February2008

www.che.com

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Pump Hazardous

Liquids Safely

Photons to Electrons,

& Vice Versa

Facts at Your Fingertips:Causes of

Overpressurization

Focus on Flowmeters

Tank Coatings

When it Becomes Necessary

To Fire An Employee

Asset Management

PAGE 35

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NEWS

11 Chementator New ceramic-membrane system doubles rate and slashes cost for dehydrating ethanol; This platinum-free fuel cell runs on hydrazine; Commercial production and debut of a new solid-acid catalyst for making biodiesel; One less step to make activated carbon with dispersed metal nanoparticles; New solid-state heat engine cycles H2 through MEA like a fuel cell; and more

17 Newsfront Photons To Electrons, & ViceVersa Research in light-emitting diodes and solar cells are boosting both technologies

21 Newsfront Making the Most of WhatYou've Got A proactive asset management program helps processors get more from their facilities, despite obstacles.

ENGINEERING

25 Facts At Your Fingertips Causes ofOverpressurization This one-page guide describes several common causes of vessel and pipe overpressurization and ways to avoid them

36 Feature Report Pump Hazardous Liq-uids Safely Reduce the problems associ-ated with handling hazardous liquids by following these guidelines

45 Solids Processing Tank Coatings: Cover-ing the Basics of Selection and Specifica-tion Good quality coatings can make all the difference where corrosion and chemi-cal compatibility are concerned

49 Environmental Manager Caring for Cool-ing Water Systems Hydrocarbon leaks can disrupt recirculated cooling-water systems. Here's an outline of effects and remedies

51 You and Your Job When it BecomesNecessary to Fire An Employee Theseguiding principles will help you prepare and properly avoid making this task more un-pleasant than it has to be

COMMENTARY

5 Editor’s PageWorking TogetherToward CommonGoals With increas-ing project com-plexities, advanced technologies and globalization, the need for cooperation between companies and across disciplines is greater than ever

27 CE CommunityThis month we fea-ture a crossword puzzle on project management and invite you to down-load an article on adhesives

DEPARTMENTSLetters . . . . . . . . . . . 6Calendar . . . . . . . . . 8,9Who’s Who . . . . . . . 28ReaderService page . . . . . . 62EconomicIndicators . . . . . 63, 64

ADVERTISERSProduct Showcase . . . . . . . 55–56ClassifiedAdvertising . . . . .57–60Advertiser Index . . . 61

COMING IN MARCH

Look for: FeatureReports on Column Instrumentation Basics; and Planning for REACH; Engineering Practice ar-ticles on Plugging, Sleev-ing and Ferruling Heat Exchanger Tubes; Piping Design; and Sensing Change in Batch Reac-tors; A Focus on Bulk Solids Storage, Handling & Packaging; Newsarticles on Engineering and Construction; and Fuel Cells; Facts at YourFingertips on Mem-branes; Show Previewson Interphex; and the International Pump Users Symposium; and more

Cover: David Whitcher

IN THIS ISSUEFEBRUARY 2008 VOLUME 115, NO. 2

EQUIPMENT & SERVICES

24D-1 New Products & Services (Domestic Edi-tion) This bearing protec-tion ring lasts for the life of the motor; Oils and coolants will not affect these rotary encoder col-lars; Create matte, satin and other fine finishes on metals; This pressure sensor is ideal for high-purity applications; This tubing is suitable for use with most harsh chemicals; EtherNet/IP connectivity is fea-tured on this I/O module; This efficient chiller eliminates maintenance-related downtime; and more

24I-1 New Products & Services (InternationalEdition) Measure material stran with this laser-based system; Efficient heating for just about any size flask; Extreme operating conditions are no problem for these tiny pumps; Con-sider this valve when control is critical; Heat exchangers can benefit from this fluoropoly-mer tubing; A big valve for big applications; Don't waste costly ingredients with this granulator; Level control takes a completely new look; Take a close, accurate look at par-ticle size and shape; and more

43 Focus Flowmeters A durable flowmeter for remote applications outdoors; This electronic flowmeter is submersible; A way to measure corrosive fluids cost-effectively; An insertion vortex meter that is reliable in large pipes; A flow-conditioning meter for easy retrofit-ting; This device improves settling time and accuracy; This meter has low maintenance costs; A compact, no-frills flow-measurement device; A large Coriolis mass flowmeter for petrochemicals applications; and more

3

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COVER STORY

30 Cover Story CPI Water and SteamChemistry Careful control of water and steam chemistry at CPI facilities can pay off handsomely in reliable operation

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Editor’s Page

The chemical process industries (CPI) are united in many common goals. Particularly in this age of fast global growth, it is difficult, if not impos-sible, for a company to achieve its targets by working independently.

A common theme circulating at this year’s DaratechPlant (Houston; Janu-ary 28–30; www.daratechplant.com), was that with increasing project com-plexities, advanced technologies and globalization, the need for coopera-tion between companies and across disciplines is greater than ever.

In fact, during the DaratechPlant Owner/Operator (O/O) Roundtable, Jerry Gipson, director of the Engineering Solutions Technology Center for The Dow Chemical Co., cited collaboration as the one thing that is needed within the industry and hailed it as “the critical enabler of future success.” Gipson defined four areas of opportunity that we must address together: 1) Developing winning opportunities, where the whole lifecycle of a project needs to be considered. Here, increased collaboration between the business and technical communities is essential; 2) Managing projects effectively, where it is critical to take the time in the beginning to define what suc-cess is, to identify risk and to get the right people and resources together; 3) Sourcing, retaining and developing people and knowledge resources — Gipson points out that relying on internal resources is not enough, but collaboration and partnerships are needed; 4) Deploying competitive, sus-tainable technologies, where attention should be paid to defining what suc-cess is and what competition is.

On Gipson’s topic of sustainability, co-panelist Nick McKenna, manager of Quality and Management Systems, Project Services at ConocoPhillips, defined a three-part model, which includes environmental protection, so-cial improvement and economic growth. These principles are applied by in-corporating them into project planning, said McKenna, who participated in the O/O roundtable for the first time this year. He and Gipson advised that while each company defines its own specific objectives within the model, the overall goal of sustainability is shared.

Another well-known challenge shared by the CPI and Engineering, Procurement and Construction (EPC) companies that serve them is limited resources. Finding the right people and demographic issues are particularly troublesome. During DaratechPlant’s EPC Roundtable, Karen Sobel, vice president, Engineering for SNC-Lavalin Inc., named competition for resources and schedule pressures as the biggest chal-lenges for 2008. Here again, collaboration comes up in the solution. One of Sobel’s co-panelists Jann Slettebakk, vice president Engineering Management at Aker Kvaerner, added that collaboration is especially important now that projects have become so much more technologically complex. Slettebakk said that this is not the whole answer, noting that better tools (such as software) are also needed. But here too, he pointed out, collaboration is needed in applying these tools from early on in a project.

Perhaps the most concrete way to support a cooper-ative environment is to implement well-thought-out standards. Indeed, Gipson says that standards-based integration is needed and that “we will ultimately require our suppliers to conform to applicable stan-dards.” From the offerings described by many of the DaratechPlant attendees, this is already well under-way.

Dorothy Lozowski

Working together toward common goals

Winner of Eight Jesse H. Neal Awards for Editorial Excellence

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CONFERENCES

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Letters

Another corrosion-resistant material deserves a mentionIn the December 2007 article, The Heat Is On (pp. 24–28) I take issue with the statement next to the Pfaudler photo, “Tantalum and glass-lined steel are the two most corrosion resistant materials used in the chemical and pharmaceutical industries.” They are two of the most corrosion resistant materials, but our Hexoloy Sintered Alpha SA silicon carbide SiC is also as corrosion resis-tant as tantalum and glass-lined steel and is also used in the chemical and pharmaceutical industries. Please see our website www.hexoloy.com

James F. McMahonSaint-Gobain Ceramics, Niagara Falls, N.Y.

Scholarship applications openChemical Engineering has established a scholarship program in the name of former Editor-in-Chief Nicholas P. Chopey, to assist students who plan to continue their education in college programs.

Applicants to the program must be current third-year students who are enrolled in a full-time* undergraduate course of study in Chemical Engineering at one of the fol-lowing four-year colleges or universities:• Columbia University,• Rutgers University,• SUNY Buffalo,• University of Kansas,• University of VirginiaIf selected as a recipient, the student will receive a one-time only award that may be used for undergraduate study.Application details. Interested students must complete the application and mail it along with a current, com-plete transcript of grades to Scholarship Management Services postmarked no later than April 1. Applications and guidelines can be found at www.che.com by clicking on Events and Announcements.

Questions regarding the scholarship program should be addressed to: Nicholas Chopey Scholarship Program Scholarship Management Services One Scholarship Way, P.O. Box 297 Saint Peter, MN 56082 Telephone: (507) 931-1682Selection of recipients. Scholarship recipients are selected on the basis of academic record, demonstrated leadership and participation in school and community ac-tivities, honors, work experience, statement of goals and aspirations, unusual personal or family circumstances, and an outside appraisal. Financial need is not consid-ered.

Selection of recipients is made by Scholarship Manage-ment Services, a division of Scholarship America. In no instance does any officer or employee of Chemical Engi-neering Magazine play a part in the selection. Applicants will be notified in early June. ■

*Full-time study is defined as full-time enrollment for the entire upcom-ing academic year.Circle 07 on p. 62 or go to adlinks.che.com/7369-07

� ChemiCal engineering www.Che.Com February 2008

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NORTH AMERICAPittcon 2008. The Pittsburgh Conference (Pittsburgh, Pa.). Phone: 412-825-3220; Web: pittcon.orgNew Orleans, La. Mar. 1–7

SPAR 2008. Spar Point Research LLC (Danvers, Mass.). Phone: 978-774-1102; Fax: 978-774-4841; Web: sparllc.comHouston, Tex. Mar. 3–5

Conexpo-Con/AGG 2008. Association of Equipment Manufacturers (Milwaukee, Wis.). Phone: 414-272-0943; Fax: 414-272-1170; Web: conexpoconagg.comLas Vegas, Nev. Mar. 11–15

Interphex 2008. Reed Exhibitions (Milwaukee, Wis). Phone: 203-840-5533; Fax: 203-840-9533; Web: interphex.comPhiladelphia, Pa. Mar. 26–28

Residuals and Biofuels 2008. Water Environment Federation (Alexandria, Va.). Phone: 800-666-0206; Fax: 703-684-2492; Web: wef.org/residualsbiofuelsPhiladelphia, Pa. Mar. 30–Apr. 2

Techtextil North America. messe frankfurt (Frankfurt, Germany). Phone: 770-984-8015; Fax: 770-984-8023; Web: techtextilna.comAtlanta, Ga. Apr. 1–3

Odors and Air Emissions 2008. Water Environment Federation (Alexandria, Va.). Phone: 800-666-0206; Fax: 703-684-2492; Web: wef.org/OAEPhoenix, Ariz. Apr. 6–9

Reach USA 2008. Smithers Rapra (Shrewsbury, U.K.). Phone: +44 (0) 1939 250383; Fax: +44 (0) 1939 251118; Web: rapra.netBoston, Mass. Apr. 15–17

CANECT 2008. Envirogate Event Management Inc. (To-ronto, Ontario, Canada). Phone: 905-727-4666; Fax: 905-841-7271; Web: esemag.comToronto, Ontario, Canada Apr. 21–22

The World Congress on Industrial Biotechnology and Bioprocessing. Biotechnology Industry Organization (Washington, D.C.). Phone: 202-962-6630; Web: bio.comChicago, Ill. Apr. 27–30

EUROPENanofair 2008. VDI Wissensforum GmbH (Dusseldorf, Germany). Phone: +49 (0) 211 62 14-4 26; Fax: +49 (0) 211 62 14-1 54; Web: nanofair.comDresden, Germany Mar. 11–12

Silicone Elastomers 2008. Smithers Rapra Technology (Shropshire, U.K.). Phone: +44 (0) 1939 250383; Fax: +44 (0) 1939 252416; Web: rapra.netMunich, Germany Mar. 12–13

Calendar

� ChemiCal engineering www.Che.Com February 2008Circle 23 on p. 62 or go to adlinks.che.com/7369-23

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8-9 CHE 2-08.indd 8 1/29/08 5:57:46 PM

Detergency & Cosmetics. C.E.D. (Barcelona, Spain). Phone: +34 93 204 02 12; Fax: +34 93 280 53 00; Web: cedmeeting.comBarcelona, Spain Apr. 2–3

European Thermoforming Conference 2008. Soci-ety of Plastics Engineers Europe (Antwerpen, Belgium). Phone: +32 3 541 77 55; Fax: +32 3 341 84 25; Web: e-t-d.orgBerlin, Germany Apr. 3–5

Advances in Synthetic Chemistry. Select Biosciences (Sudbury, U.K.). Phone: +44 (0) 1787 315110; Fax: +44 (0) 1787 315111; Web: advsynchem.comFrankfurt, Germany Apr. 8–9

Hazards XX. IChemE (Cumbria, U.K.). Phone: +44 (0) 1539 732845; Fax: +44 (0) 1539 732845; Web: icheme.org/hazardsxxManchester, U.K. Apr. 14–17

ERTC Coking and Gasification Conference. ERTC (Surrey, U.K.). Phone: +44 1737 365100; Fax: +44 1737 365101; Web: gtforum.comParis, France Apr. 16

ASiA AnD ElSEwHEREMiddle East Fertilizer Symposium 2008. World Re-fining Association (Gloucestershire, U.K.). Phone: +44 (0) 1242 529 090; Fax: +44 (0) 1242 529 060; Web: wraconferences.comAbu Dhabi, U.A.E. Mar. 3–4

GEO 2008. Kuwait Oil Company (Ahmadi, Kuwait). Phone: +44 (0) 20 7451 4700; Fax: +44 (0) 17 8441 9257; Web: geobahrain.orgManama, Bahrain Mar. 4–6

PiA Vietnam 2008. Bangkok Exhibition Services Ltd. (Phyathai, Bangkok). Phone: +66 02 615 1255; Fax: +66 02 615 2991; Web: piavietnam.comHo Chi Minh City, Vietnam Mar. 5–8

P-MEC Japan. CMP Information (London, U.K.). Phone: +81 3 5296 1020; Fax: +81 3 5296 1018; Web: pmec-japan.comTokyo, Japan Apr. 9–11

Base Oils and lubricants in Russia and the CiS 2008. World Refining Association (Gloucestershire, U.K.). Phone: +44 (0) 1242 529 090; Fax: +44 (0) 1242 529 060; Web: wraconferences.comMoscow, Russia Apr. 16–17

PETnology Europe 2008. PETnology GmbH (Regens-burg, Germany). Phone: +49(0) 941 870 2374; Fax: +49 (0) 941 870 2373; Web: petnology.comDuesseldorf, Germany Apr. 22–23 n

Kate TorzewskiCircle 11 on p. 62 or go to adlinks.che.com/7369-11

ChemiCal engineering www.Che.Com February 2008 �

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Daihatsu Motor Co., Ltd. (Osaka, Japan; edlinks.che.com/7369-532) has designed

a fuel cell for powering automobiles, using nickel and cobalt for the electrodes (instead of conventional platinum and carbon), and hydrazine hydrate (N2H4

.H2O) as its fuel (instead of hydrogen). Although hydrazine is a hazardous material, the company says the hazard level is about the same as gasoline. And unlike H2, which requires high (700 bar) pressures or low (–253°C) tempera-tures for storage, hydrazine hydrate is easy to store and transport by conventional tanks and trucks.

Daihatsu’s fuel cell is composed of an anode made of Ni nanoparticles, a cathode made of carbon-cobalt (polypyrrole-modified) com-posite, and an anion-exchange membrane as its solid electrolyte. The hydrazine hydrate is stored as hydrazone, which is bound to the carbonyl groups of polymer particles within the fuel tank. To liberate hydrazine hydrate, water at 60°C is passed through the fuel tank, where it reacts to form an aqueous hy-drazine solution. The hydrazine is then oxi-

dized at the anode (diagram) to form N2 and an electron, while O2 (from air) is reduced with water at the cathode, releasing hydrox-ide ions. The OH– ion migrates through the membrane to the anode.

A prototype of the new fuel cell has a power output of 0.50 W/cm2, which is compa-rable with existing H2-based cells, says the firm. Daihatsu aims to install the new fuel cell battery for its lightweight cars in the fu-ture, and is seeking partners from other car manufacturers around the world.

Hitachi Zosen Corp. (Hitz; Tokyo, Japan; edlinks.che.com/7369-531) is commer-

cializing a new membrane for a hybrid-dis-tillation system (HDS) that is especially suitable for dehydrating ethanol and iso-propanol. The HDS can produce 99.7 vol.% ethanol from ethanol-water mixtures with 10 vol.% H2O at a dehydration rate of 50 kg/m2/h/atm (at 130°C), which is more than two times higher than conventional ceramic-membrane processes, says the firm.

The membrane element consists of a porous alumina tube that is closed at one end. A thin zeolite film is synthesized onto the tube, and the pore size is precisely controlled by proprietary technology to be around 10Å, which enables the element to act as a molecular sieve for the two alcohols. In the HDS, the mixture is fed to the out-side of the tubes and the dehydrated water is removed from the inner side of the tubes. The membrane is able to dehydrate etha-nol-water mixtures with less than 30-wt.% water and, when combined with distilla-tion, covers a wider range of mixtures. Hitz estimates that HDS can save up to 30% of

the energy required to dehydrate ethanol, and the required installation space for the membrane unit is about half that needed for a pressure-swing-absorption unit.

Hitz has demonstrated the technology in a test plant with the capacity to produce 30 kL/d of ethanol, and plans to expand the production capacity (for the membranes) to 750,000 m.t./yr this year. The firm has also designed an HDS for producing 99.7 vol.% ethanol from a 10 vol.% ethanol feed, with a capacity of 50-million gal/yr.

Note: For more information, circle the 3-digit number on p. 62, or use the website designation.

Edited by Gerald Ondrey February 2008

ChemiCal engineering www.Che.Com February 2008 11

New ceramic-membrane system doubles rate and slashes cost for dehydrating ethanol

Pumping hot oilPCm (Paris, France; edlinks.che.com/7369-541) has intro-duced what is claimed to be the world’s first all-metal progress-ing cavity pump (PCP). PCm Vulcain is capable of pumping extremely hot (350°C) and viscous fluids, making it par-ticularly suitable for the thermal recovery of heavy oil. half of the world’s known oil reserves are said to be made up of un-conventional oil, ranging from viscous heavy oil to nearly solid bitumen. Such oils cannot flow unless they are heated by steam injection; as a result, the recovered oil is extremely hot.

PCPs are said to be more energy efficient that other pump technologies, but standard PCPs are limited in terms of maximum operating tempera-ture. The rotary action of the Vulcain outperforms beam pumps in overall system ef-ficiency, and is less fragile than electric submersible pumps, says the manufacturer.

Bio-based succinic acidroyal DSm n.V. (heerlen, netherlands; edlinks.che.com/7369-542) and the French starch and starch-derivatives company roquette (lestrem, France; edlinks.che.com/7369-543) have joined forces to im-plement and commercialize the fermentive production of biore-newable succinic acid. a dem-

(Continues on p. 12)

This platinum-free fuel cell runs on hydrazine

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ChementatoR

Last month, Benefuel, Inc. (Mt. Prospect, Ill.; edlinks.che.com/7369-533) established

an exclusive global agreement with Süd-Chemie India Pvt. Ltd. (SCIL; New Delhi) whereby SCIL will manufacture proprietary solid-acid catalysts for Benefuel’s biodiesel production facilities around the world. The patent-pending catalysts — developed by Benefuel in collaboration with the National Chemical Laboratory (Pune, India; edlinks.che.com/7369-534) — are based on an iron-zinc double-metal cyanide (DMC) complex, and can turn most vegetable oils, animal fats or waste cooking oils directly into fatty acid methyl esters (FAME). Unlike other solid-acid catalysts, the DMC is highly active even for the simultaneous transesterification of triglycerides and esterification of the free-fatty acids (FFAs), which are present in un-refined and waste cooking oils and non-edible oils, says William Summers, Benefuel’s chief science officer. The new catalyst is also insen-sitive to the presence of water (even 20 wt.% H2O), whereas alternative solid catalysts can’t tolerate a water content above 0.2 wt.% or less, he adds.

The catalysts are the key feature of Bene-fuel’s Ensel process whereby FAME and by-product glycerin are continuously produced in a fixed-bed reactor. In contrast to con-ventional biodiesel routes that use a liquid catalyst (typically aqueous NaOH solutions)

in batch or semi-continuous processes, Ensel does not require a number of post-reactor purification steps (diagram) to wash catalyst from the FAME, and directly produces pure (≥98%) glycerin. This means Ensel oper-ates water-free; conventional routes require about 3–5 gallons of water for each gallon of biodiesel produced, which can be problematic in regions where water is scarce, says Sum-mers. Depending on the feed, Ensel has a cost advantage over conventional processes of 40–90¢/gal of biodiesel produced, he says.

The first commercial application of the Ensel process will be in a biodiesel plant currently being constructed for Seymour Biofuels, LLC (Seymour, Ill.). When the plant starts up later this fall, it will have the capacity to produce 10-million gal/yr biodie-sel from unrefined soy oil and chicken fat.

Nanostructured microporous carbons con-taining well-dispersed metal nanopar-

ticles have the potential to improve the performance of fuel cells or catalysis. How-ever, traditional techniques for embedding metal particles in porous carbons (post-synthesis treatment either by impregna-tion, adsorption, or ion exchange) can lead to uncontrolled growth of metal particle size, shape and aggregation, which can cause the pores to be blocked.

Last year, researchers from the dept. of chemical engineering at Monash Univer-sity (Melbourne, Australia; edlinks.che.com/7369-535) successfully synthesized transition-metal-doped microporous carbons from impregnated zeolite Y templates by a two-step chemical-vapor deposition (CVD) using furfural alcohol and propylene as a

carbon precursor. Paul Webley, group leader and associate dean (research) at the univer-sity’s faculty of engineering, says presently a simpler, single-step approach is being de-veloped, which involves direct CVD using acetylene as a precursor. The new process produces fully ordered microporous carbon molecular sieves of extremely high micropo-rosity that also contain well-dispersed tran-sition-metal nanoparticles.

The one-step process produces Ir-C, for example, with excellent dispersion of the loaded iridium and a fairly uniform par-ticle-size distribution of around 2–5 nm. Iridium metal loading was 20 wt.%, and surface area of this carbon was about 1,880 m2/g, which is higher than commercial ac-tivated carbons and may therefore be suit-able in fuel cell applications.

One less step to make activated carbon with dispersed metal nanoparticles

12 ChemiCal engineering www.Che.Com February 2008

Commercial production and debut of a new solid-acid catalyst for making biodiesel

onstration plant with a capacity of several hundred metric tons per year is targeted for opera-tion by the end of 2009. Two years later, after a successful trial, the new technology will be transferred to large-scale production, says DSm.

used for pharmaceutical, food and automotive applica-tions, succinic acid is currently produced by hydrogenation of maleic anhydride followed by the hydration of succinic anhydride. The fermentation process instead uses both sustainable feedstocks, such as plant carbohydrates, and carbon dioxide, and is esti-mated to save 30–40% of the energy compared to chemical-base routes.

Algae-based biodieselValencent Products, inc. (el Paso, Tex.; edlinks.che.com/7369-544) and global green Solutions, inc. (Van-couver, b.C., Canada; edlinks.che.com/7369-545) are in the final stages of commercial-izing their patented Vertigro process, which includes the growing and harvesting of algae, and extraction of oil from algae for biodiesel pro-duction. Key to the process is a continuous, closed-loop bio-reactor constructed by gray-ling industries (atlanta, ga.; edlinks.che.com/7369-546).

in the bioreactor, algae in water circulates through 10-ft high, uV-stable plastic tubes, in which the algae are exposed to sunlight. The key

(Continued from p. 11)

(Continues on p. 14)

11-16 CHE 2-08.indd 12 1/29/08 6:00:50 PM

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13 CHE 2-08.indd 13 1/15/08 3:54:43 PM

Johnson ElectroMechanical Sys-tems, Inc. (Atlanta, Ga.; edlinks.

che.com/7369-536) in conjunction with professor Heshmat Aglan of Tuskegee University (Tuskegee, Ala.; edlinks.che.com/7369-537) has received a $75,000 grant from the U.S. Dept. of Energy (DOE; Washington, D.C.) to further de-velop the firm’s solid-state heat engine tech-nology. The device operates like a fuel cell to generate electricity by catalytically splitting hydrogen molecules on one side of a mem-brane-electrode assembly (MEA). Unlike a fuel cell, however, the protons and electrons recombine into H2 on the other side of the MEA (diagram). Dubbed the Johnson Ther-moelectric Converter (JTEC), the engine is effectively cheaper than a fuel cell because only a consistent external heat source and not a continuous supply of H2 is required. It also promises improvement over compet-ing thermoelectric conversion devices, such as molten sodium, which operates at 1,200–1,500 K and gradually plugs the porous elec-trodes required to pass its Na+ ions.

With the wide range of proton-conductive materials currently used in MEA, versions of the engine would be capable of generat-ing electricity at operating temperatures anywhere from room temperature to up

and above 1,200ºC. According to the device’s inventor and namesake, Lonnie Johnson, the firm has already “produced proof-of-concept demonstrators for power scavenging applications, fuel cell appli-cations (operating at the highly sought after intermediate temperature ranges of 200 to 400ºC) and thermal to electric con-verters.” To adapt JTEC technology for use in solar thermal conversion systems, Johnson and Aglan have been testing novel ceramic membranes with the goal of a system capable of handling tempera-tures up to 600ºC. (At present, solar concen-tration via parabolic mirrors can surpass 800ºC.) At 600ºC, the JTEC’s theoretical ef-ficiency rate, based on its approximation of the Ericsson thermodynamic cycle (graph) approaches 60% — twice that of current solar Stirling engines. The technology is patented by Johnson under U.S. patents 6,686,076 and 6,709,778.

Biotechnology samples, such as proteins, nucleic acids, biological specimens and

pharmaceuticals, are typically stored frozen to extend their shelf life. However, a prob-lem that has plagued researchers for de-cades is that the buffers used to maintain the pH of the samples lose their efficacy as samples are cooled. Low-temperature bio-physical and bioanalytical techniques can also be affected by pH variations caused by the temperature dependency of buffers. These problems can now be avoided with a temperature-independent pH (TIP) buffer developed by researchers at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign (UIUC; edlinks.che.com/7369-538).

The buffer is made by simply combin-ing two commonly used buffers that were shown to have opposite temperature depen-dence: HEPES [4-(2-hydroxyethyl)-1-piper-azineethanesulfonic acid], which becomes

alkaline (pH increases by 1.5) as the tem-perature falls from ambient to –180°C; and potassium phosphate, which becomes acidic (pH decreases by 0.5) over the same tem-perature range. By adjusting the ratio of the two components in the mixture, a TIP buffer is formed that shows only a 0.2 variation in pH during cooling.

