43

CHAPTER.2

KERALA: THE LAND OF RELIGIOUS PLURALITY

2.1 Introduction

Kerala, being one of the enlightened states of India, is well known for its

religious harmony, cultural diversity and religious plurality. Hailed as God’s own

country, by many, it deserves this tribute because of many features geographical

sociological and historical. Even though the term Kerala is often used from the

olden days, the political unity was visualized only in 1956. 1 Kerala State was

formed in 1956 from portions of the former Travancore-Cochin State and the former

Malabar district of Madras State.2 It has a long coastline in the west and mountains

called Ghats, on the east forming clear natural boundaries. The geographical and

historical peculiarities have enabled it to enjoy a measure of isolation to develop its

own way of the life and culture unaffected by major upheavals in the other parts of

the country. Its unique geographical position and peculiar physical features have

invested Kerala with a distinct individuality. 3

1 As a part of the state re-organization on the basis of language, during the post independent period, the Malayalam speaking regions of the West Coast were brought under the state to form Kerala and inaugurated on 1st November 1956 together with other new states of Indian Union. A. Sreedhara Menon, A Survey of Kerala History, Chennai, 2005, p.98., See also V.P. Menon, Story of the integration of States, Bombay, 1956, p. 43ff.

2 In 1792 Malabar was added as a district to the existing Bombay Presidency, when it was handed over by Tippu to the English as part of the provision of the treaty of Srirangapatanam. When the English East India Company owned Madras in 1800, it was made the headquarters of Madras Presidency and Malabar was brought under the new presidency. After the independence in 1947 Madras presidency was converted to the Madras state of the Indian Union, till the formation of language based state of Kerala in 1956, Malabar was made a district of Madras State.

3 See O.H.K. Spate, India and Pakistan, London, 1967; also see A. Sreedhara Menon, Ibid., p.98

44

Hence Kerala described as an area of relative isolation, has evolved its own

way of life and social institutions unhampered by excessive interference from

outside. Trade contacts with the Mediterranean and even the Far East stretching

back many centuries, Kerala has developed a diverse population and distinct

culture. Trade in spices with Greece and Rome, in particular, flourished even during

the first millennium B.C.

Religion has played a pivotal role in the formation of Kerala society.

Religious toleration has always been the corner-stone of Kerala culture. It is curious

to note that ancient Kerala became the meeting ground of almost all the important

religions of the world. Besides the indigenous religions like Jainism, Buddhism and

Hinduism, foreign religions like Christianity, Judaism, Islam and Zoroastrianism

found the soil of Kerala fertile and favourable for their progress and development.

The Kerala culture in general and the religious scenario in particular is

remarkable for several reasons. Though predominantly Hindu, the state contains

significant minorities of Muslims and Christians, and is known for its good record

of harmonious relations between the communities. According to the 2001 census

57% of the population of Kerala are Hindus, 24% Muslims and 19% Christians. As

a result of religious tolerance different religions lived unmolested and peacefully.

Moreover the religions like Christianity and Islam, though religious minority could

find a place to grow and branch out.

As far as the polity is concerned, on the eve of Portuguese arrival Kerala

presented a tragic scene of feudalism with all its weakness. After the disintegration

45

of the Prumal’s Age4 in the early decades of twelfth century, there caused the

absence of a unifying power. The minor principalities 5 acknowledged the suzerainty

of the major powers6 like Venad, Kozhikode, Cochin and Kolathunadu. As observed

by Barbosa there were independent or semi-dependent and dependent principalities

and kingdoms in Malabar.7

They quarreled among themselves and often their loyalty was doubtful. The

weak feudal set up made Kerala easy prey to colonialists.

2.2 A State of Religious Plurality

Kerala society is composed of diverse cultures and peoples, languages and

religions. To examine the nature of diversity of the religious faiths in our country

we must look at the historical antecedents of various religious groups found in our

society.

