bottleneck of the

human information processing system.


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Long-term Memory (LTM)

Long-term memory is also called preconscious and unconsciousmemory in Freudian terms.

Preconscious means that the information is relatively easily

recalled.

unconscious refers to data that is not available during normal

consciousness.

Here are some properties of LTM:

1. Capacity: Virtually unlimited

2. Duration: Up to a lifetime

3. Processing: Information is organized according to meaningand

is associatively linked


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1. Capacity: Virtually unlimited :

Capacity is unlimited in the sense that nobody seems to run out of the

capacity to store new information. Except if our brain deteriorate.

2. Duration: Up to a lifetime :

We cant determine how long memory can exist in our LTM.

If you cannot remember something ; it is because of it has been lost

from the system, or because you have developed a problem locating

it for retievalPermanent loses;(occurred due to damaged brain and it is not been

accesed for a long time)

Permanent losses do occur as a result of brain damage and it is

possible that some memories simply decay away if they are not

accessed for a very long time.HOWEVER; some failures of retrieval are due to temporary

blockages and not to the loss of the information in memory

example-: You may be unable to remember someone's name at

present, for example, but later it comes to you. Obviously, it was

there in memory all the while.


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1.Teachers need to recognize the importance of teaching

higher order thinking skill(Lawrenz.,1990)

Teachers must try to change their mind set from teaching

science just as a body of facts.

The higher-order thinking skills, which focus on students ability

to hypothesize, analyse, synthesize and evaluate facts and

concepts, are considered important for students to interact

effectively with the real world environment of day to day problem

solving.

Teachers are encouraged to employ an inquiry-oriented

investigative approach to teach science.

Implications for teaching primary science


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2.Teachers need to play a facilitative role in teachingproblem solving(Pizzini et al.,1989)

Teachers assist students in identifying problems and

developing strategies to obtain and process information.

They could help students by identifying logical errors in theirthinking (such as inconsistencies or unjustifiable inferences),

challenging students to consider other possibilities, and

pointing out to students when they have over generalized on

the basis of false assumptions.


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3.Teachers need to change their mode of assessment( Stiggins et al.,1989)

In order to encourage higher-order thinking in students, the

assessment mode needs to be changed.

It is suggested that teachers should ask more higher-orderthinking questions involving analysis, comparison, inference

and evaluation.


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4.Schools need to improve science facilities andresources (Chin et al.,1994)

To encourage teachers to teach higher-order thinking skills in

science, an increase in the number of science

laboratory/science rooms and additional resources such as

teaching materials for conducting hands-on activities, is

necessary.

At present, supporting laboratory staff at the primary level is

lacking. If a problem-solving approach is to be seriously

employed by teachers as part of science instruction, they needassistance and support from laboratory staff to cut down the

time required in preparing hands-on activities


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The central executive

This is the master controller of the working memory system. Its functions

are thought to include switching attention between tasks,

selecting/ignoring stimuli, and activating necessary information from

long-term memory. At the moment its unclear whether the central

executive is one unitary mechanism, or whether it can be broken down

into subsystems.

The phonological loopThis component holds speech-based information. It has two parts a

phonological store, which temporarily holds speech information, and

the articulatory control process (ACT; the arrow in the diagram),

which is the part thats working when youre talking to yourself in your

head. The ACT is one way of getting information into the phonological

store, but, information in the phonological store starts to decay after afew seconds. This is why to remember a phone number you need to

keep repeating it over and over until you find a penyoure

refreshing the decaying information by it by putting it through the ACT

again.


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Visuo-spatial sketch pad

Not surprisingly, this is the part that processes visual information. This might

be from your eyes, recalling a memory, or creatively visualising something. Ifyoure seeing with your minds eye, or mentally manipulating an image, this

is the part thats working.

The episodic buffer

Information is encoded differently in the phonological loop and the visuo-

spatial sketch pad, while the central executive can only process, not store.

The episodic buffer is able to combine information from the above

components into a single representation. This was added to the model only

recently (2000), because a number of research findings were hard to explain

without it. (2)


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