To demonstrate the need for, and efficacy of the TIP buffer, the pharmaceutical (peni-cillin analog) oxacillin was stored at –20°C in TIP and other common buffers. After 144 h, only about 4% of the drug remained ac-tive when stored in HEPES alone, but 96% of the oxacillin “survived” in the TIP buffer, says UIUC chemistry professor Yi Lu, who’s group reported the results in a recent issue of Chemical Communications. Lu says a pat-ent has been filed for the methodology, and he is amenable to licensing the technology to commercial buffer suppliers.

Maintain pH, even at cyrogenic temperatures, with this buffer

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14 ChemiCal engineering www.Che.Com February 2008

advantages of the bioreactor over open ponds, are that a much higher surface area is exposed to sunlight and no water is lost through evapo-ration, explains glen Kertz, president and Ceo of Val-cent Products. algae can be harvested after 25–30 d, and contains about 50 wt.% oil. with the Vertigral process, the biodiesel production volume can be 20 times more than that produced from traditional crops, with only 5% of the water requirements, he says.

A push for Jatrophaarcher Daniels midland Co. (aDm; Decatur, ill.; edlinks.che.com/7369-547), bayer CropScience ag (bCS; leverkusen, germany; edlinks.che.com/7369-548) and Daimler ag (Stuttgart, germany) have signed a memorandum of understand-ing to explore the potential for a biodiesel industry based on Jatropha curcas L., a tropical plant that is seen as a promis-ing alternative-energy feed-stock. The wild plant requires very little water or fertilizer and can be cultivated on barren land. bCS plans to de-velop and register herbicides, soil insecticides and fungi-cides for disease and pest control of Jatropha plants.

(Continued from p. 12)

11-16 CHE 2-08.indd 14 1/29/08 6:01:31 PM

Airborne contaminants can be identi-fied within 2–3 s with a new sensor

developed by researchers at the Uni-versity of California-Santa Barbara and Stanford University (Calif.). The researchers have founded a company, SpectraFluidics, Inc. (Santa Barbara; edlinks.che.com/7369-539) to commer-cialize the detector.

The instrument employs free-surface microfluidics to absorb molecules di-rectly from the air, then identifies them by surface-enhanced Raman spectros-copy (SERS), says Carl Meinhart, presi-dent of SpectraFluidics and a professor of mechanical engineering at UC Santa Barbara. The molecules are absorbed into flowing water that is pumped by surface tension through a 1.5-µm-deep by 15-µm-wide open microchannel, etched into a 1-cm2 square silicon chip. The sensitivity of the instrument is en-

hanced using SERS, in which the water is seeded with silver nanoparticles that adsorb the contaminants, thereby am-plifying the Raman signal by up to 10 orders of magnitude.

The present unit can detect hydro-philic aromatic molecules, including cer-tain types of explosive or carcinogenic

molecules, says Meinhart. “Essentially the sensor is an optical nose,” he says. “Light is used to smell things that only a dog can smell.” At present the device is interfaced to a desktop spectrometer, but the firm plans to make the system portable by combining it with an off-the-shelf, hand-held Raman spectrometer.

Sensor uses microfluidics to sniff for airborne contaminants

Desalination barges based on reverse osmosis

Circle 14 on p. 62 or go to adlinks.che.com/7369-1415

A team of researchers from MIT’s (Cambridge, Mass.; edlinks.che.

com/7369-540) chemical and mechani-cal engineering departments, in associ-ation with the U.S. Air Force Research Laboratory (Edwards Air Force Base, Calif.), has developed oil-repellent surfaces with likely separations and safety applications for the chemical process industries. Due to the high-surface-tension of water (lv = 72.1 mN/m), super-hydrophobic surfaces are relatively common in nature and industry, while surfaces resistant to liquids like decane (lv = 23.8 mN/m) or octane (lv = 21.6 mN/m) are extremely rare. To fabricate a super-oleophobic material based on the traditionally un-derstood factors of surface energy and roughness, the surface energy of the solid (sv) would have to be lower than that of any known material.

The researchers blended several kinds of fluorinated, hydrophobic, poly-

hedral oligomeric silsesquioxane mol-ecules (POSS; diagram) with a moder-ately hydrophilic polymer, poly(methyl methacrylate) (PMMA). This low-en-ergy blend was then electrospun for increased and scalable roughness. The team also determined a new param-eter affecting the liquid repellency: re-entrant surface curvature. To verify its applicability, a model material with re-entrant curvature was fabricated from the reactive ion etching of a 300-nm top-layer of SiO2 and subsequent isotropic etching of a flat Si bottom-layer using vapor-phase XeF2. These so-called “hoodoo structures” were then treated with 1H,1H,2H,2H-per-fluorodecyltrichlorosilane to chemi-cally lower sv. Whether the curva-ture was convex (as with the team’s electrospun polymer microfibers) or concave (as with its SiO2 “micro-hoo-doos” produced through photo-lithog-raphy), the result was an increase

in the non-wettability of the surface.While the intended use of these ma-

terials has been as a coating on sur-faces that absorb hydrocarbons, some of the low-POSS microfiber non-woven mats electrospun by the researchers proved ideal for separating disper-sions of octane and water. “We hope to continue along these lines to develop separation schemes for the more chal-lenging case of hydrocarbon mixtures,” said MIT’s Anish Tuteja. If success-ful, this further research suggests the possibility of low-energy membranes replacing energy-intensive processes like distillation in certain liquid-liquid separations. The technology is patent pending under application serial num-ber U.S. 60/917012. ■

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11-16 CHE 2-08.indd 16 1/29/08 6:02:36 PM

Technical innovations in light emitting diodes (LEDs) and pho-tovoltaics have consistently re-flected the similarities between

the two technologies. In fact, research groups at many universities, such as the University of Michigan (Ann Arbor, Mich.; www.umich.edu) and the University of Southern California (USC; Los Angeles, Calif.; www.usc.edu), are studying both simultane-ously. With pressing consumer inter-est in affordable, energy-efficient and environmentally sustainable lighting, displays and energy sources, market demand is now leading industry to-ward synergistic breakthroughs.

Lighting and displaysIn some ways, as Brian D’Andrade of Universal Display Corp. (Ewing, N.J.) points out, commercial advances in white LEDs and OLEDs “can’t be slowed down” and are, in fact, “already here.” Firms like Guangzhou Bright Lighting LED (Vancouver, Canada) are currently offering ‘omni-direc-tional’ 9-W LED bulbs with the com-parable output of a 50-W incandescent bulb, available in color temperatures between 3,000K (incandescent) and 6,000K (cool daylight). Others are of-fering equally competitive, recessed downlights, which in the case of LED Light Fixtures, Inc. (Morrisville, N.C.) are dimmable like conventional units. Rapid improvements in those LED technologies brought to market has led to the necessity of the U.S. Depart-

ment of Energy’s (DOE; Washington, D.C.) Commercially Available LED Product Evaluation and Reporting (or CALiPER) Program (www.netl.doe.gov/ssl/comm_testing.htm). Tasked with providing “unbiased product per-formance information,” CALiPER has developed standards for accurately gauging luminous flux from LEDs, as well as accounting for ambient tem-perature changes and thermal effects specific to the device in which the bulb is installed. As can be seen from its most recent round of product testing, white LEDs have made prodigious leaps over the past year in recessed downlight applications (graph, p. 18).

According to research firm Nano-Markets LC (Glen Allen, Va. www.nanomarkets.net), new developments in silicon nanocrystals and printed silicon are expected to challenge the role of organic materials in flexible optoelectronics and photovoltaics. But industry experts are doubtful in the case of OLEDs. “OLED technology is already very mature,” says Ansgar Werner, senior manager in Novaled’s (Dresden, Germany) OLED R&D group. “Solution-processed or printed silicon is certainly no material for LED (too-low band-gap, hardly emissive, and so on).” In addition, many familiar with the two technologies also foresee OLEDs and ‘regular’ inorganic-LEDs etching out their own separate and lu-crative niches in the marketplace, due to their divergent form factors and relative strengths.

OLEDs can be made as broad lumi-nescent surfaces that are transparent when inactive, flexible and lightweight. These features lend them well to back-lighting for displays, ePaper applica-tions, and architecturally integrated lighting such as windows that shine in the evening. In an early application, General Electric’s GELcore subsidiary, which is now known as Lumination (Valley View, Ohio), marketed its OLED materials as self-lighting displays for museum artifacts. Apple’s recent pat-ent for an OLED keyboard promises keys that change to suit different al-phabets, characters and application shortcuts. The same properties that allow for transparent OLEDs also facil-itates sharper image quality in OLED displays, because red, blue and green diodes can be stacked on top of one an-other instead of clustered side by side. Although the first stacked RGB OLED node was patented by USC’s Thomp-son group in the mid-90’s, a flat-panel OLED TV (photo, p. 20) only hit the market this past year. One barrier to market has been that, while blue phos-phorescents had proven themselves to be theoretically 100% light-emission efficient compared to blue fluorescent’s 25%, they tended to degrade quickly over time. Konica Minolta (Tokyo) re-solved this issue in June 2006, with the development of a phosphorescent blue that gave the firm’s white-OLEDs a 10,000-h lifetime and a luminous ef-ficiency to rival compact fluorescent bulbs (64 lm/W compared to an average

17

Newsfront

Technical innovations in light emitting diodes (LEDs) and pho-tovoltaics have consistently re

ment of Energy’s (DOE; Washington, D.C.) Commercially Available LED

Newsfront

PHOTONS TO ELECTRONS,

& VICE VERSAAdvances in light-emitting diodes

and solar cells are boosting both technologies

compact fluorescent’s 60-100 lm/W).Traditional inorganic-LEDs, by con-

trast, deliver sharper less-diffused beams of light, making them ideal for point-lighting applications like street lamps and automotive headlights. This year, three major automobiles will hit the market featuring full LED head-lamps: the Audi R8, the Lexus LS600h and the Cadillac Escalade Platinum. In anticipation of the growing demand, Showa Denko K.K. (Tokyo) is investing $10.6 million to scale up the produc-tion of its aluminum-gallium-indium-phosphide (AlGaInP) ultrabright LED chips from 100 to 200 million units-per-month by the end of 2008. In street lamps, LEDs would replace high-pres-sure sodium lamps approximately quadrupling the time between replace-ments to an amount in excess of 50,000 hours (or 10 years). LED street lights would also contain no environmentally hazardous mercury and could help to reduce light pollution as a consequence of the sharp, focused quality of their beams. Controlled dimming of street-lights has also been considered since LEDs warm-up radically faster than high-pressure sodium lamps.

There are thermal and electrical ob-stacles to be overcome before the wide adoption of LEDs takes place in these high luminosity (<12,000 lm) contexts, however. Though LEDs produce more light-per-unit energy than traditional bulbs, their waste heat is highly local-ized around the miniscule semiconduc-tor components that convert electricity to photons. Due to that concentration, it is not as easily transferred as the heat radiating off a traditional lamp’s large exposed surface. These thermal issues evolve into environmental chal-lenges when the devices are intended for outdoor use — where something like the possibility of a bird nesting over a vital heat exhaust can threaten to permanently damage an LED fix-ture. Recently, Gordon Routledge of Dialight Lumidrives (York, U.K.) and Roger Shuttleworth of the University of Manchester’s (www.manchester.ac.uk) electrical engineering depart-ment have partnered to address these challenges. As Paul Drzaic president-elect of the Society for Information Dis-play (San Jose, Calif., www.sid.org) and chief technology officer for Unidym,

Inc. (Menlo Park, Calif.) has noted, “a lot of smart people are worrying” about the thermal management problems.

LEDs smaller size relative to OLEDs also makes them likely candi-dates for retrofitting into ‘Edison bulb’ sockets, thus competing directly with incandescent and compact fluorescent bulbs — a fact not lost on large players in the lighting industry. In 2007 alone, Royal Philips Electronics (Amster-dam, Netherlands) spent $4.3 billion in the purchasing of five LED lighting companies (including Genlyte Group Inc. and TIR Systems Ltd.), surpass-ing General Electric as the largest supplier of lighting to the U.S. market. The Netherlands-based firm supplied Times Square with a 9,000-bulb LED ball for its 2008 New Year’s celebra-tion and was also competing to sup-ply color-tuning LEDs for the top of the Empire State Building. (The firm was competing against Color Kinetics, which it also bought in 2007.)

Adding to these high-profile PR-spectacles, Philips has been vocal in its call to institute a federally legis-lated phase-out of incandescent bulbs. With plans to develop and market new generations of energy-efficient incandescent bulbs, GE has publicly been advocating a more free-market approach to such a phase-out. As one researcher phrased it, it would seem that emerging LED technologies are “more competing with the incumbent” than with OLEDs.

With respect to monitors and dis-plays, however, other emerging tech-nologies are vying with OLEDs for position, namely hybrid organic/inor-ganic LEDs featuring quantum dot

(QD) lumiphores. First developed by Vladimir Bulovic at MIT (Cambridge, Mass.), “Quantum dots (as emitter) are the inorganic components closest to application” in hybrid displays, ac-cording to Novaled’s Werner. QD Vision (Watertown, Mass.), a firm developing the technology with Bulovic on its Sci-entific Advisory Board, estimates that it could produce a marketable QD-LED cell phone display within three years, promising more vivid colors and greater energy efficiency than OLED displays. While “hybrid structures are realistic,” Werner emphasizes that, “today many printed inorganic materi-als need high temperature annealing, rendering them incompatible with or-ganic layers and flexible substrates.” The sentiment is common among other OLED researchers as well. Due to the required high-temperature an-nealing, inorganics must be deposited first in any hybrid process, affecting the cost, the flexibility of the manufac-turing sequence and what substrates can be used.

These are the kind of obstacles that have encouraged OLED research-ers to pursue fully organic methods. While the prospect of paper-thin, flex-ible monitors, self-illuminating plastic surfaces and wearable solar cells all have an obvious marketing appeal, the real benefit of flexible electronics from an industrial standpoint has con-sistently been roll-to-roll processing. Traditionally, when indium tin oxide (ITO) is used as an electrode in OLED devices or photovoltaic cells, the place-ment of the material on glass or plas-tic requires a vacuum chamber, sput-tering tools, and roughly a 1-ft/min

18 ChemiCal engineering www.Che.Com February 2008

Newsfront

* Values for SSL downlights are from CALiPER testing.** Values for CFL and incandescents are assembled from CALiPER testing, earlier photometric testing and

product catalogs (of 45W-65W incandescent products and CFL equivalents).*** A fixture efficiency of 0.9 is applied to all replacement lamps unless tested inside a fixture.

The downlight results from the U.S. Department of Energy’s Commercially Available LED Product Evaluation and Reporting (or CALiPER) Program underscore the tech-nology's maturation

Source: DOE SSL CALiPER Program, Round 3, October 2007

07_CHE_021508_NF1.indd 18 1/30/08 2:23:03 PM

processing speed. In effect, the slow processing requirements and the ex-pense of the equipment itself combine to significantly lower the amortization rate on the equipment and reduce the return on investment. Flexible elec-trode alternatives like carbon nano-tubes (CNT) can be deposited at room temperature, with faster and cheaper printing techniques akin to conven-tional newspaper publishing.

Organic and inorganic solar cellsIn 1997, phosphorescent OLED tech-nology had not developed efficiencies that were comparable to those of fluo-rescents, though many paths toward improvement had been proven at a re-search level. Within three years, rapid advances in new materials were facili-tating innovative design architectures for OLED devices. According to USC’s Mark Thompson, “where we are in or-ganic photovoltaics, today, in terms of intellectual development is not far off from where we were with OLEDs ten years ago.”

Currently, organic photovoltaic (OPV) cells operate at efficiencies be-tween 2/3 and 1/2 of dye-sensitized or Grätzel solar cells and about 1/3 to 1/4 the efficiency of the average, com-mercially available silicon-based solar panel. However, OPVs carry with them the promise of simple and cost-effec-tive tandem-polymer solar cells. Tan-dem solar cells are a series of linked solar cells, each with different absorp-tion characteristics capable of collect-ing the most energy from photons in a different range of the solar spectrum. Silicon-based solar cells can absorb a wide range of photons within the vis-

ible spectrum of light, but the material translates them all into red wavelength, lower energy photons. This energy is effectively lost as heat in the cell.

The breakthrough development in stacked OPV research came from a team lead by Kwanghee Lee and Alan J. Heeger who were able to fabricate a two-layer OPV system composed of

semiconducting polymers and fuller-ene derivatives via all-solution pro-cessing. Though only power-conversion efficiencies of over 6% were achieved at illuminations of 200 mW/cm2, each tandem cell was absorbing more en-ergy from photons within its respec-tive wavelength range. The team also noted that the OPV materials could “be

ChemiCal engineering www.Che.Com February 2008 19

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Companies Lighting the Way

Nichia edlinks.che.com/7369-561Lumination edlinks.che.com/7369-562Cree edlinks.che.com/7369-563Philips edlinks.che.com/7369-564Lumileds edlinks.che.com/7369-565Novaled edlinks.che.com/7369-566Universal Display edlinks.che.com/7369-567Unidym edlinks.che.com/7369-568Osram edlinks.che.com/7369-569Dupont Displays edlinks.che.com/7369-570Konarka edlinks.che.com/7369-571Air Products edlinks.che.com/7369-572GBL LED edlinks.che.com/7369-573Applied Materials edlinks.che.com/7369-574QD Vision edlinks.che.com/7369-575Q-Cells edlinks.che.com/7369-576LED Light Fixtures, Inc. edlinks.che.com/7369-577Dialight Lumidrives edlinks.che.com/7369-578Konica Minolta edlinks.che.com/7369-579Showa Denko K.K. edlinks.che.com/7369-580Sony edlinks.che.com/7369-581

07_CHE_021508_NF1.indd 19 1/30/08 2:23:47 PM

fabricated to extend over large areas by means of low-cost printing and coating technologies that can simultaneously pattern the active materials on light-weight flexible substrates.”

The Lee/Seeger technology is now one of the key patents for Konarka (Lowell, Mass.), which his begun en-tering into deals with other firms to market its flexible OPV cell technology (photo, p. 17). Having been awarded a grant from the National Institute of Standards and Technology (Gaith-ersburg, Md., www.nist.gov), the firm joined with Air Products (Allentown, Pa.) in October to create a translu-cent OPV window — seen more as competition with ordinary windows than with lower cost-per-watt cells. “We’re not selling high efficiency and not lower prices,” Konarka’s chairman and cofounder Howard Berke told the Lux Research conference on nanotech-nology. “It’s the patterns, colors, the aesthetic attributes that make a prod-

uct more valuable than just the power it produces.”

This past October, Konarka also en-tered into licensing agreements with Dupont Displays (Wilmington, Del.) for the sole rights within the OPV field to use key patents that Dupont and the University of California at Santa Barbara (www.ucsb.edu) had devel-oped for OLED displays. The patent licensing is reminiscent of a decision made that same month by Applied Materials (Santa Clara, Calif.) to con-vert its LCD-display processing equip-ment for the processing of amorphous silicon solar cells, selling equipment to solar industry giant Q-Cell (Bitter-feld-Wolfen, Germany).

Though OPV technology promises economical manufacturing, thin-film techniques for traditional crystalline silicon and amorphous-silicon PV cells still hold major energy conversion re-cords and are the most mature tech-nologies on the market. Nanomarkets

has forecast that the thin-film PV mar-ket will grow from $1 billion in 2007 to $7.2 billion in 2015, with 75% of that total attributed to large projects and utilities, commercial and industrial facilities, and residential buildings. These figures are echoed by Pho-ton Research Associates (San Diego, Calif.), which estimates that thin-film PV will have a 63% compound annual growth rate into 2010.

Last summer a consortium headed by DuPont and the University of Dela-ware (Newark, Del.; www.udel.edu) developed a silicon PV with a record efficiency of 42.8% by optically sepa-rating the light into three groupings of similar photons before being absorbed by the cell. The technique, funded under DARPA’s Very High Efficiency Solar Cell (VHESC) program, would allow silicon cells to compete in poten-tial future efficiency with OPVs, be-cause the novel optical design circum-vents the need to mechanically stack a Si PV to fully absorb energy from a range of photons.

R&D synergies Optoelectronic materials, whether they are emitting light or absorbing light, find themselves in a highly competitive field today with many promising new technologies. Research into new mate-rials has created more efficient designs for existing technologies like solar cells, LEDs and displays. Furthermore, the structural similarities between these display, energy-collecting and lighting devices have facilitated a ‘cross-pol-lination’ of technical innovations and unexpected economies of scale. While other factors such as resource markets will be a determining factor in how the field develops, the scope of research interest in academia and industry sug-gests a high potential for many signifi-cant breakthroughs to come. ■

Matthew Phelan

20 ChemiCal engineering www.Che.Com February 2008

Newsfront

Circle 18 on p. 62 or go to adlinks.che.com/7369-18

Sony's 11-in. OLED HDTV, the XEL-1, offers a 1,000,000:1 contrast ratio, 1080p resolution and >100% NTSC color reproduction

07_CHE_021508_NF1.indd 20 1/30/08 2:24:30 PM

Asset management means differ-ent things to different people in the chemical process industries (CPI). Some take a holistic view

in which equipment operations and maintenance, planning and schedul-ing and all other processing proce-dures fall under the asset manage-ment umbrella. Others focus solely on physical equipment and assets.

To make it more diverse, asset management needs differ according to facility type. For instance, brown-fields should use asset management programs to increase efficiency and provide the ability to react to the market, despite existing constraints. “In other words, existing facilities need asset management programs to help them become more agile in the face of obstacles,” explains Elinor Price, director of product marketing for chemicals with AspenTech (Bur-lington, Mass.). While new plants, which tend to be large, high-capacity facilities designed to be reactive, need to utilize their assets to make more pounds of product in the most cost effective manner. “This approach re-quires a different type of asset man-agement,” notes Price.

A tool for survivalWhatever the asset management needs of a company, the current eco-nomic and labor conditions in the CPI

are making asset management a vital tool for survival.

The high cost of energy and the in-creasing price of raw materials have created a difficult working environ-ment for chemical companies. “Mak-ing it more challenging is the fact that processors can’t increase their fin-ished product prices to customers as quickly as they have experienced their own price increases,” says Gary Tray-lor, senior vice president and head of chemical practices at Celerant (Lex-ington, Mass.). “Difficulties maintain-ing a margin have forced processors to very intensely focus on efficiency and cost management.”

Another factor is the labor situa-tion. During the downsizing of the 1990s, chemical companies trimmed away younger talent and kept senior workers due to union requirements. As a result, the chemical industry is faced with a demographic profile that includes 20% of the workforce retir-ing each year so that in the next three years, 50 to 60% of the workforce will be replaced with younger, inexperi-enced people.

“If you talk to folks in management, they are really concerned about the ability of this younger set to main-tain the integrity of the plant,” says Traylor. “They worry that if they don’t create an asset management plan now, the ‘newbies’ won’t be able to

walk into the plant and keep it going.” On the bright side, companies that

take asset management seriously, en-grain it into the workplace culture and link it to their business practices can not only survive these threats, but prosper despite them. The most obvious benefit is greater availabil-ity of equipment and labor. While the narrow view of this is increased uptime, it actually has far greater implications. More available and pro-ductive uptime often has a positive influence on unit costs, which lowers per-pound production costs and ulti-mately allows these cost decreases to be passed onto the customer in the form of lower product pricing. This, in turn, increases the company’s market share, according to Traylor.

“It’s critical to think of the strategic implications of asset management,” notes Traylor. “I see chemical proces-sors out there who are aggressive in asset management taking market share away from those who are less aggressive. There really is a linkage of how important asset management is to overall business, sustainability and growth.”

However to carry out an asset management program to this level of success, visibility of equipment information and performance data, and some type of standardization are mandatory.

21

Newsfront

A proactive asset-management program helps processors get more from their facilities, despite obstacles

MAKING THE MOST OF WHAT YOU’VE GOT

Data + visibility = knowledgeCollecting, studying and providing ac-cess to information about equipment is vital to any asset management pro-gram for two reasons. First visibility of diagnostic information allows tech-nicians to make better decisions about when and where to apply predictive and preventive maintenance. Second, performing these tasks ultimately helps avoid unplanned downtime and increases equipment availability.

“Technicians in chemical processing facilities need access to information about everything equipment related,” says Moin Shaikh, an automation and asset management expert at Siemens (New York, N.Y.). “All of this informa-tion has to be logged into the system and then studied over time in order for technicians to use it for the ultimate goal of improving overall efficiency and utilization of assets.”

Jeffrey Vasel, global asset optimiza-tion manager for ABB’s Process Au-tomation Division (Wickliffe, Ohio), agrees that visibility of information is critical and adds that integration of this information is also necessary.

“Because many chemical processors have a variety of vintages of equip-ment, as well as equipment from mul-tiple manufacturers, it is important for them to have a way to integrate all the information collected from these various assets into one view for opera-tors, maintenance, production and en-gineering people,” notes Vasel.

He explains how one customer uses integration to combine three different maintenance systems into one. The firm has a vibration analysis system, a route-based maintenance program that uses handheld thermography equipment and a data-collection sys-tem that gathers realtime information about different devices throughout the facility. ABB’s 800xA asset-opti-mization product is used to integrate information collected from the three disparate programs into one view. On a daily basis, the maintenance techni-cians look at the information collected and integrated by the system to drive their maintenance schedules.

Chris Stearns, who is responsible for operator effectiveness and main-tenance effectiveness with Honeywell (Morristown, N.J.), says Honeywell

also tries to provide visualization and integration to the end user, but in a mobile fashion. “We are big on mobil-ity solutions that allow field opera-tors to interact with automated pro-cedures, collect data and bring it back into the asset management solution easily,” he says.

Honeywell’s Mobile PKS technol-ogy offers a wireless mobile produc-tivity solution that extends access to critical process information, historical data, graphics and other key func-tions beyond the control room. Mobile PKS technology allows engineering, operations and maintenance person-nel to capture process data directly from field devices, as well as validate and share information at the point of collection. Combined with other Mo-bile PKS solutions, such as IntelaTrac PKS — an integrated software and hardware solution for wireless field data collection and asset manage-ment that enables users to integrate field data with data from multiple other sources, including production, process control and work manage-ment systems — the handheld access to process data allows users in the field to view the latest plant informa-tion while on the move, enhancing op-erational performance, says Stearns.

Making information available throughout a facility and integrat-ing process information into plant systems and applications, helps give field users the tools and information necessary to identify failures and causes that may previously have gone unrecorded. It can also open the door

for further investigation of a system’s reliability, explains Stearns. How-ever, David Ochoa, director of stra-tegic planning with Emerson’s Asset Optimization division (Austin, Tex.), warns that diagnostic, visibility and integration tools are just that — tools. “We find with our customers that just having the tools isn’t sufficient. Many customers purchased diagnostic tech-nologies and programs for visibility as part of a system but they aren’t actu-ally using it,” he says. “In facilities like this they need to make a business case for rewriting the maintenance proce-dures to include use of the technology so someone gets a work order telling them to look at the information before heading into the field.”

Experts agree that this type of preparation helps on several levels. Obviously necessary, and only nec-essary, repairs are tackled before catastrophic, productivity-stopping breakdown occurs, but on a more ad-vanced level it helps with the labor issues plaguing the industry. Because there are fewer technicians in the plant, having a system that provides information on a timely basis about what actually needs to be done allows better management of the resources that are available.

“We hear all the time how guys hate it when they get a work order and don’t have all the information about the tools necessary for the job,” says Marc Carlson, industry principal with SAP (Newtown Square, Pa.). “This means they have to waste time going back to the shop for a different part or a piece

22 ChemiCal engineering www.Che.Com February 2008

Newsfront

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of personal protective equipment. But, if the system in place provides the in-formation in a coordinated and inte-grated environment where all the data and requirements are included in the maintenance plan, the guy who is turn-ing the bolts knows what he needs and can get the job done efficiently. The machine will be available when needed and is repaired in a timely fashion, which helps reduce costs.”

Actually applying data collection tools and asset optimization products can also help gather workforce knowl-edge and prepare chemical proces-sors for the future. “As the workforce is heading for retirement, capturing their expert knowledge is crucial to survival,” says Vasel. “Smart proces-sors are beginning to have these guys program information about when equipment breaks down, what situ-ations occur that make an asset go bad and how or when to correct the situation into an asset management system. Basically it gets important information out of their heads into a working program where other, new technicians can share it.”

Standardization growingWhile obtaining and actually employ-ing technology for data collection, vis-ibility and integration is a step in the right direction. Experts say the differ-ence between the leaders and everyone else is how comprehensive and consis-tent the definitions and processes are.

“It’s common to go from plant to plant within a company and find their strategies are very different,” says

Traylor. “Even within a plant, there may be differences from line to line, operator to operator and maintenance tech to maintenance tech. Operators may interpret parameters differently and maintenance technicians may pri-oritize tasks differently. Simply put, there’s an utter lack of standardization in many facilities and companies.”

He says this causes a lot of variabil-ity, which leads to poor performance of equipment. If an operator on one shift sets parameters differently than the person on the next shift and if one parameter is incorrect, the equipment will trip or fail and then the technicians repair the equipment subjectively or with the wrong components. “Not hav-

ChemiCal engineering www.Che.Com February 2008 23

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21-24 CHE 2-08.indd 23 1/29/08 6:27:47 PM

ing standard operating procedures or maintenance techniques creates a huge amount of disparity throughout an organization, which leads to vari-ability in performance and poor asset management,” explains Traylor.

Instead, he says, leaders standardize all their approaches in the plant. This means they have common definitions of critical assets and how to operate and repair them, as well as common strategies for the purchase and pro-curement of what is considered across the board to be critical equipment.

“There’s a host of asset management strategies related to standardization, including how to organize support re-sources, health and safety and supply chain. And the more standardization within the plant and across the com-pany, the better your technical re-sources can support the plant organi-zation and create more leverage out of the available talent and equipment,” stresses Traylor. “There are a lot of benefits if you tackle asset manage-ment in a way that standardizes true best practices and focuses on gaining leverage from the commonalities.”

Standardization can also sim-plify things for a less experienced workforce. “It’s easier and faster to train people if there are fewer types

of pumps to learn how to fix and if there is only one procedure used to fix them,” says SAP’s Carlson. An added bonus is that if there’s just one set of parameters when operating a piece of processing equipment, production rate and quality should remain consistent, he adds. “When there are standard-ized, set procedures for everything in the plant and visibility and access to those procedures are provided, things run smoothly and assets perform at their peak,” says Carlson.

Reaching a new levelWhile many of the above-mentioned tips will help get existing plants into shape, planning for asset manage-ment when a facility or line is being built is a new way to manage assets that many processors are only now be-ginning to take.

“Our engineering and design prod-ucts have long been used during the design of a processing plant, but it wasn’t until recently that customers in the chemical industry began request-ing that the models created during the design of the plant be made available as part of the deliverable package so they can be used during the produc-tion process,” says AspenTech’s Price.

She says the very detailed models

of the plant can be used for decid-ing which feedstocks can and should be selected because the models help users understand how equipment will react to a certain feedstock. They can also use models for sched-uling to understand what is the best sequence to optimize the yield of fin-ished product.

“It used to be that the engineering models were put on a shelf, but now they are taking them and using them to optimize the planning and sched-uling or the realtime optimization of a control system. This type of activ-ity shows that asset optimization is reaching a whole new level.”

Other experts agree. “Asset man-agement has taken on a new role in chemical processing. It’s no longer just about maintaining a critical piece of equipment,” says Carlson from SAP. “It’s about using the available tools, whether they are CAD drawings, di-agnostic technologies, or software for visibility and integration, to become more proactive in your approaches to equipment availability and process planning. For new and existing plants, asset management is all about being more proactive and getting the most from what you have available.” ■

Joy LePree

24 ChemiCal engineering www.Che.Com February 2008

Newsfront

ImprovIng Safety and operatIonal performance

When a process is disrupted at a facility, it costs money and time. When a process goes out of control it can harm people, the environment and company’s repu-tation and profits. For this reason, Honeywell helped

form the Abnormal Situation Management (ASM) Consortium. The team of 12 companies and universities has conducted re-search at member sites into root causes of incidents and ways to detect precursors of abnormal situations, prevent incidents and more effectively manage assets.

The ASM consortium has pinpointed three key asset-man-agement areas: prevention, early detection and mitigation of abnormal situations. • According to the consortium, prevention includes proactive maintenance of equipment and process tools, procedures and training to prevent human error. The consortium has researched how operators interact and communicate with one another. Studies show that in many cases, written procedures for activities such as startup are out of date or incomplete. Research also demonstrates that many companies are having difficulty hiring new operators to replace the older workforce. Based on this information, Honey-well suggests use of better operator training tools and software, such as simulation technology, which allows operators to practice managing abnormal and infrequent situations, which is the way airline pilots are trained

• Early detection, according to the consortium, alerts operators to possible abnormal situations. Research into the effectiveness of various advanced techniques for detection of the onset of abnor-mal situations has led Honeywell to deploy solutions that send the operator an alert well before an alarm would have occurred. This type of early warning can be crucial in allowing the operator to investigate and take pre-emptive action to avert a problem• Tools, procedures and training to help operators take swift and appropriate action, defined as mitigation by the consortium, is the third area of attention. It is important to provide quick and easy access to information needed by operators in the control room as they try to mitigate abnormal situations. However, according to the consortium, this is often lacking, leaving operators ill equipped to diagnose and manage major problems and emergencies. These findings led to recommendations about when, where and how to present information on schematic displays, how to link displays and how to sensibly arrange a hierarchy of displays to avoid excessive display call ups. The consortium has developed more than 80 guidelines for this issue. On-site research has demon-strated that when operators follow the guidelines, they perform tasks much more quickly and complete some tasks that otherwise would not be completed. The end results, according to consortium literature, often have a positive financial impact. More information can be found at www.asmconsortium.com ❏

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This bearing protection ring lasts for the life of the motorA split-ring version (photo) of the Aegis SGR Bearing Protection Ring comes in halves for easy installation. For variable frequency drive controlled a.c. and d.c. motors, the SGR split ring protects bearings from electrical dam-age caused by circulating or shaft cur-rents. This maintenance-free ring lasts for the life of the motor, independent of speed. Its conductive microfibers work with virtually no friction or wear and are unaffected by dirt, grease and other contaminants. It is available with mounting hardware in sizes to accommodate motor shafts with di-ameters up to 6-in. By shunting shaft currents to ground, the SGR prevents “bearing least resistance” and reduces noise, vibration, bearing failure and motor failure. — Electro Static Tech-nology, Mechanic Falls, Maineedlinks.che.com/7369-331

Oils and coolants will not affect these rotary encoder collarsThis standard line of rotary encoder collars (photo) can be mounted on vir-tually any shaft to provide speed-sens-ing capability from their outer diame-ter or face using a variable reluctance sensor. Made of anodized aluminum, these fully-split, two-piece designs come in 11 standard sizes from ½-in. I.D. by 2-in. O.D. or 3-in. I.D. by 4.5-in. O.D., and either 12, 20 or 24 steel tar-gets. Unaffected by oils and coolants, these encoder collars are suitable for a wide range of new and retrofit ap-plications. Special bore configurations, target locations and custom sizes are also offered. — Stafford Manufactur-ing Corp., North Reading, Mass.edlinks.che.com/7369-332

Create matte, satin and other fine finishes on metalsFor finishing surfaces, the PTX Eco Smart finishing machine (photo) has balanced straight-line handling, high

torque and electronic speed control. It produces matte, satin and other fine surfaces up to a mirror finish on steel, stainless steel and nonferrous metals. The PTX is also suitable for coarse grinding jobs such as removing welds, deep scratches, oxidation, rust and paint, as well as for polishing inside corners. It has an abrasive mounting system that eliminates vibration, and the grinding and polishing wheels can be changed in seconds. The finned-shaft design of this finisher makes it vibration-free during operation and ensures 100% concentricity. — CS Unitec, Norwalk, Conn.edlinks.che.com/7369-333

This pressure sensor is ideal for high-purity applicationsThe AST4900 (photo) measures pres-sure in gases and liquids in high-pu-

rity applications. Krystal Bond Tech-nology eliminates the need for oil-fill, welds and internal O-rings to avoid contamination, and the sensing ele-ment is made of electropolished 316L stainless steel. Available in ¼-in. NPT male and ¼-in. VCR male fittings, the AST4900 can be scaled with pressure ranges of 0–25 psi to 0–10,000 psi. In addition to high-level voltage, current and frequency output signals, the unit can be packaged with cable, DIN 43650 and Bendix electrical connec-tions. Able to withstand over 100 mil-lion pressure cycles, the AST4900 is suitable for test stands, semiconduc-tor-processing equipment, gas-pipe-line instrumentation, data loggers, panels and manifolds. — American Sensor Technologies, Inc., Mount Olive, N.J.edlinks.che.com/7369-334

24D-1

FEBRUARY

Note: For more information, circle the 3-digit number on p. 62, or use the website designation.

Electro Static Technology

Stafford Manufacturing

CS Unitec

American Sensor Technologies

Parker Hannifin

This tubing is suitable for use with most harsh chemicalsThis fluoropolymer FEP and PFA tub-ing (photo, p.24D-1) can be formed and welded into heat exchanger transport lines that offer a non-stick, bac-teria-free transport of deion-ized water and other cor-rosive media. With less than 0.01% moisture absorption, this tub-ing can withstand most harsh chemi-cals. The FEP and PFA tubing can op-erate in tempera-tures up to 260°C and has the lowest coefficient of fric-tion of any tube available, accord-ing to the manufac-turer. Product sizes range from 1/8- to 4-in. inner diam-eter. — Parker Hannifin Corp., Forth Worth, Tex.edlinks.che.com/7369-335

EtherNet/IP connectivity is featured on this I/O moduleThe CompactBlock Guard I/O on EtherNet/IP (photo) is said to be the industry’s first safety I/O module to feature EtherNet/IP connectivity. The CompactBlock Guard allows the use of the industry standard Ether-Net/IP protocol in conjunction with safety PLCs that incorporate the CIP safety protocol over EtherNet/IP. It detects failures at the I/O and field-device level, while enhancing opera-tor protection in many applications, including robotic, point-of-operation, guard-monitoring and remote-control applications. — Rockwell Automation, Milwaukee, Wis.edlinks.che.com/7369-336

This efficient chiller eliminates maintenance-related downtimeWith continuous cooling capacities of 2500 W, this recirculating chiller is ideal for diverse applications, includ-ing semiconductor, packaging, analyti-cal instrumentation, laser, laboratory, medical and research applications. The Neslab ThermoFlex 2500 unit (photo) incorporates a recirulation system with an integrated funnel, full flow fil-

tration and visual fluid-level in-dication. For easy maintenance, the air and fluid filters on Ther-moFlex units can be changed while the equipment is running to eliminate downtime. Accord-ing to the manufacturer, efficien-cies achieved with the new plat-form design provide up to 20% more cooling than units of similar size and power. The chillers can maintain tem-peratures from 5º to 40ºC. — Thermo Fisher Scientific, Newington, N.H.edlinks.che.com/7369-337

Grind, finish, blend and remove scratches from stainless steelThis company offers a full line of cot-ton fiber mounted points for remov-ing slag and splatter from welds on stainless steel and aluminum fabrica-tions. With a blend of aluminum oxide abrasives, the MS Plus line (photo) are suitable for light grinding, finish-ing and blending stainless steel up to a finish of 32 RMS. The units come in coarse, medium and fine grits, and in sizes of 3/8- to 2-in. dia. and 3/8- to 2-in. length. In addition to basic finish-ing, the MS Plus line is effective for removing scratches caused by carbide burrs, deburring holes, blending cor-ner welds, and breaking edges without removing the base metal. — Rex-Cut Products, Fall River, Mass.edlinks.che.com/7369-338

Diagnose machine failure early with this analyzerThe Datastick VSA-1225 Vibration Spectrum Analyzer enables facilities to use vibration analysis in predic-tive maintenance, allowing for the early diagnosis of potential machine failures. Based on the Windows Mo-bile/Pocket PC platform, this vibration analyzer and data collector includes the new Version 1.8 of the Datastick Spectrum software suite. The software records and displays vibration FFT spectra in acceleration, velocity and displacement displays, and now in a new vibration decibel display. The VSA-1225 hardware module attaches firmly to a HP iPAQ hx2400-series or hx2700-series handheld, combining computer power and 128 MB of data storage with sensor power, Datastick electronics, and interface. — Datastick Systems, Inc., Santa Clara, Calif.edlinks.che.com/7369-339

This screen handles separations from ¼ to 100 meshThe Megatex XD is the newest ad-

24D-2

New Products

lines that offer a non-stick, bac-teria-free transport of deion-ized water and other cor-rosive media. With less than 0.01% moisture absorption, this tub-ing can withstand most harsh chemi-cals. The FEP and

--

turer. Product sizes range from 1/8- to 4-in. inner diam tration and visual fluid-level in

Rockwell Automation

Thermo Fisher Scientific

Rex-Cut Products

dition to this company’s line of dry separation equipment, specifically designed to meet the screening re-quirements of high-volume applica-tions. The unit features a high capac-ity per square foot of screen cloth, a screen deck slope of six degrees, and an external drive cartridge. A quick opening discharge door provides ac-cess to each individual screen deck for inspection and quick change-out. The stacked multiple-deck track-access de-sign allows access to these individual screens without requiring all decks to be removed at once. With the ability to handle separations from ¼ to 100 mesh, the Megatex XD houses a single reaction cartridge with two spherical roller bearings designed for 200 h of service, a support shaft suspension system with industrial U-joint bear-ings, and low torsion center springs. —Rotex Global, LLC, Cincinnati, Ohioedlinks.che.com/7369-340

Liquid-liquid and solid-phase extraction in one systemThe Speedy system (photo) can fully automate solid-phase extraction (SPE) and liquid-liquid extraction (LLE) processes on one platform. Speedy provides state-of-the-art hardware tools for SPE, such as digi-tally controlled elution rates using positive or negative pressure, flow-rate measurement and the ability to handle all types of SPE hardware. LLE with various solvents is also available on Speedy using either a single tube vortexer for large volume extractions, or a multiposition vor-texer for smaller volumes. It can also

prepare the chromatography vials required for the analysis of extracted analytes, while delivering any dilu-tion required, sealing the vials and providing the option to load samples directly from the workbench through an injection port. — Zinsser Analytic GmbH, Frankfurt, Germanyedlinks.che.com/7369-341

Perform these tests to ensure earplug effectivenessVeriPRO technology allows safety managers to ensure employees are getting the most out of their hear-ing protection devices by measuring real-world attenuation of unmodified earplugs. Consisting of software and an optimized headset, VeriPRO de-

Circle 28 on p. 62 or go to adlinks.che.com/7369-2824D-3

Zinsser Analytic

termines the effectiveness of an ear-plug fit over a range of frequencies. The result, known as the Personal Attenuation Rating (PAR), identifies the actual protection an employee re-ceives from his or her earplug in each ear. The device offers two test proto-cols. The Complete Check runs testers through five frequencies to determine PAR. The Quick Check is a simplified test of earplug fit at one frequency, used as an easy pass/fail check for more frequent use. VeriPRO includes short training videos on proper fitting of earplugs. — Spherian Hearing Pro-tection, LLC, San Diego, Calif.edlinks.che.com/7369-342

The features of two attritors are combined in this combination millThe HAS-1/1-S combination attritor with vertical shaft adjustment (photo) combines the features of two of this company’s attritors. The vertical shaft adjustment feature is designed to ac-

commodate different sizes of grinding media. The drive system allows the user to switch easily between the high speed HAS system (1,700 rpm) with a side dis-charge and the conventional 1-S system (350 rpm) with a bottom discharge. The vari-able frequency controller includes an LCD operator interface module and is pro-grammed to display agitator rpm, and motor current and power for the close monitoring of processing conditions. — Union Process, Akron, Ohioedlinks.che.com/7369-343

This updated software version improves batch process designThe latest version of Proficy Batch Execution, Version 5.1 (photo, p. 24D-5), introduces a variety of fea-tures to simplify and improve the de-sign, maintenance and operation of

batch processes. Included in the re-lease are the Tabular Recipe Editor, ActiveX Controls, integration with the Proficy Process Systems, per-formance enhancements and ease-of-use features. The new ActiveX Control simplifies batch operation by allowing users to view the active phases of the recipes being executed, along with the key parameters that are being collected for each phase. — GE Fanuc, Charlottesville, Va.edlinks.che.com/7369-344

Circle 29 on p. 62 or go to adlinks.che.com/7369-29

24D-4 ChemiCal engineering www.Che.Com February 2008

New Products

Union Process

24D1-7 CHE 2-08.indd 4 1/29/08 6:32:49 PM

Measure moisture in difficult-to-analyze materialsFor the analysis of moisture, the Aquacounter AQL-2320 Automated Oil Evaporator Karl Fischer Titration System (photo) is designed to accu-rately take measurements in difficult samples like oil, grease, peanut butter, pain, resins, bonding agents and more. Using an azeotropic distillation solvent such as toluene or xylene, moisture is evaporated at a lower temperature to save money on Karl Fischer reagents. Samples are heated to 200ºC, and sol-vent is automatically added. Up to 20 samples can be held in the sample tray at once. — JM Science, Inc., Grand Is-land, N.Y.edlinks.che.com/7369-345

This particle characterizer utilizes a unique algorithmIn conjunction with Clemex (Lon-gueuil, Canada), this firm has created an improved PSA300 image-analysis system for particle characterization.

It features a unique algorithm to im-prove accuracy when defining the length and shape of fibers. With this algorithm, it separates crossing fibers as individual particles and assigns each one accurate size and shape pa-rameters. The PSA300 also has a new automated sample disperser for dry, free-flowing powder by breaking up agglomerates and providing a homo-geneous spread of sample across the slide. The disperser utilizes a vacuum, ensuring that individual particles are not damaged and that samples are not contaminated. — Horiba, Irvine, Calif.edlinks.che.com/7369-346

Harsh conditions will not stop this PLC from ideal performanceThe HEC-2000 PLC is the newest addition to the HEC family of Harsh Environment Controllers. It allows for programmable intelligence under less-than-ideal conditions, thanks to a sealed, watertight enclosure with pluggable connectors, and is submers- Circle 30 on p. 62 or go to

adlinks.che.com/7369-30 ChemiCal engineering www.Che.Com February 2008 24D-�

GE Fanuc

JM Science

24D1-7 CHE 2-08.indd 5 1/29/08 6:33:33 PM

ible to three feet. The HEC-2000 is programmed using this company’s EQ Ladder software, which supports ladder diagram with function block programming. Eight to 32 Vd.c. input power is standard, and I/O includes eight 8–32 Vd.c. inputs, two 40 kHz high-speed counters and eight digital/pulse-width modulation outputs rated to 3 A with automatic over-current safety and programmable-status mon-itoring for each. Network communica-tion is accomplished via a standard CAN port or an optional second se-rial communication port. — Divelbiss Corp., Fredericktown, Ohioedlinks.che.com/7369-347

These epoxy tougheners will not sacrifice material performanceThe Fortegra Epoxy Tougheners are low viscosity materials for use in amine, DICY, anhydride and phenolic-cured epoxy systems. They are suitable for any applications where properties of epoxies, such as adhesion, corrosion and chemical resistance are needed, but greater performance is required. Based on a specially-designed self-as-sembling block co-polymer that cre-ates the particles needed for toughen-ing the cured epoxy, Fortegra will not result in big changes to other proper-ties, including viscosity, cure speed or chemical resistance. The material is offered in four forms, based on a blend of one of two epoxy resins and the toughening material. — Dow Epoxy, Hong Kong, Chinaedlinks.che.com/7369-348

Expand segments without disturbing trunks The R2 RieldConnex Segment Pro-tectors (photo) can be disconnected while leaving trunk communications uninterrupted. Moreover, these mod-ules inherently prevent over-termi-nation that can cause start-up and commissioning problems. Providing IP20 protection with DIN rail mount-ing, offered in 4-, 6-, 8-, 10- and 12-spur configurations, the R2 Segment Protectors feature removable termi-nals with retaining screws, as well as bright LEDs for power, communi-cation and short circuit status indi-cation. Built-in test lead connections for the company's Mobile Advanced Diagnostics Module on each spur and trunk connector eliminate the risk of shorting as a result of incor-rect wiring.— Pepperl+Fuchs, Twinsburg, Ohioedlinks.che.com/7369-349

Repair metal with this compound prior to finishingA single-component metal repair and patching compound is now available from this company. Lab-Metal Repair (photo) requires no mixing and ap-plies easily. This compound repairs dents and voids, smooths weld beads, and hides cracks and other surface blemishes to make cosmetic repairs prior to metal finishing. After harden-ing, it can be milled, drilled, tapped, machined, sanded, coated and baked. Lab-Metal Repair is offered in 6-, 12-, 24- and 48-oz. cans, 1- and 5-gal pails,

and caulking tubes. — Dampney Com-pany, Inc., Everett, Mass.edlinks.che.com/7369-350

Achieve low-concentration gas mixtures with permeation tubesThe Trace Source Permeation Tubes are small Teflon tubes filled with pure component compound that emit a small, stable flow of pure component for making low-concentration (parts-per-million to parts-per-billion) gas mixtures. Flow is measured in nano-grams or nanoliters per minute and is varied by changing the temperature of the tube. Permeation tubes are avail-able for over 400 chemical compounds. Multiple forms of Trace Source are offered, including disposable perme-ation tubs, refillable permeation tubes, refillable gas-fed tubes, and extended life permeation tubes. — KIN-TEK Laboratories, Inc., La Marque, Tex.edlinks.che.com/7369-351

Perfectly pair servo drives and motors with this softwareMotionMatch software (photo, p. 24D-7) has recently been released for this company’s servo drives and motors. The combination of MotionMatch motor-sizing software and MotionView drive-configuration software is a pow-erful solution to motion-control man-agement. MotionMatch simplifies the process of pairing a servo drive and a motor, allowing the user to configure the drive easily. — Lenze-AC Tech, Ux-bridge, Mass.edlinks.che.com/7369-352

24D-� ChemiCal engineering www.Che.Com February 2008

New Products

Pepperl+Fuchs Dampney

24D1-7 CHE 2-08.indd 6 1/29/08 6:34:00 PM

Shaft-sealing solutions pump lubricant back to the bearingThe low-friction Waveseal shaft-seal-ing solutions (photo) feature a spe-cially molded lip to form a sinusoidal pattern around the shaft surface. This enables lubricant to be pumped back to the bearing for optimized lubricant retention while pushing dirt away from the lip/shaft surface. According to the manufacturer, the lip generates 25–35% less heat at the contact point, minimizing premature seal failure due to heat checking, blistering, hardening or lubricant breakdown. The Waveseal

Series is offered in nitrile- or fluoro-rubber to fit shaft diameters from 12 to 280 mm. A non-hardening polyac-rylate coating on the outside diameter of the seal compensates for small im-perfections in housing bores. — SKF USA, Inc., Kulpsville, Pa.edlinks.che.com/7369-353

Inspect and sort tablets quickly and accuratelyThe Proditec Visitab 2 automatic vi-sion inspection/sorting system (photo) provides fast and accurate checking for visual defects on pharmaceutical

tablets. It inspects for irregularities on all faces using a six-camera sys-tem to provide a 360-deg. view of each tablet, sorting at over 200,000 tablets per hour. Also available is the Proditec Inspectab 100, a smaller, more cost-effective model that is ideal for small to medium batches, processing 100 tablets per hour. Both units feature a versatile feeding and line-up system that adapts to all shapes and sizes of tablets without special tooling. — L. B. Bohle LLC, Warminster, Pa.edlinks.che.com/7369-354

Kate Torzewski

Circle 32 on p. 62 or go to adlinks.che.com/7369-32Circle 31 on p. 62 or go to adlinks.che.com/7369-31

24D-7

Lenze-AC TechSKF USA

L. B. Bohle

Journey on the path to greater sales in China’s CPI in 2008 As China rapidly takes leadership in the World Trade Organization and opens its markets to foreign competition, securing your presence is more critical than ever. Chemical Engineering is proud to present this exclusive opportunity to help you increase your sales in 2008.

Chemical Engineering, in collaboration with Process China, will publish two supplements this year (April and November). By compiling key articles from CE’s award-winning editorial roster and translating them into Mandarin Chinese, we offer your business the perfect opportunity to reach the powerful Chinese CPI market.

www.che.com

About Process China magazine

Translated into Chinese, this first-rate publication provides information on the latest technology, new products and market trends for the chemical, pharmaceutical, petrochemical and environmental sectors. Since 1998, it has grown to be the main information source for China’s CPI, reaching a targeted market of key decision-makers 8 times a year.

To learn about the specific demographics regarding Process China magazine, or to discuss this valuable marketing opportunity, contact:

NellA VeldrAN, VP & Publisher of Chemical engineering, nveldran@che.com

doN’t delAy! SPACe IS lImIted!

About the ChINA SuPPlemeNtS• the AudIeNCe

Chemical Engineering China Supplements deliver your sales message to 10,000 PlANt mANAGerS ANd eNGINeerS in China, the key decision-makers in all equipment and instrumentation purchases. By running ads in both April and November, your exposure doubles to 20,000!

• the ArtICleSThe supplements will contain practical, how-to articles that have been published by Chemical Engineering. These articles will review technology trends, present opportunities, and provide tips for doing business within China’s CPI.

• the AdVertISemeNtSAll ads will be translated into Mandarin, free of charge. Your message will be supported by CE’s world class editorial content, and the supplements will be perfect bound into Process China magazine for a professional finish.

China Supplements

13282

13282 China Suppl_CHE.indd 1 1/23/08 3:01:02 PMFILLER FULL PAGE 2-08.indd 1 1/30/08 3:28:50 PM

Measure material strain with this laser-based systemThis firm’s latest strain-measurement system, laserXtens (photo), has been successfully used for applications in chambers where materials are typi-cally exposed to temperatures from –70 to 250°C whilst being subjected to ten-sile or compression loads. The system measures biaxial strain without any specimen contact and without the need to attach any marks to the specimen. The sample surface is illuminated via laser-speckle interferometry, then as the load is applied, the speckle pattern is tracked by two digital cameras. Re-altime software algorithms convert the data directly into strain. This measure-ment technology has been shown to be immune to the effects of frost forma-tion on the sample. — Zwick GmbH & Co. KG, Ulm, Germanyedlinks.che.com/7369-390

Efficient heating for just about any size flaskAtlas Dry Bath is the latest addition to the Atlas family of modular syn-thesis products. Designed as a new method for heating round-bottomed flasks and vials, the Dry Baths avoid issues commonly associated with oil baths and stay safe-to-the-touch dur-ing operation. They are also compat-ible with leading brands of hotplates. Stacking Dry Bath (photo) has a series of concentric cups that accommodates flasks of varying volumes (from 50 mL to 1 L), and provide “excellent” ther-mal transfer for fast heating times. — Syrris Ltd., Royston, U.K.edlinks.che.com/7369-391

Extreme operating conditions are no problem for these tiny pumpsThis new range of miniature, ultra-low flow, positive-displacement, micro-annu-lar gear pumps are capable of dispens-ing a wide range of liquids with precise, smooth, pulse-free flows. The ultra-com-pact HNP Series (photo) deliver liquids

with a precision of Cv less than 1% across a flowrate range from 0.25 µL/min up to 1,152 mL/min, making them suitable for OEM, analytical, biotechnological and related applica-tions. The pumps handle differential pressures up to 150 bar, and offer long service life, thanks to the use of wear-resistant tungsten carbide and ceramics. — Michael Smith Engi-neers, Woking, Surry, U.K.edlinks.che.com/7369-392

Consider this valve when control is criticalAs the U.K. distributor for Badger Valves, this firm can supply control valves to meet the demands of chal-lenging applications. For a reverse osmosis application, for example, con-sider the RC250 barstock valve (photo) in Duplex stainless steel and an MC60 electrical actuator with three speed settings, which closes the valve over a 20-s time span to allow the pressure to drop at a steady rate. The RC250 barstock control valve is available in sizes of 1/4-, 1/2-, 3/4- and 1-in. sizes with a globe barstock body and handle pressures up to 340 bar. — Pump En-gineering Ltd., Littlehampton, U.K.edlinks.che.com/7369-393

Heat exchangers can benefit from this fluoropolymer tubingThis Fluoropolymer FEP and PFA tubing (photo) can be formed and welded into heat-exchanger transport lines that offer a nonstick, bacteria-free transport of deionized water and other corrosive media. Unlike steel, which is susceptible to corrosion and bacteria buildup, fluoropolymer tub-ing, with its more than 0.01% mois-ture absorption, withstands almost any harsh chemicals except those with fluorine and alkali metals, says the manufacturer. The tubing oper-ates in temperatures up to 260°C and is said to have the lowest coefficient of friction of any tubing available. — Parker/TexLoc, Parker Hannifin Corp., Ft. Worth, Tex.edlinks.che.com/7369-394

24I-1

FEBRUARY

Note: For more information, circle the 3-digit number on p. 62, or use the website designation.

Zwick

Syrris

Michael Smith Engineers

Pump Engineering

Parker/TexLoc, Parker Hannifin

A big valve for big applicationsThe demand for valves with large dimensions is increas-ing, and this firm has extended its unit-construction system to manufacture valves with DN 600 (photo), which are now also available in cast design. The valves can be used as anti-surge control valves for large turbo compressors and for starting and stopping the com-pressor in a controlled man-ner to protect it in the case of breakdown. This valve size is available in pressure classes DIN/EN DN600 PN16, 25 and 40, as well as DN 24 in. ANSI 150 and 300, in standard casings GP240GH/A216-WCB-216 or 1.4581/A351-CF8M, or in special ma-terials. DN 600 valves are suitable for water recycling plants, steelworks, petroleum refineries and huge chemi-cal plants. — ARCA-Regler GmbH, Tönisvorst, Germany edlinks.che.com/7369-395

Don’t waste costly ingredients with this granulatorThe Pharma Twin-screw Granulator (TSG; photo) is this firm’s first TSG specifically designed for pharmaceu-tical applications. The Pharma TSG eliminates batch variations and de-creases ingredient and equipment costs through a continuous mixing process, enabling operators to use smaller, more-precise amounts of ex-pensive ingredients. Key features in-clude: removable components (barrel liners and screws); high free volume; reduced scale up risks, and reduced in-process inventory. — Thermo Scien-tific Inc., Karlsruhe, Germanyedlinks.che.com/7369-396 Level control takes a completely new lookThis new range of level-control devices offers a new approach to level mea-surement. The Canty range of light, sight and camera devices (photo, p. 24I-4) has been developed to provide users with a realtime view of condi-tions inside process vessels, and there-fore has advantages and benefits over traditional liquid-level-measurement technologies, says the firm. A patented-

design of fiber optic cable is used to transmit a beam of light up to a 90 deg. angle, which illuminates the in-side of the vessel. A hermetically fused metal-to-glass window provides a 3-in. dia. viewing width, while being able to withstand temperatures up to 1,000°C and pressures over 600 bar. An Ether-net or analog camera mounted to the viewing window provides a realtime look inside the vessel. — Allison Engi-neering, Basildon, Essex, U.K. edlinks.che.com/7369-397

Take a close, accurate look at particle size and shapeMaking its Pittcon debut next month (New Orleans, La.; March 2–7) is the Morphologi G3 automated particle-characterization system (photo, p. 24I-4). The system provides microscopic quality images and delivers statis-tically significant particle size and shape information through the rapid analysis of hundreds of thousands of particles, with little or no user inter-vention. A major development in the Morphologi G3 is its novel, fully-inte-grated dry-powder dispersion system. Precise software control of all disper-sion parameters ensures highly repro-ducible dispersions with consistent and controlled particle orientation. The sample is completely enclosed, and the system allows easy dispensing from bulk materials and the prepara-tion of multiple aliquots. — Malvern Instruments, Malvern, U.K.edlinks.che.com/7369-398

Software to improve the efficiency of plant designThe latest release of the engineering

tool for plant design — Cadison R8 (photo, p. 24I-6) — is now available for making the work of users more efficient and faster. For example, a new material designer Isomat (for piping class) can be generated in about 4 h, compared to 3–4 d needed by conventional methods, says the firm. About 40 new functions have been added and 190 functions have been revised. With the help of In-ternet browsers and the new module, Engineer2Web, each entitled user can access the current planning conditions, regardless of the location or time. Spe-cial access procedures were developed to ensure that only authorized person-nel can change object information, or for entering new objects. — ITandFactory GmbH, Bad Soden, Germany edlinks.che.com/7369-399 A collaboration to improve the flow of laboratory informationTogether with Mettler Toledo (MT; Greifensee, Switzerland), this firm has introduced an integrated solution that is expected to improve the work-flow and the transfer of information in laboratories for many disciplines, including life science, chemistry, food and petrochemical industries. The two firms have collaborated to provide re-searchers the means to exchange data between precision instruments, includ-ing balances and titration instruments, and laboratory information-manage-ment systems (LIMS). The unique so-lution seamlessly integrates the firm’s SQL*LIMS with MT’s LabX Data Management Software. The combina-tion creates the ability to manage data more efficiently, while saving research-ers time and costs in day-to-day labo-

24I-2 ChemiCal engineering www.Che.Com February 2008

New Products

ARCA-Regler Thermo Scientific

24i1-7 CHE 2-08.indd 2 1/29/08 6:37:47 PM

www.robuschi.com

ROBUSCHI S.p.A. Via S. Leonardo, 71/a 43100 PARMA - ITALYItalia Tel. +39 0521 274911 Export Tel. +39 0521 274991 Fax +39 0521 771242

e-mail: robuschi@robuschi.it

NEWROBOX evolution ES 5:Compact Blower package forthe WWT industry• Complete range: from 240 up to 10.500 m3h.• Robuschi RBS 3 lobe P. D. Blower with a patented device to reduce the pulsations: LOW PULSE.• Low noise: < 5 d(B)A under all types of operating conditions.• ROBOX evolution ES 5 can be transported easily fully assembled without removing enclosure.

Easy oil check

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Sentinel: Electronicmonitoring system

• LOW PULSE • LOW NOISE

PUMPS AND BLOWERS

Circle 33 on p. 62 or go to adlinks.che.com/7369-33

24i-3 CHE 2-08.indd 1 1/15/08 4:10:39 PM

ratory processes, when compared to using instruments that are controlled by their own software and that operate independently of any information sys-tem. — Applied Biosystems, an Applera Corp. business, Warrington, U.K.edlinks.che.com/7369-400

Experts keep your GC/MS running with this remote serviceThis firm’s Intillegent Services remote instrument monitoring and diagnos-tics capability is now available for the 6890/7890 Series gas chromatograph (GC) systems and 5973/5975 Series GC-Mass Spectrometer systems. The Intelligent Services feature uses proven, secure IT technology to link instruments to the firm’s customer-support centers, where experts provide proactive technical support designed to address problems before they affect laboratory productivity. The Push-for-Help feature enables single-button requests for assistance, and the firm’s service engineers can remotely deter-mine the status of the system before responding. Realtime Collaboration allows engineers to open an ultra-se-cure remote desktop sharing session to provide advanced diagnostics to facilitate immediate, remote problem resolution. — Agilent Technololgies Europe, Waldbronn, Germanyedlinks.che.com/7369-401

Now there’s help for specifying a drive systemTo help smooth the process of speci-fying and ordering a.c. drives and re-lated ancillaries, this firm has intro-duced a configured-drives service that has been designed to meet the needs of a wide variety of industrial applica-

tions. The “starter” package includes a basic configured drive, input fusing, RFI filter and enclosure. The options are then designed to add functionality or features in line with the demands of the end application. These options can include power features, such as circuit breakers, isolators, I/O and bypass contactors and line reactors. Control and communications options include: control interfaces (analog and digital) and serial communications, such as DeviceNet, ControlNet and so on. Op-erator interfaces include HMIs, door-mounted devices and meters. Motor-interface options include encoders, resolvers, thermistors, RTDs, cooling blowers and space heaters. All config-ured drives are assembled and tested in accordance with ISO9001 and com-ply with EEC directives 73/23, 89/336 and EN 61800-3. — Rockwell Automa-tion Ltd., Milton Keynes, U.K. edlinks.che.com/7369-402

The latest software release can improve SIS developmentRelease 2.0 of exSILentia offers users several expanded and new functional-ity providing more efficient develop-ment of their safety-instrumented-sys-tem (SIS) life-cycle activities. Among the new functions are new plug-in capabilities; plug-in modules add functionality to exSILentia and can be licensed in combination with the exSILentia license. R2.0 now offers the following plug-in modules: PAH Import, which allows users to import data from third-party software; Cus-tom Proprietary Equipment Database, which allows the use of a proprietary equipment reliability database; and System SRS Creation with Cause &

Effect Matrix, which allows users to add a cause and effect matrix for each safety integrated function (SIF) when creating a Safety Requirements Speci-fication. — exida, LLC, Sellersville, Pa.edlinks.che.com/7369-403

Condensation does not bother this dewpoint transmitterThe DryCap Dewpoint and Tempera-ture Transmitter Series DMT340 is designed for industrial low-humidity applications, such as compressed-air drying and metal treatment. The Dry-Cap sensor is immune to particulate-matter contamination, water conden-sation, oil vapor and most chemicals. Since the sensor withstands conden-sation, its performance is “unmatched” for low-dewpoint applications that ex-perience water spikes in the process, says the manufacturer. The device’s stability is due to the patented auto-calibration function, which calibrates and adjusts the transmitter while the measured process is running. Dew-points from –60 to 80°C are measured with an accuracy of ±2°C. — Vaisala Oyj, Helsinki, Finland edlinks.che.com/7369-404

An idle exhaust-abatement system does not waste fuelThe Atlas and TPU families of com-bustion exhaust-management systems are now available with an "idle-mode" feature. Idle mode allows the abate-ment system to go into a standby mode with reduced fuel and water consump-tion when exhaust is not flowing from attached process equipment. When idle, the system only consumes fuel to maintain the pilot flame, and water to refresh the recirculation system once

Allison Engineering

Malvern Instruments

24I-4

New Products

an hour. On Atlas, these levels repre-sent a reduction of 89% for fuel and nearly 100% for water. Idle mode can also be provides as an upgrade to ex-isting TPU systems where even higher percentages of fuel reduction can be made, says the firm. The system moni-tors signals from process equipment to determine active and idle status. It en-ters idle mode automatically and can return to full operation status within 10 s. — Edwards, Wilmington, Mass.edlinks.che.com/7369-405

An RFID system alerts against pallet tamperingTogether with Pliant Corp. (Schaum-burg, Ill.), this firm has successfully demonstrated a solution for tamper-proofing pallets with RFID-enabled stretch film (shrink wrap). Pliant’s electrically conductive stretch film, combined with this firm’s PowerG labels for tracking freight and high-value pallets, provides a viable solu-tion by overcoming the limitations of barcode technologies, the limited per-formance of standard passive RFID, and the high cost of active RFID read-ers, claims the manufacturer. Electri-cally connected to the film wrapped around the pallet, the PowerG label is readable by RFID readers when the film is intact and the electrical circuit is closed. However, when the stretch film is tampered with, the circuit is broken, rendering the label unread-able and thereby alerting a supply-chain manager to possible tampering. — PowerID Ltd., Petah Tikva, Israel edlinks.che.com/7369-406

Perform PID loopsfrom outside the PLCThe Mini8 controller makes it possible to perform PID loops outside the PLC without compromising the benefits of an integrated solution, says the man-ufacturer. The Mini8 has four plugin I/O slots, and can cater for a variety of signals, such as thermocouple and RTD inputs and relay, logic and ana-log output. Up to eight discrete control loops can be connected to major field-buses, such as Profibus, DeviceNet and CANopen, thus taking the responsibil-ity of the loops outside the PLC. Thus, in the event of of the PLC going down, equipment pressure and temperature

can still be maintained and expensive failures avoided. Mini8 also offers the Modbus protocol both on RS 485 or Ethernet. — Eurotherm, London, U.K edlinks.che.com/7369-407

This database is not picky about the operating system usedCLC Bioinformatics Database enables

research organizations to maximize their potential through increased pro-ductivity. The database was developed to eliminate classic obstacles, such as different operating systems, limited support for database formats, or lim-ited access to a central storage facil-ity, says the firm. The security and maintenance of the new database can

24I-5Circle 34 on p. 62 or go to adlinks.che.com/7369-34

potentially help organizations stop misuse or loss of data, as well as help protect their intellectual property. The database is cross-platform, running on OS X, Windows and Linux. — CLC bio, Aarhus, Denmarkedlinks.che.com/7369-408

Track equipment health without wiresIn collaboration with SKF, this firm has introduced OneWireless Equip-ment Health Monitoring (EHM), the latest addition to its portfolio of indus-trial wireless solutions. OneWireless EHM will wirelessly transmit com-plete spectral information — including vibration amplitude and operating-pa-rameter information — from the field to the plant control room, helping re-duce equipment failures and improve business performance through lower maintenance costs, says the firm. One-Wireless is a compact, eight-channel (4 X vibration, 4 X 4–20 mA) monitoring

device that communicates over the firm’s OneWireless indus-trial mesh network. It collects acceleration, velocity, tempera-ture and bearing-condition data and delivers it to process opera-tors and maintenance personnel to alert them of any equipment problems. — Honeywell Process Solutions, Phoenix, Ariz. edlinks.che.com/7369-409

A tiny GC with huge performanceThe C2V-200 micro gas chromatograph (GC) is claimed to be the world’s fastest and smallest GC, providing the highest quality separation. The device performs an analysis in 10 to 30 s, has an eas-ily exchangeable GC channel cartridge, operates at temperatures up to 180°C and provides a sensitivity of parts per million (with TCD detector). The tiny unit requires a minimal carrier/refer-ence gas (1 mL/min operational) and

achieves separations of N = 10,000–25,000. — C2V, Enschede, Netherlandsedlinks.che.com/7369-410

Check air for microbes with this samplerSAS ISO is a new generation of SAS samplers for the microbiological test-ing of air. The system is based on the impact of micro-organisms onto an agar surface of a contact plate or standard Petri dish. SAS ISO uses a single, certified aspirating head made of stainless steel or aluminum,

New Products

24I-� ChemiCal engineering www.Che.Com February 2008

The Sharpest ICP EverThe New SPECTRO ARCOS High Performance ICP Spectrometer

The new SPECTRO ARCOS ICP spectrometer records therequired spectrum with a performance that has never beenseen before: The resolution is 8.5 picometers in the mostsignificant range between 130 and 340 nm – 15 picometers athigher wavelengths up to 770 nm – enabling unusually sharpspectrum, an unbeatable sensitivity and extreme precision.

SPECTRO ARCOSHigh Performance ICP Spectrometer– Paschen-Runge optic with extended wavelength range from

130 to 770 nm completely in first order– 8.5 picometer resolution from 130 to 340 nm;

15 picometer from 340 to 770 nm– Robust free-running, air-cooled generator with 5 kW ceramic tube– Low maintenance UV system with minimal operating costs– Compact, space-saving design

Find out more about the new ICP performance classfor complex analytical requirements.

www.spectro.com/arcos, spectro.info@ametek.com, Tel. +49.2821.892-2102

Visit us: Pittcon 2008, New Orleans, March 2-7, Booth 5143Analytica 2008, Munich, April 1-4, Hall A2, Booth 205/304

Circle 35 on p. �2 or go to adlinks.che.com/73�9-35

ITandFactory

24i1-7 CHE 2-08.indd 6 1/29/08 6:39:43 PM

or Dispo-Head, a certified, sterile disposable plastic head. The system offers traceability functions, such as date, operator name, sampling loca-tion and volume of aspirated air, which can be transferred to a printer or PC. — International Pbi S.p.A., Milan, Italyedlinks.che.com/7369-411

A new tool for process simulatorsThis firm has introduced a PI sys-tem, historian-database comparison tool for use with process simulators. PI-Compare is an easy-to-use tool that identifies the simulator initial condition that closely matches a PI system recorded plant state just be-fore a disturbance. Instructors and engineers can then quickly identify and use the simulation that matches that plant state and use the simula-tor to investigate or train operators on the characteristics of the distur-

bance and on mitigating its effects. — Hyperion Systems Engineering, Athens, Greeceedlinks.che.com/7369-412

A transmitter for when the water pressure is onVegaWell 51 is a new generation of suspension pressure transmitters suitable for water and wastewater applications, including hydrostatic-level measurement in vessels, and gauge measurement in deep wells. Mounting is accomplished by means of a stress clamp or a threaded fitting (G1 A). The sensor itself is a small, Certec measuring cell, with a ceramic diaphragm and shielded measur-ing-cell seal. The selectable measur-ing range is between 0.1 and 10 bar, and the standard output is 4–20 mA. A HART signal can also be supplied on request. — VEGA Grieshaber KG, Schiltach, Germany edlinks.che.com/7369-413

Now produce more pharmaceutical grade waterThe new generation of the Orion pharmaceutical water package has an enhanced reverse osmosis module, which gives improved recovery of up to 90% for single-pass systems and 75% for twin-pass. This means lower operating costs and a reduced carbon footprint, says the firm. Like its pre-decessors, the new Orion is fully hot-water sanitizable. The Orion range has been extended to up to 10,000 L/h, and can meet water-quality stan-dards of USP 30 and Ph Eur Purified Water and Ph Eur Highly Purified Water, and is fully compliant with FDA, cGMP and GAMP requirements. The control PLC interfaces with most SCADA systems, and a 21 CFR part II compliant option is also available. — Veolia Water Solutions & Technol-ogy, Marlow, U.K.edlinks.che.com/7369-413 n

Gerald Ondrey

ChemiCal engineering www.Che.Com February 2008 24I-�

OSI SOFTWARE GmbHHauptstraße 30 • D-63674 Altenstadt • Germany

Phone: +49 6047 9890 • email: gmbh@osisoft.com

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Circle 36 on p. 62 or go to adlinks.che.com/�369-36Circle 3� on p. 62 or go to adlinks.che.com/�369-3�

24i1-7 CHE 2-08.indd 7 1/29/08 6:40:04 PM

Journey on the path to greater sales in China’s CPI in 2008 As China rapidly takes leadership in the World Trade Organization and opens its markets to foreign competition, securing your presence is more critical than ever. Chemical Engineering is proud to present this exclusive opportunity to help you increase your sales in 2008.

Chemical Engineering, in collaboration with Process China, will publish two supplements this year (April and November). By compiling key articles from CE’s award-winning editorial roster and translating them into Mandarin Chinese, we offer your business the perfect opportunity to reach the powerful Chinese CPI market.

www.che.com

About Process China magazine

Translated into Chinese, this first-rate publication provides information on the latest technology, new products and market trends for the chemical, pharmaceutical, petrochemical and environmental sectors. Since 1998, it has grown to be the main information source for China’s CPI, reaching a targeted market of key decision-makers 8 times a year.

To learn about the specific demographics regarding Process China magazine, or to discuss this valuable marketing opportunity, contact:

NellA VeldrAN, VP & Publisher of Chemical engineering, nveldran@che.com

doN’t delAy! SPACe IS lImIted!

About the ChINA SuPPlemeNtS• the AudIeNCe

Chemical Engineering China Supplements deliver your sales message to 10,000 PlANt mANAGerS ANd eNGINeerS in China, the key decision-makers in all equipment and instrumentation purchases. By running ads in both April and November, your exposure doubles to 20,000!

• the ArtICleSThe supplements will contain practical, how-to articles that have been published by Chemical Engineering. These articles will review technology trends, present opportunities, and provide tips for doing business within China’s CPI.

• the AdVertISemeNtSAll ads will be translated into Mandarin, free of charge. Your message will be supported by CE’s world class editorial content, and the supplements will be perfect bound into Process China magazine for a professional finish.

China Supplements

13282

13282 China Suppl_CHE.indd 1 1/23/08 3:01:02 PMFILLER FULL PAGE 2-08.indd 1 1/30/08 2:51:41 PM

Department Editor: Kate Torzewski

Causes of Overpressurization

The failure of a device or of a group of components can lead to overpressuriza-tion and subsequent adverse events, such

as fire, explosion, spill or release. The most common causes of overpressurization are listed below. Understanding the circumstanc-es surrounding overpressurization will help an engineer to avoid these failures.

External fireAccording to API RP 520 and 521 standards, a fire-exposed area is within an area of 2,500 and 5,000 ft2, and below a height of 25-ft above the grade. In this scenario, the exposed vessel is blocked in. Potential vapors resulting from the fire must be relieved using a PRV on the vessel, or via a vent path that remains in a locked-open position between the vessel and an adjoining vessel.

Blocked outletsThe closure of a block valve on the outlet of a pressure vessel can cause the vessel's internal pressure to exceed its maximum allowable working pressure if the source pressure exceeds the vessel design pressure. Blocked outlets can be caused by control valve failure, inadvertent valve operation, instrument-air or power failure, and other factors. A PRV must have sufficient capacity to pass a fluid flowrate that is equivalent to the difference between those of the incoming fluids and the outgoing fluids.

Utility failuresThese failures can include the following: gen-eral power failure, partial power failure, loss of instrument air, loss of cooling water, loss of steam, and loss of fuel gas or fuel oil. For these cases, a flare header should be designed and sized based on the maximum relief load that could result from a potential utility failure.

Loss of cooling dutyCooling-duty losses can include the following: loss of quench stream, air-cooled exchanger failure, loss of cold feed and loss of reflux. Relieving capacity should be calculated by performing a heat balance on the system, based on the loss of the condensing duty.

Thermal expansionWhen liquid is blocked in a vessel or pipeline, external heat input can cause liquid temperature, and hence volume, to rise. This can be caused by the following: liquid that is blocked in a pipeline and is being heated, the cold side of a heat exchanger being filled while the hot side is flowing, or a filled vessel at ambient temperature that is being heated by direct solar radiation. PRVs used in these cases can be easily analyzed and sized.

Abnormal heat inputThis failure can be caused by: the supply of heating medium, such as fuel oil or fuel gas to a fired heater, being increased; heat transfer occuring in a new and clean heat exchanger after revamp; control valve for the fuel supply failing to fully open; or supply pressure of the heating steam being changed from normal

range to maximum pressure. As a general rule, when sizing a PRV, maximum heat-duty assumed for the abnormal case should be no more than 125% of normal heat duty.

Abnormal vapor inputAbnormal vapor input can be caused by the failure of the upstream control valve to fully open, or upstream-relieving or inadvertent valve opening. The required relieving capacity must be equal to or greater than the amount of the vapor accumulation expected under the relieving conditions.

Loss of absorbent flowWhen gas removal by absorbent is more than 25% of the total inlet-vapor flow, an interruption of absorbent flow could cause pressure to rise in the absorber. The PRV should be sized base on the net accumulation of the vapor at the relieving conditions.

Entrance of volatile materialsThe entrance of a volatile liquid, such as water or light hydrocarbons into hot oil dur-ing a process upset, can cause instantaneous phase expansion. Instead of relying on PRVs, processes should be properly designed with the use of double block valves, the avoid-ance of water-collecting pockets and use of steam condensate traps and bleeds on water connections.

Accumulation of non-condensiblesAccumulation can result from blocking of the normal non-condensible vent or accumulation in the pocket of a piping configuration or equipment. Because this can result in a loss of cooling duty, PRV analysis should be handled the same way.

Valve malfunctionCheck-valve malfunction results in backflow, which can be from 5 to 25% of the normal flowrate. Required relief capacity should be based on this. Inadvertent valve operation results in a valve position that is opposite from normal operating conditions, which is largely caused by human error and can be avoided by care-ful operation. Control valve failure to open or close is caused by electronic- or mechanical-signal failure. This typically will affect just one valve at a time and should be analyzed on a case-by-case basis.

Process control failureThis situation refers to the failure of process controllers, such as programmable logic controllers and distributed control systems. The potential impact of failure of every con-trol loop should be analyzed, as well as the impact if one loop fails but all others remain active. As a general rule, the required relief capacity must be greater than the vapor gen-erated because of heat buildup in the system.

Exchange tube ruptureWhen an upstream vessel is relieving by discharge fluid to a downstream vessel,

the downstream vessel should should be designed to handle the pressure and volume of the incoming stream without overpressur-izing. If the upstream vessel does not have adequate relief capacity, the downstream vessel should have a PRV of its own. When two vessels are connected by an open path and the first has its own PRV and discharges to a flare header, the second will experience the impact from the relieving pressure of the first vessel and should be analyzed accordingly.

Upstream relievingRequired relief capacity should be greater than the vapor generated because of heat buildup in the system.

Runaway chemical reactionRunaway reactions tend to accelerate with rising temperature; extremely high volumes of non-condensibles with high energy can cause the internal pressure of a vessel or pipeline to rise rapidly. PRVs may not provide sufficient relief, so vapor-depressurizing systems, rupture disks and emergency vents are preferable.

References1. Wong, W., Protect Plants Against Overpres-

sure, Chem. Eng. June 2001, pp. 66–73.2. Goodner, H., A New Way of Quantifying

Risks: Part 2, Chem. Eng. November 1993, pp. 140–146.

3. Emerson, G., Selecting Pressure Relief Valves, Chem. Eng. March 18, 1985, pp. 195–200.

A pressure relief valve (PRV) is an automatic pressure- relieving device that is actu- ated by pressure at the inlet of the valve. Though safety valve, or safety relief valve, is the terminology for valves relieving gas or vapor, we will use “PRV” to describe all types ofpressure relief valves. A relief valve, used for liquid service, generally opens in proportion toany increase in pressure over opening pressure. A safety valve has char- acteristics similar to a relief valve except that it usually opens rapidly (pops), and is primarily used for gas or vapor service

Source: Farris Engineering, Brecksville, Ohio

25 CHE 2-08.indd 25 1/29/08 6:11:24 PM

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Sometimes lost in the hustle and bustle of production issues at chemical-process-industries (CPI) facilities is that high-purity

water, and steam produced thereby, is the lifeblood of the plant. Yet, equip-ment failures and curtailed production due to water and steam issues can cost a company hundreds of thousands of dollars, or more, on an annual basis. This article outlines methods to im-prove water and steam operation at chemical and industrial plants.

Chemistry deficienciesThe following examples come from direct experience on projects for the CPI or related facilities. They outline straightforward issues that may arise at many plants. Following these ex-amples is a discussion of problems and solutions to water and steam chemis-try issues.Example 1. A colleague and I visited an organic chemicals plant in the Mid-west, in which the steam superheater bundles in four, 550-psig package boil-ers had to be replaced every two years or so due to internal scaling. Upon ar-riving, we were first shown a bundle that had been recently removed, and indeed the internal tube surfaces were covered with a 1/8–1/4 in. scale coating. We then walked around the boilers and immediately noticed foam issuing from the saturated-steam sample lines. Subsequent investiga-

tion revealed that total-organic-carbon (TOC) levels in the condensate-return lines to the boilers had been known to reach 200 parts-per-million (ppm). Given that ASME guidelines [1] call for a maximum TOC concentration of 0.5 ppm in boilers of this pressure, it was easy to see why so much foam existed in the boiler water, and why impurities carried over to the super-heaters on a continual basis.Example 2. A petrochemical plant in southern U.S. experienced short runs and poor performance of a makeup demineralizer. In particular, the anion resin of the unit underperformed. Analysis revealed that the raw water, which came from an area where rice was grown, contained high concentra-tions of natural organics. Pretreat-ment ahead of the demineralizer consisted of clarification and media filtration. Clarification satisfactorily removed suspended solids, but many organics passed through and fouled the anion resin.Example 3. I have personally wit-nessed and have heard many reports of plant personnel keeping steam gen-erators online during longterm steam surface condenser leaks. Such leaks, which introduce raw cooling water di-rectly to condensate, cause severe prob-lems in boilers. In one case, in the early 1980s, operation of an 80-MW, 1,250-psig utility boiler for three weeks with a condenser leak resulted in severe

hydrogen damage of the boiler tubes. Within a month, tubes began to fail at such a frequent rate that the unit had to be shutdown and entirely re-tubed at a cost of $2 million [2]. Example 4. For decades, the conven-tional treatment program for conden-sate and feedwater systems called for chemical dosages at sufficient concen-tration to remove all dissolved oxygen. This regime is now known to be very troublesome and has caused piping and tube failures that have killed at least 10 people in the utility industry in the last decade or so. Industrial boilers, including heat-recovery steam generators (HRSG), are not immune from this attack.

Impurities and their controlAs the introductory examples illus-trate, multiple contaminants can enter steam-generation networks from many locations. Impurities include in-organic ions from raw water, such as calcium, magnesium, sodium, chloride, sulfate and bicarbonate, to name the most important, while process opera-tions may introduce these materials and organic compounds to condensate return. Upfront treatment systems to remove these impurities offer the first, and usually most important, line of de-fense. Makeup-water treatment may range from relatively simple systems for low-pressure steam generation to perhaps reverse-osmosis (RO) and ion-

Feature Report

30 ChemiCal engineering www.Che.Com February 2008

Cover Story

Careful control of water and steam chemistry

at CPI facilities can pay off handsomely

in reliable operation

CPI Water and Steam Chemistry Bradley Buecker

Chemist

30-34 CHE 2-08.indd 30 1/29/08 6:15:32 PM

exchange (IX) polishing for high-pres-sure applications. If process-induced organic compounds are of concern, treatment might include activated car-bon filtration. Pre-treatment to protect RO and IX units is often vital, with suspended solids removal by clarifica-tion or via the emerging technologies of micro- and ultrafiltration [3].

Let’s now look at the condensate feed to the boiler. As a preface to the following discussion it must be noted that when steam generators are first placed in service, steel develops a pro-tective coating of iron oxide known as magnetite (Fe3O4). This mechanism also occurs on boiler waterwall tubes.

3Fe + 4H2O → Fe3O4 + 4H2↑ (1)

Similarly, copper alloys develop a protective layer of cuprous oxide (Cu2O). Formation of protective oxide layers is a very important concept.

Of general importance in condensate and feedwater systems is pH. In pip-ing and heat-exchanger systems of all-ferrous metallurgy, the optimum pH range is 9.2 to 9.6. For networks con-taining heat exchangers with copper-alloy tubes, the recommended range is a bit lower at 9.1 to 9.3. Control is usu-ally achieved by feed of ammonia or an organic amine to the condensate.

Condensate return and poorly oper-ated steam condensers can introduce large quantities of dissolved oxygen into feedwater systems. The oxygen in turn can cause big problems, as shown in Figure 1.

Methods to control oxygen corrosion primarily comprise the following:• Mechanical removal of gases in the

condenser if the plant has a power-generating steam turbine

• Mechanical removal of gases by a deaerator located in the feedwater system

• Injection of an oxygen scavenger or

metal passivator into the feedwaterMechanical methods for O2 control. For industrial steam generators that include a steam turbine, the condenser is normally equipped with one or more air-removal compartments for gas re-moval. Each compartment consists of a shroud, open at the bottom, to which a mechanical vacuum is applied. The vacuum removes air from the conden-sate, and discharges it to the outside atmosphere. Condenser performance should be monitored on a regular basis, as a crack in the condenser shell or other failure will allow excess air to enter. Air will coat condenser tubes and reduce heat transfer, plus oxygen may enter the condensate.

Downstream from the condenser, the deaerator (DA) provides addi-tional mechanical removal of dis-solved gases. As condensate is sprayed or flows through trays downward into the DA-scrubbing vessel, the rising steam heats the condensate and liber-ates gases. A properly operating DA should reduce dissolved oxygen con-centrations down to 7 ppb or less. Chemical control of O2. Into the 1980s, in the U.S. at least, conven-tional wisdom called for complete removal of oxygen from feedwater. It was thought, incorrectly as we shall see, that the total absence of O2 was best for corrosion control in the feed-water network. Thus, mechanical O2 removal was supplemented with chemical treatment. One of the first practical chemicals to be employed in steam generators was sodium sulfite (Na2SO3). Sodium sulfite reacts with oxygen to produce sodium sulfate:

2Na2SO3 + O2 → 2Na2SO4 (2)

The primary advantages of sodium sulfite are that it is a common and inexpensive chemical, is non-toxic, and can be used to treat boiler water in which the steam is extracted for food processing or other applications regulated by U.S. Food and Drug Ad-ministration (FDA). Sodium sulfite is primarily used in low-pressure in-dustrial boilers (<600 psig), because it adds too many dissolved solids to high-pressure boiler water. Also, in boilers that operate above 900 psig, sodium sulfite will thermally decom-pose to produce hydrogen sulfide

(H2S) and sulfur dioxide (SO2), both of which are quite corrosive.

For industrial boilers that operate at pressures above 900 psig, alterna-tive chemicals are more suitable for oxygen scavenging. The workhorse for many years was hydrazine (N2H4), which reacts with oxygen as follows:

N2H4 + O2 → 2H2O + N2↑ (3)

Hydrazine is advantageous because it does not add any dissolved solids to the feedwater, it reacts with oxygen in a one-to-one weight ratio, and it is supplied in liquid form at 35% concen-tration.

A primary benefit of hydrazine is that it will passivate oxidized areas of piping and tube materials as follows:

N2H4 + 6Fe2O3 → 4Fe3O4 + N2↑ + 2H2O (4)

Similarly, if the heat exchangers have copper-alloy heat-exchanger tubes, the chemical will return oxi-dized layers of cupric oxide (CuO) to the more stable cuprous oxide (Cu2O).

N2H4 + 4CuO → 2Cu2O + N2↑ + 2H2O (5)

Hydrazine residuals were typically maintained at relatively low levels of perhaps 20–100 ppb.

Given the simplified chemistry of hydrazine, it would appear to be the ideal oxygen scavenger. Unfortunately, hydrazine is considered to be a poten-tial carcinogen and is now registered as a hazardous compound. Handling procedures have become very strin-gent. This difficulty has, in part, led to the development of other treatment chemicals. Many of the major water-treatment companies provide alterna-tive oxygen scavengers, some principal ones being hydroquinone, carbohydra-zide (N4H6CO), and methyl ethyl ke-toxime (C4H9NOH). All of these prod-ucts also passivate metals.Safe hydrazine systems. It is possible to set up a hydrazine feed system that does not expose workers to the com-pound. In one such system at a western-U.S. utility, the hydrazine solution is supplied in portable, reusable contain-ers. Personnel connect each new con-tainer to a permanent metering pump and distribution line, which transport precise dosages of the chemical in neat

ChemiCal engineering www.Che.Com February 2008 31

Figure 1. Condensate return and/or poorly operated steam condens-ers can introduce large quantities of dissolved oxy-gen into feedwa-ter systems; this can lead to big problems. Shown here is the effect of oxygen pitting on an econo-mizer tube

CPI Water and Steam Chemistry

Dr. James Dillon, Nalco Co.

30-34 CHE 2-08.indd 31 1/29/08 6:15:55 PM

form to the feedwater system. A varia-tion of this concept is a system in which the primary feed tank supplies a closed day tank, which is vented to the outside atmosphere. The operator introduces a measured volume of hydrazine to the day tank, followed by dilution water. A metering pump feeds the solution into the system.

Flow-accelerated corrosionThe use of a pH conditioner and oxy-gen scavenger (metal passivator), par-ticularly the latter, constitutes what is known as an all-volatile reducing AVT(R) program in condensate and feedwater systems. In the 1980s and 1990s, researchers began to discover that AVT(R) was the cause of previously unspecified problems. Most notable is the dissolution of magnetite at a tem-perature range and chemical conditions common to the feedwater network. This behavior is shown in Figure 2.

As the title of Figure 2 suggests, pH in high-purity condensate and feedwa-ter is typically a function of the am-monia concentration. It is the lower pH, at low ammonia concentrations in a reducing environment, which is responsible for magnetite dissolution. This explains why corrosion can be much higher at an NH3 concentration of 0.1 ppm than in any other case. The ammonia does not attack the magne-tite directly. So, in a reducing environ-ment established by feed of an oxygen scavenger (metal passivator), gradual magnetite dissolution has led to sud-den, and in some cases fatal, failures of mild steel by flow-accelerated-cor-rosion (FAC). FAC develops at flow disturbances and direction changes, for example at feedwater and econo-mizer elbows, reducers and tees, in strongly reducing environments. The

environment causes contin-ual leaching of ferrous ions (Fe+2) from the tube surface that weakens the wall struc-ture and eventually reduces pipe strength to the point of sudden failure. An example of FAC is shown in Figure 3.

FAC has been a problem in heat-recovery steam genera-tor (HRSG) waterwall tubes, which have many tight-ra-dius elbows. The low-pres-sure circuits of HRSGs often operate near the temperature of highest corrosion potential (shown in Figure 2), which further exacerbates the issue. A particular difficulty with HRSGs is that the two or three semi-independent wa-terwall circuits make chem-istry control rather difficult. One solution, albeit at some cost, for controlling FAC in HRSGs in the design phase is to specify tube material, at least in elbows, of 1.25% chrome steel. This material is resistant to attack.

The next sections outline chemical techniques for combating FAC, while preventing other corrosion in feedwa-ter systems.Oxygenated treatment (OT). OT is a feedwater treatment developed over 30 years ago for the utility in-dustry. In an OT program, oxygen is deliberately introduced to the con-densate and feedwater system. Two variations of oxygenated treatment are most popular. In the first, O2 is injected alone without any pH-con-ditioning chemicals. This program is known as neutral water treatment (NWT). More often, ammonia is also injected for pH control. This is known

as combined water treatment (CWT).Both NWT and CWT require the

controlled injection of O2 into the con-densate and feedwater system. Prop-erly applied, OT establishes a surface layer in part composed of ferric oxide hydrate (FeOOH), which is more sta-ble than magnetite. Typical injection points are just after the condensate polisher and again at the deaerator outlet (Figure 4). In CWT programs, which are most common in the U.S., oxygen is dosed to maintain a 30 to 150 ppb residual. Ammonia is added to raise the pH within a range of 8.0 to 8.5. Typically, 20 to 70 ppb of ammonia will control water chemistry within this pH range.

The keys to an OT program are con-trolled oxygen feed and high-purity

Figure 2. The dissolu-tion behavior of magnetite at a temperature range and chemical con-ditions common to the feedwater network is shown here (Data is from the 1986 EPRI In-terim Consensus Guidelines, now out of print)

Figure 4. Oxygenated treatment requires the con-trolled injection of O2 into the condensate/feedwater system. The O2-injection points for a typical utility boiler are shown here

Cover Story

32 ChemiCal engineering www.Che.Com February 2008

Figure 3. Flow-accelerated corrosion develops at flow disturbances and direction changes, for exam-ple at feedwater and economizer elbows, reducers and tees, in strongly reducing environments

Dr. James Dillon, Nalco Co.

30-34 CHE 2-08.indd 32 1/29/08 6:16:19 PM

condensate, where cation conductivity can be maintained at ≤0.15 microSie-mens/cm (µS/cm). OT is probably too elaborate for low-pressure industrial boilers, but it has been applied to some utility drum units and to HRSGs. OT cannot be used in systems that con-tain copper-alloy feedwater heater tubes, as copper corrosion would be much too severe.AVT(O). An offshoot of OT is a pro-gram developed by the Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI) known as all-volatile treatment (oxidizing), or its acronym AVT(O). The idea continues to be the establishment of a FeOOH layer on the feedwater piping, but by a less intensive mechanism. What the researchers found is that, in conden-sate and feedwater networks where air seepage into the condenser (air in-leakage) is minor and condensate dis-solved oxygen levels stay at or below 10 ppb, discontinued feed of an oxygen scavenger allows the FeOOH protec-tive layer to form naturally. As with OT, this program is only applicable in systems with all-ferrous metallurgy. One major difference from OT is that the pH should be maintained within a range of 9.2 to 9.6. An operating guideline is cation conductivity ≤0.2 µS/cm. Excursions in dissolved-oxygen concentration and cation conductivity, particularly the former, indicate excess air in-leakage within the condenser. Increased air in-leakage also intro-duces excess carbon dioxide, which in-fluences corrosion. Thus, for a unit on AVT(O), any air leaks into the system that raise condensate dissolved-oxy-gen levels much above a mid-teen ppb concentration should be investigated

and corrected as quickly as possible.AVT(R) for mixed-metallurgy sys-tems. For mixed-metallurgy systems, OT and AVT(O) are not acceptable, as they would initiate and sustain exces-sive copper corrosion. However, opera-tion with complete removal of oxygen leads to FAC. So, the correct program is to feed an O2 scavenger, but at re-duced concentrations to minimize FAC. Chemistry control can be quite difficult when relying upon standard dissolved-oxygen and oxygen-scav-enger analyses. The technique of oxidation-reduction-potential (ORP) monitoring is becoming popular for mixed-metallurgy condensate/feed-water chemistry. In short, online ORP monitors measure the electrochemi-cal potential of the solution versus a standard electrode, most commonly Ag/AgCl, saturated KCl. A general rule-of-thumb is that the O2 scaven-ger should be fed to maintain an ORP within a range of –350 to –300 mV. This corresponds to a range of –150 to –100 mV for a standard hydrogen electrode (SHE). However, chemists have found that this guideline should not be considered an absolute [4]. A better plan is to set up comprehensive tests that include dissolved iron and copper analyses, and coordinate the optimum ORP range with minimized copper and iron concentrations.

Boiler-water issuesRaw makeup water or heat-exchanger-cooling water from a lake or river typi-cally contains several hundred ppm of cations and anions, most notably calcium, sodium, magnesium, potas-sium, bicarbonate, chloride, silica,

and sulfate, as well as other materials including suspended solids. As these contaminants enter the boiler, a num-ber of temperature-induced reactions will occur. Two common reactions are shown below.

Ca+2 + 2HCO3–1 → CaCO3↓ + CO2↑ +

H2O (6)

Ca+2 (or Mg+2) + SiO3–2 → CaSiO3↓

(or MgSiO3↓) (7)

Equations (6) and (7) are typical scale-forming reactions. Even a relatively thin deposit layer will significantly re-duce heat transfer, and a boiler must be fired harder to achieve the same level of steam production. This in turn can lead to overheating of the boiler tubes, which will shorten tube life.

Much more problematic, particularly in high-pressure boilers of at least 1,000 psig or higher, is the effect that cooling-water leakages into the system have with regard to rapid and poten-tially catastrophic corrosion. The reac-tion shown below is a prime example.

MgCl2 + 2H2O → Mg(OH)2↓ + 2HCl (8)

As can clearly be seen, a product of this reaction is hydrochloric acid. While HCl may cause general cor-rosion in and of itself, when concen-trated under deposits, the acid reacts with iron to generate hydrogen, which in turn can lead to hydrogen damage of the tubes. In this mechanism, hy-drogen gas molecules, which are very small, penetrate into the metal wall and react with carbon atoms in the steel to generate methane:

2H2 + Fe3C → 3Fe + CH4↑ (9) ChemiCal engineering www.Che.Com February 2008 33

Figure 5. The presence of hydrogen can cause cracking in steel, greatly weakening its strength. Shown here is tube fail-ure caused by hydrogen damage

Figure 6. Caustic gouging can occur in boilers operating at higher pressures when phosphate treatment is used

Dr. James Dillon, Nalco Co. Dr. James Dillon, Nalco Co.

30-34 CHE 2-08.indd 33 1/29/08 6:16:40 PM

Formation of the gaseous methane and hydrogen molecules causes crack-ing in the steel, greatly weakening its strength. Hydrogen damage (Figure 5) is very troublesome because it can-not be easily detected. After hydrogen damage has occurred, the plant staff may replace tubes only to find that other tubes continue to rupture.

Condensate return may carry any number of contaminants, including organic chemicals as mentioned in the first example. Organics can bake onto tube surfaces, and they will also cause foaming in boiler drums, which in turn leads to carryover of impurities to steam. The superheater failures men-tioned in Example 1 are one possibil-ity, but if the system produces power with a steam turbine, the impurities can settle out on turbine blades and cause additional corrosion.

Modern technologies offer tech-niques to combat organic fouling in condensate return. Space limitations prevent an in-depth discussion of these technologies in this article, but Reference [5] outlines a modern sys-tem to control organics. The system utilizes adsorption cartridges and bioreactors to remove organics, even from refinery condensate-return streams, such that the purified water reportedly contains low-ppb concen-trations of carbon-based compounds. Successful operation of this type of equipment would certainly have re-duced the headaches encountered by the personnel in Example 1.

Treatment by phosphateFor over seven decades, steam-gen-eration chemists have utilized sodium phosphate compounds for corrosion control and prevention of solids de-position in the waterwall circuits of drum-type, steam-generating systems. Alternatives are also available, but can be tricky to control.

In the early days of steam gen-eration for power production, vari-ous odd-sounding treatment methods were used. Some of these treatments had operators putting sawdust or po-tato peels into boilers. These natural products contributed large organic molecules such as lignins, tannins, and starch to the water. The chemi-cals sequestered hardness ions. Other

chemistry programs actually allowed the formation of calcium carbonate on tube walls to protect the tube surface from the boiler water.

In the 1930s, researchers developed the technique of adding tri-sodium phosphate (Na3PO4) to boilers to gen-erate alkaline conditions.

Na3PO4 + H2O → Na2HPO4 + NaOH (10)

In early, low-pressure boilers, phos-phate concentrations in a range of 20–40 ppm were common. However, as higher-pressure boilers came on line, tubes began to fail due to the phenom-enon of caustic gouging (Figure 6).

Research showed that this failure occurred underneath boiler tube de-posits. Figure 7 illustrates a porous tube deposit where water penetrates the deposit through various channels. As the water approaches the tube surface, temperatures increase. The water boils off, leaving other species behind. This phenomenon is known as wick boiling. In the case of early phos-phate programs, and to a lesser but not unknown frequency today, sodium hydroxide remains after wick boiling. Concentrations may rise to levels many times that in the bulk boiler water. The concentrated NaOH attacks the boiler metal and protective magnetite film via the following reactions:

Fe + 2NaOH → Na2FeO2 + H2↑ (11)

Fe3O4 + 4NaOH → 2Na2FeO2 + N2FeO2 + 2H2O (12)

Because phosphate serves another valuable function besides pH control, programs were not discontinued but rather modified to current regimes where free NaOH alkalinity is limited to 1 ppm, with phosphate concentra-tions of 0.2 to 3 ppm in the low range and 3 to 10 ppm for those who feel comfortable with more protection.

Control of contaminant in-leakage, at least until repairs can be made, constitutes a phosphate program’s second major function. Phosphate re-acts directly with calcium to produce

calcium hydroxyapatite:

10Ca+2 + 6PO4–3 + 2OH–1 →

3Ca3(PO4)2.Ca(OH)2↓ (13)

Magnesium and silica react with the alkalinity produced by phosphate to form the non-adherent material, serpentine:

3Mg+2 + 2SiO3–2 + 2OH–1 + H2O →

2MgSiO3.Mg(OH)2.H2O↓ (14)

Calcium hydroxyapatite and ser-pentine exist as soft sludges and are much easier to remove than the hard scale or corrosive products that would otherwise form. They typically settle in the mud drum or lower head-ers from which they are removed by blowdown. ■

Edited by Gerald Ondrey

References1. “Consensus on Operating Practices for the

Control of Feedwater and Boiler Water Chemistry in Modern Boilers,” The American Society of Mechanical Engineers, New York, NY, 1994.

2. Buecker, B., “Condenser Chemistry and Per-formance Monitoring”; in the proceedings of the 60th Annual International Water Confer-ence, October 18–20, 1999, Pittsburgh, Pa.

3. Buecker, B., Microfiltration for CPI Wastewa-ter, Chem. Eng., May 2007, pp. 63–65.

4. Shulder, S., “Practical Application of Oxidation Reduction Potential to Control Oxygen Scav-enger Injection to Fossil Power [Systems],” in the proceedings of the 21st Annual Elec-tric Utility Chemistry Workshop, May 8–10, 2001, Champaign, Ill.

5. Abbot, K. and Dittburner, D., RO/DI Pretreat-ment to Remove Oils and Organics and Allow for Process Water Reuse, Ultrapure Water, March 2007, pp. 38–41.

Cover Story

34 ChemiCal engineering www.Che.Com February 2008

AuthorBrad Buecker is the air quality control specialist at a large U.S. power plant, and can be reached at beaker-too@aol.com. He has previ-ous experience as a chemical cleaning services engineer, a water and wastewater system supervisor, and a consulting chemist for an engineering firm. He also served as a re-sults engineer, flue gas desul-

furization (FGD) engineer, and analytical chem-ist for City Water, Light & Power, Springfield, Ill. Buecker has written more than 70 articles on steam generation, water treatment, and FGD chemistry, and he is the author of three books on steam generation chemistry and steam genera-tor fundamentals published by PennWell Pub-lishing, Tulsa, Okla. Buecker has an A.A. degree in pre-engineering from Springfield College in Illinois and a B.S. in chemistry from Iowa State University. He is a member of ACS, AIChE, ASME, and NACE.

Figure 7. The phenomenon known as wick boiling occurs when water penetrates a porous tube deposit. As the water approaches the tube surface, the temperatures increase and the water boils off, leaving other species behind

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Pumps are one of the most ubiq-uitous items of equipment found in chemical processing plants. Often, they are used to transfer

hazardous liquids, such as flammable, combustible, toxic and corrosive chem-icals. In order to ensure safety during pumping, certain design and operat-ing practices should be followed. This article discusses safe practices for centrifugal, positive displacement and sealless pumps.

POTENTIAL PROBLEMS AND HAZARDSA number of problems and hazards can occur during the pumping of haz-ardous liquids. These can include the following:• Mechanical seal failures resulting in

leaks or fugitive emissions• Deadheading• Reduced or low flow in centrifugal

pumps• Overpressurization• High temperatureThese problems and hazards can re-sult in severe incidents, such as fires, explosions and toxic releases, if they are not addressed by preventive or protective measures. The following sections discuss these issues, as well as recommended practices to elimi-nate or minimize problems for various types of pumps.

GENERAL RECOMMENDATIONSMaterials of constructionMaterials of construction should be chosen based on the corrosive prop-erties of the liquid being pumped. At a minimum, pumps should be con-structed of cast steel. All the compo-nents of the pump (casing, impeller,

mechanical seal or packing and other trim) should be compatible with the liquid being pumped. Cast iron should not be used for hazardous liquids, at pressures above 200 psig or tempera-tures above 175°C. Cast iron is brittle and can be cracked by mechanical or thermal shock, which could result in leaks and subsequent fires. Ductile iron is also appropriate for some ap-plications, but it should be noted that ductile iron, when exposed to high temperatures produced by fires, can revert to cast iron, and should be avoided if there is any risk of fire.

The pump casing, impeller and other moving parts should be constructed of non-sparking materials if the pump will run dry at frequent intervals.

Pump locationPumps should be installed and lo-cated in a way that facilitates safe maintenance. When they are intended to handle hazardous liquids such as toxic, pyrophoric or water-reactive liquids, pumps should not be located beneath main-plant pipe racks. If a fire occurs at the pump, flames could reach the piping above and overpres-surize the fluid contained in the pip-ing or stress and weaken the piping due to heat absorption.

Pumps, especially those handling hazardous liquids, should be located in open, well-ventilated areas to pre-vent accumulation of leaking hazard-ous vapors.

In the design of tank farms, many companies prefer to situate the trans-fer pumps outside of the dike with a separate curbed and drained area to prevent the spread of seal or packing leaks. In the event of a large spill, the pumps may become submerged as a

result of the normally high dikes used in tank farms. For some chemicals, depending on the properties of the liq-uid, such as flammability and corro-siveness, fire or mechanical damage to associated electrical equipment could occur when the pump is submerged. In special circumstances, such as when handling high flash point, combustible liquids or viscous liquids that neces-sitate a short suction line, the pump may be located inside the dike wall. In this case, a local motor start-and-stop control station should be provided out-side the diked area and properly iden-tified. Also, consideration should be given to locating the pumps in a sub-divided area for containment of seal or lube-oil leaks.

Backflow protectionBackflow can occur in a pumping sys-tem when the motor (or other driver) is stopped, either intentionally or ac-cidentally. Depending on what type of pump is used, this may result in the flow of the pumped liquid through the pump to the suction vessel and possi-ble vessel overflow. It may also result in reverse rotation of a non-running installed spare pump, which could cause damage.

To avoid or limit backflow, a check valve should be installed in the pump discharge line. For highly hazardous liquids, it may be desirable to install two check valves in series. Alterna-tively, a fast-acting open-shut valve, activated by a low-pressure sensor in the discharge line that will shut the valve tightly, can be used.

When check valves or fast-acting open-shut valves are used in the dis-charge line of a pump, it may be nec-essary to establish a way to prevent hydraulic hammer.

Pump piping and valvesPump suction and discharge piping should be supported independently of

Feature Report

36 ChemiCal engineering www.Che.Com February 2008

Feature Report

Pump Hazardous Liquids Safely

Stanley GrosselProcess Safety & Design

Reduce the problems associated with handling hazardous liquids by following these guidelines

36-42 CHE 2-08.indd 36 1/29/08 6:19:39 PM

the pump. Supports should be designed to ensure that the pump flange load-ings are minimized and do not exceed the loadings specified by the pump manufacturer. Additionally, the pipe supports should be adjustable.

The piping should be designed to withstand the maximum pressure generated by the pump at “deadhead” conditions. Pump piping that accom-modates hot liquids is often required to provide flexibility for thermal expan-sion and contraction. If possible, this should be provided through design of the piping itself with adequate area

for piping loops. If not, then this flex-ibility can be achieved through the use of flexible hoses or expansion joints, which should be constructed of a fire-resistant material. If expansion joints are used, they should be of the packless type, without circumferential welds in the bellows.

Shutoff valves on the suction and discharge of the pump should be pro-vided. If the suction vessel is nearby, the pump shutoff valve should be mounted on the vessel nozzle. This can prevent dumping of the vessel contents in the event of a fire near

the suction line, given that the valve is closed at the time. Lines in which there is no flow may fail quickly when exposed to fire. If the pump has a long suction line, shutoff valves should be provided near both the pump inlet and at the suction vessel. Fire-safe valves should be used when a loss of valve in-tegrity due to a fire would result in a large leak of hazardous liquid.

Shutoff valves that can be operated from a remote location should be used for critical applications, for example, when large releases of hazardous liq-uids could occur upon pump failure.

ChemiCal engineering www.Che.Com February 2008 37

Table 1. A compArison of seAlless pumpsselection criteria magnetic coupling canned motor pumpHow safe is the unit during failure?

Restricted: unit has only one sealed liner; if liner ruptures, the fluid escapes into the atmo-sphere

Extended: two boundaries exist, the can and the motor housing; if the can ruptures, the motor hous-ing takes over as a gas-tight barrier

Applications Restricted: limited by the rotating mass and construction size

Extended

Viscosity range Restricted: an increase in viscosity establishes relative limitations

Extended: the fluid is warmed going through the motor section, allowing the pumping of higher viscosity material

Total viscosity Equal EqualTemperature limitation

Restricted: limited to applications between 100 and 754°F

Extended: can be used at temperatures between –200 and 1,000°F

Temperature control

Restricted: only the pump can be insulated and traced

Extended: both the pump and the motor can be insulated and traced

Maximum operating pressures

Restricted: the can thickness limits the maxi-mum pressure

Extended: the achievable working pressures are independent of the can thickness because sup-port can be furnished outside of the gap, the current limit for system pressure is approximately 17,000 psi

NPSH required Better: the lower heat input to the recirculation stream assures better net positive suction head (NPSH) characteristics

Worse

Explosion protection due to leakage

Restricted: see comments under row 1 Extended

Repair of motor Better: uses a standard motor WorseSensitivity to solids Worse: units are more sensitive to solids, espe-

cially when ferrous particles are in the fluidBetter: Units are available with slurry designs, which isolate the motor section from the pumped fluids

Starting problems Can exist: extreme care must be taken in ap-plying the torque requirements to these units

Not normally

Noise levels Greater: much higher levels due to the fan on the motor and the additional bearings in the coupling

Lower: these pumps are especially quiet; cooling, coupling, and bearing noises do not exist

Overall length Greater LessFlexibility of installa-tion

Restricted Extended: units can be installed either vertically or horizontally in generally a much smaller space

Interchangability with standard chemical pumps

Depends on individual manufacturer Depends on individual manufacturer

Electrical installation Depends on individual manufacturer Depends on individual manufacturerCost of manufacture Greater LessFoundation Required Not requiredCoupling Yes No

Coupling guard Yes NoCoupling alignment Yes NoCost of repair Less: the repair of the pump and the coupling

can usually be accomplished by normal main-tenance mechanics

More: repair requires mechanical as well as elec-trical knowledge

Bearing wear monitors

Not normally available Widely used

36-42 CHE 2-08.indd 37 1/29/08 6:20:05 PM

The actuation devices for these valves should be located in safe, pe-ripheral areas, such as control rooms or in service racks outside of unit bat-tery limits. Interlock remotely oper-ated shutoff valves to automatically shut down the pump when the valves are closed.

Other safety considerations• Provide warning lights on location

for pumps that are remotely or au-tomatically started

• Clearly identify pump shutdown and start-stop switches regardless of whether the switch is local or re-mote, and provide lockout capability at the pump driver or power source

• Provide a shaft-coupling guard for all pumps with exposed shafts

• Allow for the safe drainage of the pump casing and the suction and dis-charge piping for all pumps. Provide schedule 160 (or heavier, when neces-sary) casing drains and casing vents for pumps handling hazardous liq-uids. These should be socket or seal welded, and terminated at a raised-face flange or socket-weld fitting

• Monitor pump-bearing temperature with alarms and/or motor shutdown at high temperature. Lack of lubrica-tion can result in high bearing tem-perature and possible failure, which in turn can lead to shaft misalign-ment and mechanical seal failure

• A temperature sensor should be in-stalled in a pump casing if the pump is handling a temperature-sensitive liquid. The sensor should be inter-locked to shut the motor off when the high-temperature limit of the liquid is reached

• Pumps handling flammable liq-uids should be properly bonded and grounded to prevent electro-static ignitions

• The seal areas of pumps handling corrosive liquids may require spray shields for personnel protection

STANDARD CENTRIFUGAL PUMPSStandard centrifugal pumps are usu-ally provided with either packing or mechanical seals. For pumps handling hazardous liquids, packing should not be used. It is recommended that dou-ble, inside mechanical seals or tandem

mechanical seals be used with a com-patible buffer liquid between the seals. The following hazards can occur with standard centrifugal pumps:• Mechanical seal failure• Reduced or low flow• Overpressurization• High temperatures• CavitationThese hazards and their preventive and protective measures are discussed below.

Mechanical seal failureA mechanical seal failure can result in fugitive emissions or large spills of hazardous liquids, problems that could lead to fires or explosions. One cause of failure is the loss of flow of the buffer liquid through the seal. This can be avoided by creating a buffer-liquid seal system that consists of a circulating, pressurized reservoir with an internal cooling coil and a low-level alarm. Figure 1 is a schematic of such a system for a double mechanical seal. If there is a seal failure, pressure on the reservoir will force the liquid either into the process fluid or out of the seal on the low pressure side, and the liquid level in the reservoir will show an abnormal level drop. The level switch in the seal-liquid reservoir should be connected to an alarm and

interlocked to the pump motor, or other driver, to shut it down. It may also be desirable to close the valve at the supply-vessel nozzle or at the pump-suction inlet. With tandem mechanical seals, the buffer liquid is usually at atmospheric pressure or slightly higher, and a failure of the inner seal will result in rapid filling of the reservoir with process liquid. A high-pressure or liquid-level switch in the reservoir should be installed to alarm and shut down the pump motor.

Mechanical-seal failure can also be caused by corrosion products and other particle debris in the liquid being pumped, so measures should be taken to remove these from the liquid, such as providing an adequate strainer in the pump-suction line. API STD 682 [1] gives additional information on pump mechanical seal systems.

In recent years, gas-barrier seals have been used in place of buffer-liquid seals in many applications and should war-rant serious consideration. Gas seals op-erate on a gas fluid film and do not gen-erate significant frictional heat. Unlike in single mechanical seals, the process fluid is not the lubricant, and unlike in double and tandem mechanical seals, a compatible barrier liquid is not required. Gas seals use either compressed air or nitrogen as the barrier gas. With gas-

Feature Report

38 ChemiCal engineering www.Che.Com February 2008

Figure 1. Mechanical-seal buffer-liquid system with pressurized external reservoir

36-42 CHE 2-08.indd 38 1/29/08 6:20:38 PM

barrier seals, liquid seal reservoir main-tenance costs, specialized refilling proce-dures and their impact on reliability are eliminated. Figure 2 is a schematic of a gas-barrier seal system. More on these systems is found in Ref. [6].

Another possible cause of mechani-cal-seal failure is shaft misalignment. The appropriate alignment techniques should be used to check pumps prior to startup, and the alignment should be rechecked if continuous bearing or mechanical-seal problems occur.

Dial-indicator alignment and laser-optic alignment are the two available methods of laser alignment. Laser-optic alignment systems have sev-eral advantages over dial-indicator systems. When time savings, reduced downtime, increased reliability, fewer repair costs and lowered electricity costs are all considered, a high-qual-ity, laser-optic alignment system is clearly the better choice. The main dis-advantage of a laser-optic alignment system is the high up-front cost of the system in comparison to a dial indica-tor system. Bloch [4,5], Piotrowski [9] and API RP 686 [3] are good sources of information on this technology.

Reduced or low flowOperation of centrifugal pumps at severely reduced flow or at shutoff should be avoided. Frequently, insta-

bility points are reached as pump flow is throttled. An unstable flow condi-tion many be encountered at flows of 50—60% (or lower) of flow at the best efficiency point of the pump. This in-stability condition can cause exces-sive vibration and damage to pumps, drivers, couplings, gears, piping and adjacent equipment. Therefore, cen-trifugal pumps should be provided with a minimum-flow recirculating (bypass) line from the pump discharge side of the pump, located upstream of the block and check valves. This by-pass line should preferably be routed back to the pump supply vessel if it is an adequate “heat sink.” Otherwise, the minimum flow bypass line should be routed through an external cooler before returning to the supply vessel or pump suction. This cooling of the pumped fluid is required because a centrifugal pump will raise the tem-perature of the fluid being transferred due to the pump’s mechanical work on the liquid, such as efficiency losses. The effect ranges from a small temper-ature rise during normal operations to a high temperature rise when the flow is completely stopped. The minimum flow requirements should be obtained from the pump manufacturer.

There are a number of methods avail-able to detect low-flow conditions, includ-ing the use of a flow sensor in the pump

suction line, an ammeter to measure the draw of the motor and a power monitor to measure the motor horsepower. These sensors can be interlocked with the motor to shut it down upon the detec-tion of reduced or low flow, more details of which are discussed by Volk [11].

OverpressurizationOverpressurization protection from thermal expansion is needed for cen-trifugal pumps that can be valved-in when there is remote startup capability or when the suction and discharge lines both have automatic closing valves. The pump generates heat, which will cause liquid expansion and possible vapor-ization, leading to excessive pressure if the heat is not removed. Overpres-surization protection is also needed if the pump shut-off head exceeds the pressure rating of the system piping. Overpressurization relief is usually provided by a pressure relief valve in which discharge is directed back to the pump supply vessel. With liquids that can polymerize, however, pressure re-lief valves may not operate properly, so the use of a rupture disk should be considered.

High temperatureAs discussed above, high tempera-tures can occur when a pump oper-ates against a closed valve, which is known as deadheading. This is a very dangerous situation, as excessive temperatures can lead to decomposi-tion reactions and subsequently to an explosion. When pumping such high-hazard liquids, it is very important to provide a temperature sensor in the pump casing that will alarm and cause the motor to shut down before a thermal runaway occurs.

CavitationCavitation can cause pressure varia-tion, shaft deflection, vibration or me-chanical shock that will damage seal components. These problems can be avoided by proper design of supply vessels and suction-piping systems. It is especially critical to ensure that the pump has adequate net-positive suc-tion head (NPSH) and that entrained gases are avoided. NPSH requirements should always be obtained from the pump manufacturer.

ChemiCal engineering www.Che.Com February 2008 39

Figure 2. Externally supplied gas-barrier mechanical seal system

36-42 CHE 2-08.indd 39 1/29/08 6:21:36 PM

POSITIVE-DISPLACEMENT PUMPSPositive-displacement pumps comprise two main categories: rotary and re-ciprocating pumps. Some rotary types commonly used in the chemical pro-cess industries are gear, lobe, screw, vane, progressing cavity and peristaltic pumps. The reciprocating types are pis-ton (or plunger) and diaphragm pumps.

Rotary pumps that handle hazard-ous liquids usually have mechanical seals, and the hazards and protective measures that are discussed above for centrifugal pumps apply to rotary pumps as well.

Most positive-displacement pumps require a pressure relief device to pro-tect against overpressure, which can be caused by a closed discharge valve or restricted discharge line. External re-lief valves are typically used, because they are easy to see when open, can easily be adjusted to any set pressure, and remain open only long enough to relieve pressure, thereby reducing pro-cess liquid loss. The relief device dis-charge should be sent back to the sup-ply vessel, or if being recycled back to the pump suction piping, an external cooler should be installed to remove any heat input to the liquid from the pump. Positive-displacement pumps are sometimes provided with an inter-nal relief valve. A major drawback is that an internal relief valve does not dissipate heat. Even if the pump comes equipped with an internal relief valve, it is strongly recommended that an ex-ternal relief valve also be used when handling hazardous liquids. An exter-nal relief device should be located as close as possible to the pump discharge nozzle and before any block valve. If the pump is handling a slurry or a chemi-cal that might possibly polymerize, a rupture disk should be installed, as a backup in case the relief valve plugs.

Diaphragm pumps are used for many hazardous-liquid handling ap-plications, because they have no me-chanical seals or packing and are es-sentially sealless pumps. They can be either motor-driven or air-operated, and can have either single or double diaphragms. Since single-diaphragm pumps can leak if the diaphragm fails, double-diaphragm pumps are recommended for highly hazardous

liquids. The space between the two diaphragms can be fitted with any of several leak-detection sensors (using a pH, liquid conductivity or pressure sensor), which will detect a problem and set off an alarm when the primary diaphragm develops a leak or fails.

Air-operated diaphragm pumps usu-ally vibrate because of their mode of op-eration. Therefore, the suction and dis-charge piping should not be hard-piped to the pump nozzles, but should have flexible hose sections. The hoses should be able to move enough that the move-ment of the pump caused by vibrations is offset. If the hoses are not long enough to provide movement, they become com-parative to hard-piping and can cause damage to the pump. It is recommended that the hoses be a metal-braided type rather than rubber hoses.

Progressive-cavity pumps are widely used for transferring slurries, viscous liquids and highly hazardous liquids, such as water-based explosives. Tests by explosives companies and investiga-tions into incidents have shown that this type of pump can develop danger-ously high temperatures when oper-ated deadheaded or dry. In some inci-dents and tests, explosion or detonation of the explosive (or residual explosive) in the pump resulted. To address this operational problem, One manufac-turer has developed and patented a progressive cavity pump stator (made of a urethane compound) that gives ex-cellent service life at normal pumping temperatures but melts before typical ammonium nitrate decomposition tem-peratures are reached.

When the stator material melts, the heat-producing interference with

the rotor is reduced so that the high temperature is reduced. The develop-ment of this new stator design, result-ing in improved safety, is discussed by Osborne [8]. This new design may also be applicable to the pumping of other highly hazardous liquids.

SEALLESS PUMPSTwo kinds of sealless pumps are avail-able: canned-motor and magnetic-drive types, which are compared in Table 1. As the name implies, sealless pumps do not have any packing or me-chanical seals, and are therefore much less likely to have leaks of hazardous liquids. Centrifugal and rotary posi-tive-displacement pumps are avail-able as sealless pumps.

The difference between canned-motor pumps and magnetic-drive pumps lies in how the rotor is driven.

A canned-motor pump, as seen in Figure 3, has a standard a.c.-induc-tion motor stator separated from the pumped liquid by a non-magnetic membrane. The electrical rotating magnetic field of the stator drives the rotor, as in any standard a.c.-induc-tion motor. The membrane is in what would normally be the “air gap” (the space between the rotor and stator) of the motor, and causes the air gap to be larger than normal.

A magnetic-drive pump, as seen in Figure 4, has a rotor containing mag-nets mounted outside and concentric to the containment shell, also known as the “can.” This rotor, which con-tains a series of powerful magnets, is mounted on a shaft that is driven by a separate motor. The external rotating magnetic field, rather than electrical

Feature Report

40 ChemiCal engineering www.Che.Com February 2008

Figure 3. Typical canned-motor pump

36-42 CHE 2-08.indd 40 1/29/08 6:22:11 PM

induction, drives the inner rotor.Magnetic-drive pumps can be di-

vided into two sub-groups, based on inner-rotor construction. These two types are synchronous (also called “permanent magnet”) pumps and eddy-current pumps. Specially designed magnetic-drive pumps are available with dual-containment shells.

Sealless pumps are available in a wide range of magnetic materials, along with various metallic and non-metallic containment-shell materials.

Although these pumps do not have a mechanical seal or packing and are normally much less likely to leak, there are two weak points in sealless pumps that can result in serious leakages. These weak points are the contain-ment shell and the bearings. The con-tainment shell is usually fairly thin to allow enough of the magnetic field to pass through the can to drive the pump.

Thus, if the rotor bearings, which are internal and lubricated by the pumped liquid, wear enough to cause the rotor to rub against the can, the can may become punctured and rupture. This will cause considerable and uncontrol-lable loss of the liquid being pumped. A number of pump manufacturers ad-dress these potential problems with in-novative design features. Some pumps are constructed with an outer shell that serves as a secondary containment should the can rupture. Some pump manufacturers provide a sensor well in the secondary containment shell for a moisture-sensing probe, which can be interlocked to an alarm and possibly to the motor to shut it down. Another safety option is the incorporation of a mechanical seal between the radial ball bearings and the secondary con-tainment housing. On most sealless pumps, sensors are available to detect

bearing wear and failure, as well as monitor high can temperatures.

Several operating precautions should be observed to minimize potential problems when using sealless pumps. Low-boiling liquids may flash when cir-culated through the internal bearings and rotor assembly, resulting in vapor binding of the pump when the liquid is returned to the lowest pressure zone at the back of the impeller. This can usu-ally be prevented with canned-motor pumps by using a reverse circulation system and returning some liquid back to the suction tank that feeds to the pump. With magnetic-drive pumps, a reverse circulation system cannot be as easily installed because the can is blinded on the back side by the external magnetic drive. However, a small by-pass stream can sometimes be taken off the discharge end, cooled externally and then injected back into the can area.

ChemiCal engineering www.Che.Com February 2008 41

Figure 4. Typical magnetic-drive pump

Table 2. Causes and effeCts of sealless pump failures with appropriate failure-deteCtion monitors

Cause effects results type of monitor available

Dry-running (worst pos-sible condition — no flow in any part of the pump)

Rapid temperature rise of contain-ment shellDecrease in horsepowerAccelerated bearing wear

Ultimate, if not immediate failure

Flow switchPressure switchPower/current sensorTemperature monitor

Closed Discharge Valve (no discharge flow, but fluid circulates through shell area)

Temperature of containment shell fluid will riseDecrease in horsepowerHighest discharge pressure

Failure will depend on length of time pump is op-erating in given condition

Flow switchPower/current sensorTemperature monitor

Decoupled (inner mag-net is not rotating, no flow but pump is wet)

Temperature of containment shell will riseDecrease in horsepower

Failure will depend on length of time pump is op-erating in given condition

Flow switchPower/current sensor

Worn sleeve bearings/shaft inside pump

Wear has reached maximum, caus-ing inner magnet to offset and rup-ture containment shell, and impeller to contact volute

Failure (possible leakage) Bearing wear monitor Vibration monitor

Worn roller/ball bear-ings (in power frame)

Outer magnet is offset and contacts containment shell (possible rupture) or other part of the pump housing

Leakage through contain-ment shell

Temperature monitor (based on friction heat) Vibration monitor

36-42 CHE 2-08.indd 41 1/29/08 6:22:31 PM

Another possible cause of failure is the existence of solids in the pumped liquid. This can create problems with the inter-nal lubrication system, as the solids can constrict or block passageways entirely. Various pump manufacturers use dif-ferent methods to handle this problem, such as self-cleaning strainers, and a piping arrangement similar to mechan-

ical-seal piping that includes strainers, separators, and external flushing. It is very important to avoid running seal-less pumps dry, as this can result in worn bearings and internal rotor gall-ing, or ripping the open can. A number of different types of monitors and sen-sors are available to detect a dry-run-ning sealless pump.

Table 2 lists causes of sealless pump failures and their effects and lists types of failure detection monitors for seal-less pumps. See Nasr [7] for a discus-sion of temperature monitoring, motor monitors and bearing wear monitors, and Refs. [2, 10] for additional informa-tion on sealless pumps.

AcknowledgmentsI should like to thank the following individuals who provided me with technical material that was helpful in writing this article: Heinz P. Bloch (Process Machinery Consulting), Henry Febo (FM Global), Alfred M. Osborne (Dyno Nobel Inc.) and Robert Walz (ABB Lummus). ■

Edited by Kate Torzewski

References1. API STD 682. Pumps — Shaft sealing Sys-

tems for Centrifugal and Rotary Pumps. 4th ed. American Petroleum Institute, Washing-ton, D.C., 2006.

2. API STD 685. Sealless Centrifugal Pumps for Petroleum, Heavy Duty Chemical, and Gas Industry Services Downstream Segment. American Petroleum Institute, Washington, D.C., 2000.

3. API RP 686. Recommended Practices for Ma-chinery Installation and Installation Design. American Petroleum Institute, Washington, D.C., 1996.

4. Bloch, H. P., Laser Optics Accurately Measure Running Shaft Alignment. Oil & Gas Journal, pp. 42-45, Nov. 5, 1990.

5. Bloch, H. P., Chem. Eng. Update Your Shaft Alignment Knowledge. pp. 68–72, September 2005.

6. Boyson, S., Gas Up Your Sealing Knowledge. Chem. Process., pp. 20–25, December 2006.

7. Nasr, A., Prevent Failures of Mag Drive Pumps. Chem. Eng. Prog., pp. 21–24, November 1992.

8. Osborne, A. M., Progressive Cavity Pump Safety Improvement. Proc. 28th Annual Conf. on Explosives and Blasting Technique, Vol. II, pp. 119–127, 2002.

9. Piotrowski, J., Shaft Alignment Handbook. 3rd ed., CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL., 2006.

10. Vetter, G., Leak-Free Pumps and Compres-sors Handbook. Elsevier, Burlington, MA and Oxford, U.K., 1995.

11. Volk, M. W., 10 Ways to Prevent Low-Flow Damage in Pumps. Flow Control, pp. S-4 to S-8, December 2002.

Feature Report

42 ChemiCal engineering www.Che.Com February 2008Circle 25 on p. 62 or go to adlinks.che.com/7369-25

AuthorStanley S. Grossel (4 Mar-ble Court, Unit 9, Clifton, NJ 07013-2212; Phone: 973-779-3668; email: Psadi28@aol.com) is a consulting chemical engineer in the fields of pro-cess safety/loss prevention; powders and bulk solids stor-age, handling, and processing; air pollution control; and pro-cess design of batch plants. He has over 57 years of ex-

perience in the process design and application of process safety and loss prevention principles to process plants for pharmaceuticals, organic chemicals, petrochemicals, and inorganic chemi-cals. He has a B.Ch.E. from the City College of New York (1950) and a M.S.Ch.E from Drexel Institute of Technology (1957).

36-42 CHE 2-08.indd 42 1/29/08 6:23:06 PM

Note: For more information, circle the 3-digit number on p. 62, or use the website designation.

A durable flowmeter for re-mote applications outdoorsA thermal-dispersion, mass-flow sensing technology, the ST50 Flow Meter Series (photo) boasts ±1% accuracy (repeatability ±0.5%) for 2–24-in. line sizes and a built-in temperature compensation for reliable measurement over a 40–100°F temperature range. There is almost no pressure-drop, according to the firm. The ST50 Series is suitable for measuring air within 1–125-std ft/s, com-pressed air between 4–400-std ft/s, and process gases, including nitrogen at 1–150-std ft/s. Built-in wireless IR communication tech-nology comes standard with free Palm-OS based software provided for download. (Other outputs are also available.), Built for longevity in outdoor and field-installation applications, the ST50 series is available in three field-adjustable, U-length probes, 6-, 12- and 18-in., accommodating 2–124-in. pipe sizes. The all-aluminum, epoxy-coated, electronic components en-closure is NEMA 4X (IP66) rated and FM/CSA approved for use in hazardous locations. — Fluid Components Inter-national LLC, San Marcos, Calif. edlinks.che.com/7369-431

This electromagnetic flowmeter is submersibleAvailable in line sizes from 1 to 16-in., the Extended Linearity (EL) 2200 Series of electromagnetic flowmeters (photo) promises accuracy in turbu-lent, transitional and laminar flow re-gimes. Based on the Faraday principle, electromagnetic flowmeters are appli-cable in process applications where the fluid measured is electrically conduc-tive. Fluids cross a magnetic field in the flowmeter, generating a potential directly proportional to their velocity. The EL 2200 Series’ “extended linear-ity” means a measurement range of up to 1000:1 turndown without the aid of linearization software. The device also measures flow in both directions with no moving parts and no pressure drop.

The magnetic field is generated by two Hastelloy-C 22 electrodes in a sealed electrode and coil assembly for immu-nity to humidity variation. The base transmitter, optional panel mounted display and multiple output converter with integral display can be either directly or remotely mounted on the flowmeter. When remotely mounted, the EL 2200 meets the IP 68 standard for permanent immersion in water up to a depth of 1.5 m. — Flow Technol-ogy, Inc., Tempe, Ariz.edlinks.che.com/7369-432

A way to measure corrosive flu-ids cost-effectivelySuitable for chemical, desalination and water-treatment operations, the P420 Series of vortex-shedding flowmeters (photo) is an inexpensive analyzer de-void of moving parts that might be af-fected by corrosive fluids. It has no O-ring seals. Its connections are made by either solvent-welding PVC pipe into the provided socket port or threaded

connection. The P420 is designed to transmit fluids that are compatible with PVC, including liquids that may contain particles. The flowmeter is available in five pipe sizes between 0.5 and 2.0-in., with max. flow rates from 12 to 200 gal/min. The device’s electri-cal output is rated “Intrinsically Safe” when used with barriers; and its elec-tronics package is enclosed for protec-tion from shorting, corrosion, leaks, humidity or condensate from conduits or thermal cycling. — Universal Flow Monitors, Inc., Hazel Park, Mich.edlinks.che.com/7369-433

An insertion vortex meter that is reliable in large pipesThe Innova-Mass Model 241 Inser-tion Multiparameter Meter (photo, p. 44) measures three process variables — velocity, temperature and pres-sure — at a single point. This allows the device to calculate the Reynold’s number in real time, yielding accurate determinations of the true mass flow and point velocity for up to 72-in. dia. pipes. The flowmeter has an accuracy of ±1.0% and a repeatability of ±0.2% making it suitable for monitoring flows in large pipes where inline meters are

43

FOCUS ON

FlowmetersFlowTechnology

Fluid Components International

UniversalFlow Monitors

cost prohibitive. The Model 241 comes equipped with a patented “low-mass” sensor making it more sensitive to the vortices formed and less sensitive to equipment vibration. It can be in-serted into existing pipe through a 2-in. NPT or a 2-in. 150, 300 or 600 lb flange with or without a permanent retractor. — Sierra Instruments, Inc. Monterey, Calif.edlinks.che.com/7369-434

A flow-conditioning meter for easy retrofittingA centrally located cone inside the Wafer-Cone Flowmeter (photo) re-shapes the velocity profile of a fluid to create a lower pressure region im-mediately downstream. The pressure difference created is then measured via two pressure sensing taps and incorporated into a derivation of the Bernoulli equation, determining the flow rate. This built-in flow condition-ing gives the Wafer-Cone an accuracy of ±0.5% and a repeatability of ±0.1% over a 10:1 flow range. The firm rec-ommends the Wafer-Cone for small line size processes, as the flowmeter was designed for liquid or gas service in line sizes from 0.5–6.0-in. It has been approved by the U.S. Bureau of Land Management for use in coal-bed methane applications. — McCrometer, Inc., Hemet, Calif.edlinks.che.com/7369-435

This device improves settling time and accuracyIntended for neutral, non-contami-nated gases, and others if specified, the Type 8711 Mass Flow Controller boasts a settling time of under 300 ms and an accuracy of ±0.8%. Linear-ity and repeatability are both ±0.1%. The device’s CMOSens technology sensor is housed in a bypass channel designed to permit laminar flow condi-tions and is comprised of two tempera-ture sensors divided by a heating re-sistor. The flowmeter can be calibrated by the analyte gas or air by way of a conversion factor. It’s flow rate range is 0.02–50 L/min. The operating ambi-ent temperature range is 14 to 122°F; medium temperature is 14 to 158°F; and the maximum operating pressure is 145 psi. Digital communication is standard RS232 or RS485, though

an adapter is needed. And while the Type 8711 is constructed of aluminum with FPM and EPDM sealing materi-als and NPT 1/4-in. port connections, other sealants and ports are available on request. — Burkert Fluid Control Systems, Ingelfingen, Germany.edlinks.che.com/7369-436

This meter has low maintenance costs Also operating on electromagnetic induction, the FCMI flowmeter mea-sures flow rates between 0–37.5 L/min with a measuring accuracy of ±0.1% during low-flow regimes (1–5 L/min). The device is serviceable for a range of electrically conductive fluids with a minimum conductivity of 10 µS/cm or greater, 15 µS/cm or greater in the case of water. Designed with short-cir-cuit and reverse-polarity protections, it has a medium temperature range of 5–60°C and is resistant to pressure up to 10 bar. — Hans Turck GmbH & Co. KG, Mülheim an der Ruhr, Germanyedlinks.che.com/7369-437

A compact, no-frills flow-mea-surement deviceThe FTB690 Series turbine meter (photo) performs all operations (such as the display of cumulative total, batch total, and rate of flow) with only two buttons. Memory is available for a single-point field calibration curve. The device boasts a repeatability of ±0.1% and an accuracy of ±3% with a lessened accuracy of ±5.0% during extended low-flow regimes. The opera-

tional temperature range is 0 to 60°C and the safe storage range is –40 to 70°C. The FTB690 Series is rated for fluids with viscosity near 1 centistoke, but can be field calibrated for viscosi-ties as high as 100 centistokes. It has a pressure rating of 150 psig. — Omega Engineering, Inc., Stamford, Conn.edlinks.che.com/7369-438

A large Coriolis mass flowmeter for petrochemicals applicationsThe largest Coriolis mass flowmeter commercially available according to the manufacturer, the Rotamass XR has been tailored to the needs of the oil, gas and petrochemical industries, offering ±0.1% accuracy of measured value for liquids and ±0.5% for gases. The device also offers a temperature measurement accuracy of ±0.5°C. For anywhere up to its maximum flow rate of 600 ton/h, the flowmeter is capable of bi-directional measurements of mass flow, density and temperature as well as calculations for concentration, volu-metric flow and net flow. The flange concept allows for connections up to 8-in. ASME class 300. A high-power option allows the Rotamass to handle two-phase flows. Built-in self-diag-nostic features, corrosion detection, slug flow detection and compensation, come standard. Digital communication is provided via HART or Foundation Fieldbus. Its operational temperature range is –200 to +230°C. — Yokogawa Electric Corporation, Tokyo, Japanedlinks.che.com/7369-439

Matthew Phelan

44

Focus

Sierra Instruments

Omega Engineering

McCrometer

Omega Engineering

The interior surfaces of your storage tanks are constantly at risk. If you walk past a tank often without giving

thought to what is happening on the inside, it is because you trust the in-terior coating to protect not only the storage vessel, but also to protect the product being stored from any corro-sion that might occur on the tank.

Without a doubt, corrosion is the principal enemy of a storage vessel. It shortens a tank’s lifespan incre-mentally and increases the possibility of contamination. Dry bulk products are often abrasive to the tank walls, requiring a strong coating to resist scratches and gouges, which expose the steel to corrosion. In addition, liq-uids are particularly aggressive, so the coating found on the interior of the tank is essential when it comes to protecting a tank against the harmful effects of corrosion.

While the old adage that “a tank is a tank” is no longer true, tanks do often share the same materials of con-struction. Tanks and silos are made from a variety of materials, including aluminum, stainless steel, plastic, fi-berglass and most commonly, carbon steel. The tank material choice is typi-cally driven by cost and compatibil-ity with the stored product. Carbon steel is the material of choice in many

cases because if properly coated, it combines strength and strong perfor-mance at a reason-able cost.

Nearly all tanks are coated on the interior to protect the tank as well as the product being stored. Corrosion occurs when the tank coating fails and the product is exposed to the tank wall. Unprotected steel can begin to corrode in a matter of hours. With ag-gressive liquids, holes through a tank sidewall or floor could develop in a matter of months.

All materials, whether dry bulk chemicals, potable water, wastewater or liquid chemicals, will react differ-ently to the storage vessel and have individual and specific storage re-quirements. Chemicals will require a tank coating that strongly resists aggressive products, such as acids or bases. Dry bulk materials require hard, abrasion resistant coatings that are slick, to ensure that all material passes out of the tank leaving mini-mal residue. Liquids require a coating that withstands immersion for long periods of time. Choosing a tank with a high-quality coating that has been tested and proven to withstand the

materials that it will hold means less maintenance over time and less con-cern for you each time you pass by.

Variety in coatingsTank manufacturers are often defined by their coatings. The quality of a coating and its resistance to corrosion determines the lifespan and quality of the tank. Many different coatings are found on the market today, including epoxy, glass fused-to-steel, high-heat coatings, cold-weather coatings and coatings designed to withstand high levels of acidity or bases.

The choice of one coating over an-other should be made depending on the product to be stored. Each product has its own requirements and speci-fications. For example, wastewater and wastewater sludges will require a coating that is designed to withstand the aggressive effects of ever-present fatty acids and hydrogen sulfide.

Epoxy coatings are very common in

Solids Processing

Peter VodakCST Industries/Columbian TecTank

Solids Processing

45

Tank Coatings: Covering the Basics of Selection and SpecificationGood quality coatings can make all the difference where corrosion and

chemical compatibility are concerned

Solids Processing

the tank industry. They are generally tough and chemical resistant, with excellent corrosion resistance. Epoxy coatings can be applied electrostatically either as a powder or a liquid. On the exterior, epoxy coatings are typically combined with polyurethane topcoats to provide protection against environ-mental elements.

Glass-fused-to-steel coatings are ap-plied by spraying panels with a water-based slurry of ground glass particles in water. The water is then removed by drying prior to firing. The coated sheets are sent through a furnace at 1,500°F, which chemically fuses the glass coating to the steel. The finished glass coating is impermeable to liquids and unaffected by solvents.

Many other types of coatings also exist, and each has its advantages and disadvantages. Some, such as in-organic zincs, are intended to provide sacrificial corrosion resistance on exte-rior surfaces. Others, such as silicones, are intended for high-heat applications where high temperatures are expected. Regardless of the type of coating used, it is critical that the coating be suited for its intended storage application.

Coating application processWhile the market today offers a vari-ety of coatings, the true differences lie in the application process itself. Coat-ings in general may have great selling points and use advanced technology, but if the coating is not applied cor-rectly, the tank wall will be left exposed and vulnerable to corrosion.

The highest quality application is done at the factory under environ-mentally controlled circumstances to ensure the most consistent applica-tion. Taken one step further, the coat-ings should also be thermally cured at the factory. Some manufacturers apply the coatings in the factory and then allow them to air-dry and cure with ambient heat, which exposes the cure to environmental factors such as dust and humidity. Other manufactur-ers outsource the coating process alto-gether. The optimal coating solution is one that is both applied and thermally cured in controlled factory conditions, before the tank is shipped and erected in the field. Factory welded and bolted tanks often offer this feature.

Field welded and concrete tanks usually receive their coatings onsite once the tank has been erected. These tanks may need to undergo a chemi-cal process to protect the coating while the tank is being erected (for instance, heat from welding may damage the coating). For this type of application, you should ensure that adequate qual-ity control measures are listed in the specification, and consider third party inspections. Be aware that once a tank has been erected in the field, there are often areas of the tank that are ex-tremely difficult to sand blast or fully prepare for field coating. Even “miss-ing the smallest spots” leaves exposed areas open to corrosion. Also, the thickness of coatings applied in the field cannot be controlled as closely as is possible under ideal factory con-ditions, which may result in uneven application. Finally, weather and the environment — dust, humidity, tem-perature and wind — will affect the quality and timeliness of the curing process in the field.

The coating-application process involves three steps, each of which helps define the quality of the coating and the effectiveness of its resistance to corrosion. Surface preparation: Surface prepa-ration is the first and most critical step in the application process. It involves both cleaning the surface and achiev-ing a profile on the steel. Regardless of how good the coating is, it must have a clean surface with an adequate blast profile to perform properly, in

the same way that the most advanced skyscraper must have a solid founda-tion to rest upon.

The most common method of sur-face preparation is abrasive blasting. Different abrasives can be used, in-cluding steel grit or shot, garnet, coal slag, and even items such as walnut shells. The type and size of grit should be chosen in accordance with the coat-ing manufacturer’s recommendations. Abrasive blasting may either be done automatically (typically by a centrifu-gal blast machine) or manually (air blasting). In the case of air blasting, it is critical that the air used for blasting is dry and free of contaminants. The surface should be inspected prior to coating application to ensure that the proper cleanliness and profile have been achieved.Coating application: Coatings can be applied either automatically or manually. When coating large areas, liquid coatings are typically applied using either airless or air-assisted airless spray guns. Airless guns give a higher production rate while air-as-sisted airless guns use less paint and provide a smoother finish. In some cases, electrostatic versions can be used to increase transfer efficiency of the paint by applying a charge to the atomized paint, which is then drawn to the part to be coated, although in this case, the part must be grounded. Rollers can be used if regulatory re-quirements or environmental concerns prohibit the use of spray guns.

Powder coatings are applied using

46 ChemiCal engineering www.Che.Com February 2008

Solids Processing

Regardless of how good a coating is, it must have a clean surface with an adequate blast profile to perform properly

45-48 CHE 2-08.indd 46 1/29/08 6:43:38 PM

spray guns that apply a charge to the powder particles when they are atom-ized in a similar way to how a liquid electrostatic system works. Again, the part must be grounded. Powder sys-tems have the advantage of wrapping extremely well on exposed edges.

It is important that the coating thickness be measured throughout the application process to ensure that the manufacturer’s recommended thick-ness is achieved. If the coating is too thin, the steel may not be adequately covered and pinpoint rusting can soon occur. If the coating is excessively thick, it may crack from internal stresses or a loss of flexibility.Curing: Curing involves the process of transforming the coating from a liquid or powder to a fully set film. Many coatings cure by polymeriza-tion, wherein a chemical reaction oc-curs. For these types of coatings, cur-ing is not the same as drying, which involves the evaporation of solvents or water from a liquid coating. A coating can be dry to the touch without being fully cured. Generally the rate of reac-tion (and thus, cure) for these types of coatings can be sped up by increasing the temperature. There are three main types of cure for polymerization coat-ings: oxidative, chemical and thermal.

Oxidative coatings (such as oil-based house paints) cure by reacting with the oxygen in air. These coatings tend to have lesser chemical resis-tance and in most cases are not used on storage tanks.

Chemical reaction coatings typically involve either reaction with moisture in the air or reaction between two or more components. Epoxies are typical coatings that cure by chemical reaction. In this case, two components are mixed together, which react and then cure. The rate of chemical reaction for these coatings types can typically be sped up by increasing the temperature.

Thermal coatings require a high-temperature bake cycle to achieve cure. These are typically high-per-forming systems and must be applied and cured in a factory environment.Advantage of powders: Powder coat-ings have an electrostatic charge put on the powder particles while they are being atomized. This charge draws it to the grounded part. The advantage

of electrostatic application is that the charged particles are drawn preferen-tially to the thinnest areas, which re-sults in a more uniform coating. They are also drawn to edges that are typi-cally difficult to coat by other means.

Performance testingTo ensure the quality of the coating meets the manufacturer’s specifica-tions, coatings are generally tested extensively by tank manufacturers before they are introduced to the mar-ketplace. Common performance tests include the following: ultraviolet (UV) exposure, corrosion resistance and chemical resistance. UV exposure: Coatings will typically lose gloss and their color will change over time when exposed to UV light. This property is most critical for ex-terior topcoats that are constantly ex-posed to sunlight. UV-exposure testing measures a coating’s color and gloss retention when exposed to sunlight. Both natural sunlight exposure and accelerated versions that use either concentrated sunlight or simulated sunlight are commonly tested. This test measures how the coating’s color and gloss change over time.Corrosion resistance: Coatings are tested for resistance to corrosion by exposure to water or salt solutions in a humid or spray environment. For many years, the standard ASTM B117 salt-spray test was used, but recently it has fallen out of favor because results did not always correlate well with those seen in the field. More recently the ASTM D5894 cyclic-corrosion test with its modified salt solution has gained favor and is considered more realistic. Regardless of the test chosen, the goal is to assess the degree of rusting and the amount of undercutting seen from a line scribed through the coating. Strong-performing coatings will show no surface rusting and very little to no undercutting, even when exposed for thousands of hours.Chemical resistance: The chemi-cal resistance of coatings is tested by immersing a coated sample in the liquid to which it will be exposed. The temperature may be elevated to ac-celerate a chemical attack. This test looks for blistering or dissolution of the coating. In general, if a coating

BioengineeringInversina –the gentle way of mixing.The Inversina mixes solids or liquidsthoroughly and efficiently. The processis clean, because mixing takes place inclosed containers that can be quicklyinterchanged. The Inversina mixes adiverse range of components rapidlyand in an extremely gentle way.Segregation does not occur, evenafter extended mixing times, by virtueof the eversion phenomenon (PaulSchatz principle ).Applications for the Inversina: analyti-cal labs, metal finishing shops, powdermetallurgy and nuclear industry,manufacture of batteries, cement,ceramics, cosmetics, dental products,diamond tools, dyes and pigments,electrical and electronic devices,explosives and pyrotechnics, foods,homeopathic products, householdproducts, medicines and pharmaceu-ticals, plastics, printing inks and manyother products. The BioengineeringInversina is available with capacitiesof 2, 20, 50, 100 and 300 L.

Bioengineering, Inc.Waltham, MA 02451, USABioengineering AG8636 Wald, Switzerlandinfo@bioengineering.chwww.bioengineering.ch

C

M

Y

CM

MY

CY

CMY

K

Circle 26 on p. 62 or go to adlinks.che.com/7369-26

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will fail a chemical-resistance test, it will tend to happen fairly quickly (within a week).

For all of these tests, acceler-ated versions may be used, which will give a faster indication of how the coating is likely to perform in a given environment. However, it is important to keep in mind that accelerated tests generally involve some level of trade-off. Therefore, look to the tank supplier to provide a history of successful projects in simi-lar applications.

Other considerationsIf you would ever consider moving or relocating a tank, think about the impact this will have on the coat-ing. Tanks featuring factory-applied coatings are usually moveable with-out a follow up recoat, as panels are individually coated and easily taken apart. Coatings applied in the field often set up as a sheet and will tear or break if the pieces are moved. Also consider whether you plan to expand your tank. A bolted tank with factory coating would allow for adding rings (think upward) without affecting the coating on the original tank. A tank with a field-applied coating would require recoating after the expan-sion is completed.

Safety factorsCoatings also play a role in safety. Some coatings are designed for stor-ing a wide variety of products, while others may react poorly with cer-tain products. Manufacturers should provide the results of testing of the coating with a particular product to ensure the coating is suitable for the specific application.

It is unsafe to use an old storage tank for a product for which it was not designed and tested. If you are considering recycling a used tank for storing a new product (such as using a dry bulk-storage tank for liquid stor-age, or a potable-water storage tank for wastewater), be sure to first have the tank evaluated for safety, flow and corrosion and chemical resistance. In-correct use of a tank could result in severe corrosion, premature failure of the coating, harm to the product or se-rious injury to personnel.

Keep in mind that special applica-tions require specific product approv-als for tank coatings. For example, if you plan to use a tank for potable water storage in the U.S., the tank coating must be NSF Standard 61 cer-tified. Meanwhile, in the same country, dry food applications require the tank coating to have U.S. Food and Drug Ad-ministration (FDA) compliance under the Code of Federal Regulations (21 CFR 175.300). Verification of these ap-provals can be obtained from the tank manufacturer or coating supplier.

Inspection and maintenanceTanks should be inspected both in-side and out once a year to make sure they are in good shape. Any cor-roded areas should be properly pre-pared and touched up with a suitable maintenance coating. A tank that is neglected can result in product con-tamination, extensive maintenance and recoating, safety hazard and sig-nificant downtime.

Maintenance coatings are typically used to repair larger areas or even an entire tank. Some maintenance coat-ings require the existing coating to be fully removed through a process of blasting or waterjetting, while other maintenance coatings are designed to be applied over an existing coating or even a rusted surface. Contact the tank manufacturer for recommendations, and make sure that the chosen main-tenance coating is compatible with the stored product and environment.

One common rule of thumb is that a tank should be considered for re-painting when it shows rust on 1% of its surface. This doesn’t sound like a lot, but in reality represents a fairly large area. For example, a 30-ft dia. tank that is 20 ft tall has an area of 1,885 ft2. A 1% portion of this area is just under 19 ft2.

Costs of corrosion Corrosion significantly shortens the life of a tank, so a good quality coating from the beginning often means less maintenance and less chance of the need to recoat the tank. A high quality coating that offers proven corrosion resistance may have a higher up-front cost, but lower lifecycle maintenance and recoating requirements make it the most economical choice for the life of the tank.

Vendor selectionReview the history of the tank manu-facturer and coating to be used. Tank vendors should provide testing data and case histories of how the coating per-formed against corrosion with a product like the one to be stored. Other consid-erations include how long the company has been fabricating tanks, whether it uses state-of-the-art coatings, if its coat-ings are factory applied and thermally cured, what its quality control mea-sures are, what its volume sold is, and into what countries and markets it has sold. Also consider tank manufacturers with third-party accreditation, such as the ISO Quality Certification. ■

Edited by Rebekkah Marshall

48 ChemiCal engineering www.Che.Com February 2008

Solids Processing

AuthorPeter Vodak is corporate coating engineer with CST Industries, Inc. (P.O. Box 2907, Kansas City, KS 6610; Phone: 913-621-3700; Fax: 913-621-2145; Email: pvodak@colum-biantectank.com). He holds a B.S.Ch.E. from the University of Wisconsin-Madison. He is a NACE Certified Coating In-spector. Columbian TecTank, a division of CST Industries,

specializes in the design, fabrication, factory coat-ing/thermally curing and erection of tanks for liquid and dry bulk storage. The company manu-factures bolted and shop-welded tanks of carbon steel, aluminum and stainless steel featuring fac-tory applied and thermally cured epoxy coatings. Columbian TecTank tanks are manufactured at ISO 9001 Certified facilities and are found in 123 countries worldwide. For more information about choosing tanks and coatings, please visit www.co-lumbiantectank.com.

Factory welded and bolted tanks are often preferred because their coatings can be applied and thermally cured at the factory

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Water is often the fluid of choice for cooling systems in the chemical process industries (CPI). Recircu-

lated cooling-water systems are used to control the temperature of process fluids, which is necessary for process control and to achieve target product yields and specifications. Hydrocarbon leaks into recirculated cooling-water systems are of particular concern in oil refineries and the petrochemical in-dustry. Contamination in the water can cause a multitude of problems includ-ing biofouling, scaling and microbiolog-ically induced corrosion. These fouling and corrosion mechanisms can result in operational inefficiencies, equipment failure and environmental concerns.

Hydrocarbons as nutrientsPetroleum hydrocarbons are com-pounds consisting of carbon and hy-drogen in various configurations. Since living cells use carbohydrates as sources of energy; microbiological organisms — such as bacteria, algae and fungi — use hydrocarbons as their food for growth. Petroleum hy-drocarbons, therefore, become natural sources of nutrition for these micro-biological species.

Hydrocarbons range from very sim-ple and volatile paraffinic compounds

to long-chain waxy compounds. Mi-crobes produce enzymes to break down hydrocarbon chains into small, easily digestible parts. The simpler the con-figuration, the easier and faster the breakdown. Gasoline, naphtha, kero-sene and benzene are broken down very easily. Diesel oil is also primarily composed of paraffinic chains and is therefore absorbed very easily by mi-crobes. Heavier oils, high-viscosity oils and high boiling-point fractions com-prise long, polymeric chains. These are very difficult to break down by the microbial enzymes and the organisms take a long time to use these products as their food.

Leak detectionHydrocarbons, as oils and gases, are typically introduced into cooling water systems due to leaks in cool-ers and condensers in the plant. Tube and gasket failures in the coolers and condensers are contributing factors to these problems.

Since hydrocarbons are sources of high-caloric and easily digestible food for microbes, the growth of the organ-isms increases exponentially when hydrocarbons are introduced into a cooling water system. Due to such unwarranted proliferation of microor-ganisms, the requirement for routine

oxidizing biocides like sodium hypo-chlorite, chlorine and bromine, and chlorine dioxide greatly increases. The immediate effect of hydrocarbon leaks is the gradual lowering of free chlorine content (FRC) in the recircu-lated water, particularly in the return header. Observations subsequent to process leaks typically include the fol-lowing:• Visually, an oily layer can be seen on

the sump and a rainbow-colored in-terference pattern may be observed

• A hydrocarbon-like odor may be noticed in water samples collected from the sump

• In case of gas leakage, bubbling in the sump may be seen. This can also be felt during sample collection from return headers

• Sometimes, the pH of sump water decreases slightly. H2S ingress takes place with most of the petroleum compounds, thereby forming a weak acid in water

• FRC in the system will come down and possibly reach zero if the leak remains undetected for a few days, or if biocides remain ineffective

• The turbidity of the sump water will gradually increase, particularly dur-ing heavy oil ingress. Turbidity may exceed 300 NTU (Nephelometric turbidity units) with contamination

Solids Processing

Caring for Cooling Water Systems

Hydrocarbon leaks can disrupt recirculated

cooling-water systems. Here’s an outline

of effects and remedies

Sanjib GhosalIndian Oil Corp.

Environmental Manager

Finding and Fixing the leak

When hydrocarbon leaks are confirmed, first and foremost it is important to isolate the source of leakage. The following are typical methods:• Measure oil content in the supply and return headers of the main units to determine the

unit that is leaking• Once the main unit that is leaking is identified, oil content and oxidation-reduction

potential (ORP) should be measured at the inlet and outlet of coolers and condensers. An ORP level greater than 450 millivolts (mV) indicates that biofouling is prevented in the system. Values of 500–600 mV indicate an almost clean system, while a sudden dip in ORP value indicates hydrocarbon leaks. ORP measurements are quite effective in identifying the source of leaks, and installation of online ORP meters at unit return headers, and critical coolers and condensers is recommended. Leaks sources should be confirmed through laboratory measurements of oil content in the water sample

• Once the leak source is confirmed, the unit should be isolated immediately. This some-times causes production losses

• After cleaning, the leaking heat exchanger is pressure tested to identify and repair the leak ❏

ChemiCal engineering www.Che.Com February 2008 49

49-50 CHE 2-08.indd 49 1/29/08 6:08:33 PM

of heavy and viscous materials• The sulfate-reducing bacteria (SRB)

counts will steadily rise to 103–104 counts/mL

• The total bacteria count (TBC) will also show an upward trend (more than 105 counts/mL)

• The oil content in the sump will be significantly higher than the al-lowed values

Leaving leaks unchecked will cause problems, the effects of which are dis-cussed in the next sections.

The effects of leaksBiofouling. Bacteria and algae stick to almost any surface in cooling water systems, particularly where water ve-locity is low. The microorganisms pro-duce a polysaccharide-layer matrix, which is called slime or biofilm. This film further entraps inorganic matter, precipitates and corrosion products. Numerous problems posed by the bio-fouling are given below.• Loss of transfer and operational ef-

ficiency as these biofilms are four times more insulating than even calcium-carbonate scales

• Microbes produce localized con-centrations of metabolites, such as corrosive gases and acids, which manifest in the form of pitting and grooving

• Biofilms promote scale formation• Restriction of flow inside the cooler

and condenser tubes • Typical chemical treatments can

become ineffective when biofilms grow in volume, as the biocides cannot penetrate the impermeable structure

• Biofilm promotes development of biocide-resistant strains due to ses-sile growth under and within depos-its (sessile refers to microorganisms that are attached to the surface)

• Biofilms also harbor some harmful species that cause environmental and human-safety related concerns

Scaling. Organic acids and polymers produced by bacteria in biofilms com-bine with calcium and magnesium ions to form insoluble oxalates, acetates and calcium-magnesium polymer complexes. These insoluble-compound deposits are scales, which make biofilms even more impermeable. As a result, heat-transfer efficiency drops significantly.

Microbiologically induced corro-sion (MIC). This is another deteriorat-ing effect of oil leaks in cooling water systems. Depending on the function of bacteria, they are grouped as aerobic or anaerobic. SRB is a typical example of anaerobic bacteria. Nitrifying bac-teria, which produce nitric acids in the presence of ammonia, are aerobic.

MIC results from various causes, in-cluding: a) Cathodic depolarization of sulfur-reducing bacteria, such as De-sulfovibrio and Desulfurican. Corro-sion typically manifests in the form of localized pitting and grooving; b) The production of corrosive metabolites, such as acids by Thiobacillus and Thiooxidans and other organic acids by various bacteria and fungi species; c) Sometimes bacteria, such as Gal-lionella and Clonothrix, cause direct oxidation of metal, for example fer-rous to ferric, and cause tubercles on metal surface. These are called iron-oxidizing bacteria. Since areas under the tubercles are deficient in oxygen, they act as corrosion cells and result in deep internal grooving; d) Some bacteria are acid-producing bacteria (APB) and thus corrode metals.

MIC may be prevented by routine monitoring of TBC and SRB counts in the cooling water system. However, a common mistake is to measure the planktonic count (microbes present in the bulk water), which shows poor cor-relation with the sessile count on the metal surface. Sessile-count monitor-ing, and identification of low-velocity zones and fouling-prone coolers and condensers are a must for formulating an effective water-management pro-gram. It is important to select proper biocides to kill unwanted microorgan-isms and equally important to use bio-dispersants to disengage organisms from surfaces so that the biocides can act effectively.

Ammonia and hydrogen sulfide sometimes accompany hydrocarbon gases to contaminate cooling water. These chemicals also cause the de-mand for chlorine to increase to very high levels and may also lead to both fouling and MIC.

Remedial measures In addition to fixing the actual leak (see box, p. 49), parallel measures are also

taken to ward off the deleterious effects of leaks in the cooling water system: • Dosing of oxidizing biocide is in-

creased to a higher level. Chlorine dioxide, bromo-compounds and ozone are also used

• Biodispersants are dosed at a higher-than-normal rate. They cause faster disengagement of organisms from the surface so that biocides act ef-fectively. This enhances both plank-tonic and sessile efficacy

• Shock dosing of other non-oxidizing biocides, such as quaternary ammo-nium compounds, methyl bis-thio-cyanate and glutaraldehyde, is also done to kill the microbes. Selection of particular biocides and the dosing rates is important because biocides possess different levels of efficacy against various microorganisms, and each cooling water system has its unique microbiological population

• An overflow and controlled blowdown of the cooling water sump eliminates oil, biomass and froth from the sump, which otherwise would circulate in the system and clog the coolers and condensers. Any blowdown, however, directly affects cost

Before a good cooling-water treatment program is formulated, consideration must be given to the various types of process leaks that are possible, and microbiological populations that are present in the system. In the past, se-lection of biocides and dispersants was typically based only on their cost and effectiveness against the spectrum of bacteria. Today, the selection is also governed by environmental concerns. Research is being pursued in this area and newer strategies are evolving for the control of biofouling, scaling and MIC due to hydrocarbon leaks. n� Edited�by�Dorothy�Lozowski

AuthorSanjib Ghoshal joined In-dian Oil Corp. in 1997 as an inspection engineer and cur-rently works as deputy man-ager inspection at the Haldia Refinery (Indian Oil Corpora-tion Ltd., Midnapore(E), West-Bengal, PIN-721606, India; Email: Ghosals@iocl.co.in). Ghosal obtained his B-Tech degree in metallurgical en-gineering from the Indian

Institute of Technology, Kharagpur in 1997. His areas of interest include risk-based inspection, reliability improvement through inspection and advanced NDT, and corrosion of piping and equipment in cooling water circuits.

50 ChemiCal engineering www.Che.Com February 2008

Environmental Manager

49-50 CHE 2-08.indd 50 1/29/08 6:08:57 PM

If you ever find yourself in a man-agement position, inevitably at some point you will have to ter-minate an employee. Whether for

performance-related reasons, disci-pline, or business downturns, termi-nation of an employee for many people causes a significant amount of angst and sleepless nights. Let’s not kid any-one, terminating an employee is never easy and should not be done without forethought or preparation. Termina-tion impacts people’s lives: the person being let go, people remaining, and the people handling the displacement. When terminating an employee is un-avoidable, the following guiding prin-ciples are important to keep in mind.

Before you decide to terminateDan Sell, director of human resources for Hill International believes that preceding any employee termination, several issues need to be considered; “Before moving to terminate an indi-vidual for sub-standard performance, human resources (HR) needs to make sure the appropriate steps have been taken to get there.” For instance, “If contemplating terminating an indi-vidual because of poor performance, HR needs to know that the necessary resources, such as training to do the job well, have been provided. Objec-tively, the question should be asked if the company has done all that can be done to support the individual’s suc-cess in our organization.” If a person

is being terminated for performance reasons, Sell also emphasizes the im-portance of having provided the in-dividual enough feedback along the way and suggests asking the following question: “Does the individual know what they are doing well, and where there is room for improvement?”

Aaron Boucher, HR manager for Renaissance Marble, Inc., approaches terminations in a similar fashion by asking “Have we done enough for the employee? If an individual is not meeting specific measurements, have we communicated that to them with relevant feedback as to how they can improve prior to the termination?”

Sell says, “An individual who is being terminated for performance rea-sons should be provided with pertinent examples to support the decision, both positive and negative.” Boucher and Sell agree that if a termination is han-dled properly, there should be no sur-prises at the time of termination. “For an individual to be shocked as to why he or she is being terminated would be an egregious mistake,” Sell says.

What Sell and Boucher are say-ing is that communication between manager and employee is essential throughout an employee’s career. Make sure you let the individual know what he or she is doing well (positive reinforcement), where improvement can be made, and that you use valid measurements of performance to give feedback; not waiting until an annual

performance review. Needless to say, follow-through is especially impor-tant if you agree on a plan or strategy for bench marking and development. This way you can be assured that there will be no surprises should you decide to terminate an individual.

Making the decisionMike Shaw, director of HR for Rexnord Corp., believes that when a decision has been made to terminate an individual for performance related issues “It is a must to include documentation in the employee’s file.” He emphasizes, “You should have your facts and be right on the money.” Shaw has learned the importance of accurate record keeping having spent most of his career in HR in union environments where “absent appropriate documentation you prob-ably never would prevail.”

Shaw also acknowledges that “al-though the proper documentation is im-portant, it’s really about doing the right thing. When you have an employee who is not meeting performance standards, other employees are watching how you handle the situation.” Shaw is remind-ing us that if you choose to ignore poor performance, it will only get worse. By choosing not to act, you are still mak-ing a decision. Once you have made the decision to terminate an individual for poor performance, discipline, or for economic reasons, take a course of ac-tion that is fair and reasonable for the circumstances.

John P. CrevelingCareer Resources Management, LLC

ChemiCal engineering www.Che.Com February 2008 51

You & Your Job

When it Becomes Necessary to Fire An Employee

These guiding principles will help you prepare properly and avoid making this task

more unpleasant than it has to be

51-54 CHE 2-08.indd 51 1/29/08 6:49:43 PM

Preparing for notificationRegardless of how many times you have terminated employees in the past, termination of one person or several, always takes a lot of prepara-tion and coordination. An assortment of questions needs to be asked and answered prior to the actual termina-tion. Questions to consider include: • Have I conferred with the HR de-

partment to ascertain that I am fol-lowing company protocol?

• What other key people do I need to involve?

• What is the best time and place to communicate the termination?

• What is the best location within the company for the termination meet-ing to take place? Will we be assured of privacy?

• What company assets does the in-dividual possess, such as computer, building keys, access identification card, and so on?

• What will I say is the reason for ter-mination? (Be brief and specific and keep emotions out of it.) If needed, and especially if you believe you will be nervous, prepare what you will say in advance and put it to memory (don’t read it).

• Does the individual car pool and will he or she need a ride home?

• Do you anticipate that the individ-ual will be disruptive? If so, what is the course of action you’re prepared to take? Will you need to have a se-curity representative standing by to escort the individual from the build-ing? (If you feel the need to have a security representative available, make sure it’s done in a discreet manner so as not to embarrass, in-timidate or disrupt others.)

• What personal assets does the indi-vidual have to remove? What is the best time to remove him or her?

• How will the person say goodbye to others?

• If you are terminating an individual for discipline or poor performance is-sues, have you properly documented the files to corroborate your decision?

• Is the person eligible for a severance package?

• Do you want to provide outplacement or career continuation services?

• What will you say when a prospective employer calls seeking a reference

about the terminated individual? • What information or documentation

do you want the displaced individual to have as he or she leaves?

• How will you prepare yourself emo-tionally?

• What is the message that you will communicate to those who remain with the company?

Keep in mind that although there is no “boiler-plate” for terminations, prepar-ing in advance is a must. Each time you terminate an individual or group of individuals you’ll need to determine what groundwork is warranted for that particular situation. By being ready, you’ll minimize stress and potential disruption to yourself, the individual, and others within the organization. You might not be ready for every possible scenario, but you’ll feel more confident about what you are doing and know you are doing it for the right reasons.

The termination meetingWhether you are terminating someone for economic, performance or disciplin-ary reasons, the termination meeting is not a place for joviality, gratuitous remarks, or small talk such as, “Good to see you.” “The termination meeting should be conducted in a professional manner with dignity and respect,” says Tom Brennan, director of HR for PREIT Services, LLC. “Terminations are serious business. Never berate or demean the individual.”

People will remember what took place at the termination meeting and how the message was communicated long after they leave the company. One example is the story of a friend of mine who was terminated from a manage-ment position more than 18 years ago. She reported, “After being with the company for nine years, they termi-nated me in the middle of a hotel lobby in less than three minutes. To say I was shocked is an understatement.” Shaw recommends approaching terminations with empathy and advises evoking the golden rule of doing unto others as you would have them do unto you. This means being fair, honest, and compas-sionate. It may be helpful to ask your-self, “What is the indelible message I want the individual to take away from the termination meeting?”

All the experts agree that individu-

als being terminated should leave with dignity. “When you’re letting someone go, your demeanor and the atmosphere of the meeting should be respectful and professional at all times,” notes Bren-nan. If you are displacing someone for performance or discipline reasons, the termination is the culmination of all the feedback provided along the way. In other words, if you have been doing your job from the beginning, the ter-mination notification won’t be a bomb-shell to the employee. (Possible excep-tions include discipline issues, such as theft or violence in the workplace, where a suspension or termination could take place immediately.)

“Be prepared with what you want to say as well as anticipating an employee’s likely reactions and ob-jections,” advises Brennan. When confronted with objections, listen — don’t equivocate. If necessary, clarify and reaffirm why the person is being let go. Brennan cautions managers to “Stay focused, and if an employee objects, refer to the specific reasons for termination and restate the cause if needed.” If you are nervous about the planned termination meeting — most people are — provide structure, prepare a script and role-play ahead of time with another manager or a human resources representative.

Prior to the termination meeting decide what documentation or infor-mation you need to disseminate to the individual such as severance package, outplacement services, medical ben-efits, retirement and pension data. You’ll also want to ascertain if the in-dividual is eligible for unemployment compensation. Let the individual know who he or she can contact if questions arise after the termination meeting.

Finally, wherever the termination takes place, have emergency telephone numbers available and know the next steps for the individual. Will he or she go back to the workplace or leave the company immediately? If the decision is to leave right away, when will he or she be permitted to pick-up personal possessions, or will someone else do it? Although you may not feel it is es-sential, evaluate the merits of alerting company security when terminations take place, especially if you think the person could be explosive.

52 ChemiCal engineering www.Che.Com February 2008

You & Your Job

51-54 CHE 2-08.indd 52 1/29/08 6:50:09 PM

You didn’t do itA number of years ago when I fired an employee for not meeting ac-ceptable performance standards, I remember thinking “How can I do this?” Initially, I lost sleep over the decision. Fortunately, when I began to actually answer that question, it didn’t take me long before I realized that I didn’t do it. She did. She had been provided frequent opportuni-ties to improve. Standards were set. Guidelines had been established. We agreed to how her performance would be measured, and feedback was provided along the way. She chose.

This is neither rationalization nor justification. Her termination was the right thing to do at that time. If you have done your job impartially, honestly, and have provided appro-priate support and feedback, termi-nation for poor performance is not your fault.

What to say to everyone elseAfter a termination or displacement, although you may want to hide out in your office, don’t! As Shaw says “Employees are watching how you handle the situation.” Be accessible and visible, all day long, and let people know the next steps. In the case of a person being terminated for performance-related reasons, don’t denigrate the individual. People are observing and want to know that you are respectful and even empathic.

Even though you may want to, don’t feel obligated to defend your position. What people really want to know is how they will be impacted and how quickly the position will be filled. If there are job responsibility changes tell them. Whatever you do, be consistent about what you commu-nicate to all employees. If you have displaced people because of economic reasons, don’t make any promises you can’t keep to those that remain.

At all times, be honest. If you don’t know, say so. ■

Edited by Rebekkah Marshall

AuthorJohn P. Creveling is a lead-ership development and career coach and cofounder of Career Resources Management LLC (1616 Walnut Street, Suite 1105, Philadelphia, PA 19103; Phone: 215-988-023; Email: john@careerresourcesmgt.com; Website: www. careerresourcesmgt.com), an organization development and a career management consult-

ing firm. He is a frequent speaker for international and national conferences. He has authored more than forty business and career related articles published in professional journals, newspapers and magazines nationwide and is a frequent guest on radio and television promoting the benefits of career development and lifelong learning. Crevel-ing has presented at international, national, and regional conferences for a variety of organizations including International Conference of Association for Psychological Type, International Management Council, MENSA, National Association of Minori-ties in Communications, Society for Human Re-source Management, American Society for Train-ing and Development, and Society of Insurance Trainers and Educators. He has an M.A. focusing on Organizational Development and Psychology, and a B.A. in Business Management.

54 ChemiCal engineering www.Che.Com February 2008

You & Your Job

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think Chemical

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56-59 Che 2-08.indd 58 1/29/08 5:52:55 Pm

CHEMICAL ENGINEERING WWW.CHE.COM FEBRUARY 2008 59

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32i-8 CE 10-06.indd 60 1/30/08 2:59:09 PM

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KasonCorporation 28 1-973-467-8140 adlinks.che.com/7369-09

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ClassifiedIndex-February2008 (212) 621-4958 Fax: (212) 621-4976SendAdvertisementsandBoxrepliesto:HeleneHicks,Chemical Engineering,110WilliamSt.,11thFloor,NewYork,NY10038

22_CHE_021508_AD_IND_RS.indd 61 1/30/08 1:35:47 PM

62 ChemiCal engineering www.Che.Com February 2008

Domestic

Nella Veldran, Publisher Chemical Engineering 110 william St., new york, ny 10038-3901 Tel: 212-621-4637; Fax: 212-621-4690 E-mail: nveldran@che.com New York City, Latin America

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Wilhelm Sicking, Sicking industrial marketing Chemical Engineering emmastrasse 44; 45130 essen, germany Tel: +49 (0)201-779861 Fax: +49 (0)201-781741; E-mail: wsicking@che.com Austria, Czech Republic, Benelux, Eastern Europe, Germany, Scandi-navia, Switzerland, United Kingdom

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Economic Indicators

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February 2008; VOL. 115; NO. 2Chemical Engineering copyright @ 2008 (issn 0009-2460) is published monthly, with an additional issue in october, by access intelligence, LLc, 4 choke cherry road, 2nd Floor, rockville, md, 20850. chemical engineering executive, editorial, advertising and Publication offices: 110 William street, 11th Floor, new York, nY 10038; Phone: 212-621-4674, Fax: 212-621-4694. subscription rates: $59.00 U.s. and U.s. possessions, canada, mexico; $179 international. $20.00 Back issue & single copy sales. Periodicals postage paid at rockville, md and additional mailing offices. Postmaster: send address changes to chemical engineering, Fulfillment manager, P.o. Box 3588, northbrook, iL 60065-3588. Phone: 847-564-9290, Fax: 847-564-9453, email: clientservices@che.com. change of address, two to eight week notice requested. For information regarding article reprints, please contact client services, clientservices@accessintel.com; tel: 800-777-5006 (toll-free within the Us) or 301-354-2101; fax: 301-309-3847. contents may not be reproduced in any form without written permission. Publications Mail Product Sales Agreement No. 40558009. Return undeliverable Canadian Addresses to: P.O. Box 1632, Windsor, ON N9A7C9.

For additional news as it develops, please visit www.che.com

plant watchOxea Increases Alcohol Capacity in North AmericaJanuary 24, 2008 — oxea is expanding its oxo alcohols capacity at its production site in Bay city, texas. the production capacity for propionaldehyde and n-propanol will be increased 10% by mid-2008. the new oxo alcohol investment follows the company’s announcement of increased production capacity for carboxylic acids and nPg (neopentylgylcol).

First LyondellBasell license granted for Spherizone technology to PetroChinaJanuary 18, 2008 — Petrochina daqing refining & chemical co. has selected LyondellBasell industries’ spherizone process technology for a new 300,000 ton/yr polypropylene plant to be built at daqing, Heilongjiang Province in china. startup is planned for 2010. this is Petrochina’s ninth polyolefin license from LyondellBasell in this decade.

Metso to supply coke calcining equipment to Seadrift in the U.S. January 15, 2008 — metso minerals will supply coke calcining equipment to seadrift coke L.P. for upgrading its coke plant in Port Lavaca, texas. the capacity of the Port Lavaca plant is currently close to 150,000 m.t./yr of coke. once the calcining upgrade is complete, seadrift will have a calcining capacity well in excess of 200,000 m.t./yr.

Evonik JV brings additional production capacity for hydrogen peroxide to KoreaJanuary 15, 2008 — evonik industries and Headwaters (south Jordan, Utah) have substantially increased production capacity for hydrogen peroxide at the facility operated by their joint venture (JV) evonikHeadwaters in Ulsan, Korea. the JV acquired this facility from the Finnish company Kemira oyi, Helsinki, in 2006. Using proprietary technology from evonik, it has more than doubled capacity from the original level of 34,000 m.t./yr within a year.

Ticona to add compounding unit in China January 14, 2008 — ticona, the engineering polymers business of celanese corp., plans to expand its integrated china complex to include a compounding unit

that will produce advanced engineered compounds for asian customers. ticona, with compounding capacity in north america, europe and asia, will build a 15,000-m.t. compounding unit in the recently dedicated celanese complex in nanjing, china. scheduled to be operational in the 1st Q of 2009, the facility will produce compounds for the many advanced engineering polymers in the ticona portfolio.

Honeywell to design integrated control system for LNG plantJanuary 10, 2008 — Honeywell has been contracted to provide the integrated control system for Woodside’s new Pluto liquefied natural gas (Lng) project. the project is Western australia’s first new Lng plant in more than 20 years and is expected to produce 4.3-million ton/yr of Lng. the control system project is scheduled for completion in 2009 and production is expected to commence in late 2010.

Fluor wins Marathon Oil's $1.6-billion refinery upgradeJanuary 4, 2008 — Fluor corp. has been selected to provide integrated engineering, procurement and construction (ePc) for expansion and upgrade of marathon oil corp.’s detroit, mich. petroleum refinery. When the $1.6-billion ePc contract is completed, marathon will have increased the refinery’s heavy oil processing capacity, including canadian bitumen blends, by about 80,000 bbl/d and its total crude oil refining capacity by about 15%, from 100,000 to 115,000 bbl/d, said david seaton, president of Fluor’s energy & chemicals group. construction is expected to begin within the next few months, subject to receiving the applicable regulatory permits. the project is expected to be completed in late 2010, adding more than 400,000 gal/d of clean transportation fuels to the marketplace.

mergers and acquisitionsSinochem to acquire Monsanto‘s butachlor and alachlor businesses January 21, 2008 – sinochem international corp. and monsanto co. have announced plans for sinochem to purchase the assets associated with monsanto’s butachlor and alachlor businesses and certain other assets in the Philippines, thailand, Vietnam,

taiwan, india, Pakistan and Bangladesh, subject to certain customary closing conditions. sale or transfer of assets of monsanto’s india subsidiary is subject to the approval of its india shareholders.

Aker Kvaerner proposed to change name to Aker SolutionsJanuary 22, 2008 — aker Kværner asa’s Board of directors has resolved to propose to the annual general meeting that the company change its name to aker solutions asa. during 2007 a longterm and stable ownership structure was established for aker Kvaerner, as more than 40% of the shares in the company were transferred from aker to aker Holding, a holding company controlled by aker. the owners of aker Holding have mutually agreed that the company will keep its aker Kvaerner shares for at least 10 years. the board of aker Holding has already verbally agreed to the proposed name change.

SABIC enters as partner in OSOS Petrochemicals project January 16, 2008 — saudi Basic industries corp. (sabic) and osos Petrochemicals (currently under formation) have signed a memorandum of Understanding (moU) for sabic to enter as a partner in the osos Petrochemicals project at Yanbu industrial city. according to this agreement, sabic will complete in no more than 2 months, the exploration and review all works, studies and agreements prior to updating the respective economic feasibility study. a final agreement will then be signed, if the two parties agree on the study.

Ineos to buy vinyl acetate monomer and ethyl acetate businesses from BPJanuary 11, 2008 — ineos has reached an agreement to acquire the vinyl acetate monomer (Vam) and ethyl acetate (etac) businesses from BP. the deal includes a 500,000 ton/yr production capacity at the saltend manufacturing site in the U.K., along with the teesside to saltend ethylene Pipeline (tseP). the etac plant was commissioned in 2001 and has a capacity of 250,000 ton/yr, and the Vam plant, which also has 250,000-ton/yr capacity, was commissioned in 2002. the acquisition is being made by ineos group and is conditional on approval from the eU competition authorities. the transaction is expected to close in the 1st Q 2008. n

Dorothy Lozowski

Business news

63-64 CHE 2-08.indd 63 1/29/08 6:06:27 PM

Economic Indicators

CURRENT BUSINESS INDICATORS LATEST PREVIOUS YEAR AGO

Dec. '07 = 108.4 Nov. '07 = 109.2 Oct. '07 = 108.4 Dec. '06 = 107.4Nov. '07 = 1,785.3 Oct. '07 = 1,712.1 Sep. '07 = 1,665.3 Nov. '06 = 1,556.6Dec. '07 = 81.6 Nov. '07 = 82.4 Oct. '07 = 81.8 Dec. '06 = 81.6Jan. '08 = 753.2 Dec. '07 = 753.1 Nov. '07 = 753.3 Jan. '07 = 733.6Dec. '07 = 244.4 Nov. '07 = 245.8 Oct. '07 = 229.8 Dec. '06 = 210.8Dec. '07 = 115.7 Nov. '07 = 115.7 Nov. '07 = 115.4 Dec. '06 = 114.4Dec. '07 = 143.6 Nov. '07 = 142.6 Oct. '07 = 141.2 Dec. '06 = 145.0Dec. '07 = 130.5 Nov. '07 = 131.3 Oct. '07 = 132.6 Dec. '06 = 133.0

75

77

79

81

83

85

96

99

102

105

108

111

1350

1450

1550

1650

1750

1850

J F M A M J J A S O N D J F M A M J J A S O N D J F M A M J J A S O N D

CPI OUTPUT INDEX (2000 = 100) CPI OUTPUT VALUE ($ Billions) CPI OPERATING RATE (%)

CPI output index (2000 = 100)CPI value of output, $ billionsCPI operating rate, % Construction cost index (1967 = 100)Producer prices, industrial chemicals (1982 = 100)Industrial Production in Manufacturing (2002=100)*Hourly earnings index, chemical & allied products (1992 = 100)Productivity index, chemicals & allied products (1992 = 100)

2006 2007

465

480

495

510

525

540

J F M A M J J A S O N D

CHEMICAL ENGINEERING PLANT COST INDEX (CEPCI)

CE INDEXEquipment Heat exchangers & tanks Process machinery Pipe, valves & fittings Process instruments Pumps & compressors Electrical equipment Structural supports & miscConstruction laborBuildingsEngineering & supervision

Nov.'07 Oct.'07 Nov.'06 Prelim. Final Final

526.3 527.1 511.4624.5 626.2 605.4593.6 593.3 565.9597.9 594.9 558.2731.1 740.2 735.6417.0 422.1 432.6842.9 843.2 795.7437.4 437.2 418.0660.4 660.8 639.4318.9 318.3 311.7477.5 476.8 467.8357.0 355.0 351.3

Annual Index:

1999 = 390.6

2000 = 394.1

2001 = 394.3

2002 = 395.6

2003 = 402.0

2004 = 444.2

2005 = 468.2

2006 = 499.6

(1957-59 = 100)

DOWNLOADTHE CEPCITWO WEEKS SOONER AT WWW.CHE.COM/PCI

MARSHALL & SWIFT EQUIPMENT COST INDEX(1926 = 100) 4th Q 3rd Q 2nd Q 1st Q 4th Q

2007 2007 2007 2007 2006 1,399.2 1,393.0 1,383.6 1,362.7 1,353.8 1,452.3 1,445.6 1,433.5 1,410.0 1,399.2 1,435.3 1,427.5 1,417.5 1,398.8 1,385.8 1,427.9 1,421.0 1,408.8 1,384.9 1,374.1 1,415.0 1,408.8 1,400.4 1,378.1 1,367.6 1,348.8 1,341.8 1,331.3 1,309.5 1,299.5 1,457.1 1,451.2 1,440.2 1,414.2 1,404.6 1,369.2 1,364.0 1,354.0 1,331.6 1,324.2 1,543.7 1,536.2 1,521.0 1,497.9 1,486.3 1,500.1 1,494.8 1,486.7 1,463.1 1,449.4 1,374.9 1,359.0 1,340.7 1,319.5 1,310.1 1,460.8 1,453.2 1,442.7 1,427.7 1,413.5 1,698.8 1,691.7 1,679.3 1,648.2 1,638.5 1,416.4 1,407.4 1,394.2 1,369.1 1,359.8

M & S INDEX Process industries, average Cement Chemicals Clay products Glass Paint Paper Petroleum products Rubber Related industries Electrical power Mining, milling Refrigeration Steam power

1225

1240

1255

1270

1285

1300

1315

1330

1345

1360

1375

1390

1405

1st 2nd 3rdQuarter

4th

Annual Index:

2000 = 1,089.0 2002 = 1,104.2 2004 = 1,178.5 2006 = 1,302.32001 = 1,093.9 2003 = 1,123.6 2005 = 1,244.5 2007 = 1,373.3

*Due to discontinuance, the Index of Industrial Activity has been replaced by the Industrial Production in Manufacturing index from the U.S. Federal Reserve Board. Current business indicators provided by DRI-WEFA, Lexington, Mass.

THE ONLINE CEPCI CE’s Online CEPCI provides ac-cess to the entire historical CEPCI database (top). And, instead of waiting more than two weeks for the print or online version of the magazine to arrive, subscribers to the Online CEPCI can down-load new data as soon as it is calculated. Visit www.che.com/pci to subscribe to the following:

• Electronic notification of monthly updates

• All annual data archives (1947 to present) and monthly data archives (1970 to present)

• Option to download data in Excel format

• A selection of helpful cost-estimation articles

* Starting with the April 2007 Final numbers, several of the data series for labor and compressors have been converted to accommodate series IDs that were discontinued by the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics

64

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Cover 3 CHE 2-08.indd 3 1/15/08 4:15:05 PM

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