Diversity of religious faiths has existed over a very long period of time as

Kerala has been a country of not only very ancient history but also a place where

communities from outside continually kept on coming and settling down. Together

with diverse cultural groups in various religions in Kerala pursuing their faiths,

these immigrant communities also brought their own religious faiths, customs and

cultures. This resulted in bringing together people following different religions and

gradually laid the basis of religious pluralism in Kerala. Religious pluralism means

4 See M.G.S. Narayanan, Perumals of Kerala: Political and Social Conditions of Kerala Under the Cera Perumals Makotai (c 800 A.D.- 1124 A.D.), Calicut, 1996.

5 K.V. Eapen, A Study of Kerala History, Kottayam, 1980, p.181.

6 L.A. Krishna Ayyar, Kerala Past and Present, London, 1959, p.71.

7 Duarte Barbosa, An account of the countries bordering on the Indian Ocean and their Inhabitants, trans., Mansel Longworth Dames, 2 vols., London 1918, vol. 2, p.122; Also see K.M. Panikkar, Malabar and the Portuguese, Bombay, 1929, pp. 1- 29.

46

diversity among people based on their varied kinds of religious beliefs. Pluralism of

religion has thus two connotations:

i) it refers to the fact that India has been a land of not one but many religions

since ancient times; and '

ii) that each religion contains, besides its primary features which define its

essence many cultural, social and ritualistic elements which cut across boundaries

of different religious faiths. These cultural and social similarities are a product of

interaction and accommodation established over a long period of time by regional,

linguistic, ritual and social proximity of various religious groups. Religious

pluralism in Kerala is, thus not only a fact but it also permeates through beliefs,

values and social character of individual religions in India.

Religious pluralism is thus, keynote of Kerala culture and religious tolerance

is the very foundation of Kerala secularism. Religious secularism is based on the

belief that all religions are equally good and that they all lead to the same goal of

realization of God.

The people of ancient Kerala observed several primitive religious practices

like animism8 and totemism.9 These aboriginals, who lived in the pre historic past,

had no permanent, established or unified religious creeds, rituals or social traditions.

They were mostly ancestor worshippers and propitiated many local deities.

8 some forms of ancestor worship and nature worship. See Animism. Microsoft® Student 2007 [DVD]. Redmond, WA: Microsoft Corporation, 2006. (Encyclopedia Encarta).

9 Saliba, John A. Totemism. Microsoft® Student 2007 [DVD]. Redmond, WA: Microsoft Corporation, 2006.(Encyclopedia Encarta).

47

Buddhism Jainism and Judaism entered Kerala in the centuries prior to the

Christian era. Christianity and Islam may have reached during the formative years

of the religions itself.10

2.3 Jainism

According to a famous Jain legend, 11Chandragupta Maurya, became a Jain

monk and spent his last days at Sravana Belgola in Mysore, as one of 12 disciples

of Bhadrabahu. Though Chandragupta stayed at Mysore, the Jains who followed

him poured into the Chera, Chola and Pandya countries. Their main object was not

the propagation of their faith, but to find a place for peaceful contemplation where

they could meditate in tranquility and solitude. It was under these circumstances

that Jainism got itself introduced in Tamil land. In course of time, it attracted a

large number of people including some Chera kings ruling around Trichinappilly

area. In the Sangam age, Jainism had its own followers in Tamilakom. It is clear

from the Paliyam Grant and other records that Jainism reached Kerala also at a later

period.12

There were several Jain shrines and temples in medieval Kerala and some of

them continue to exist even today as Hindu temples. According to Elamkulam

Kunjan Pillai the present Hindu temple at Tiruchanathu malai near Kuzhithurai in

the Kanyakumari District, was originally a Jain temple and continued so till the 14 th

10 M.G.S. Narayanan opines, on the ground of the absence of contemporary evidences, that Christianity and Islam reached Kerala in a later period; see M.G.S. Narayanan, “ Thomas Apostolante Kerala Sandharsanam Oru Mithya”(Mal) in Vox Nova, The official bulletin of Kerala Latin Catholic History Association, No.4, July – September, Kochi, 2010, p. 4.

11 T.A. Gopinatha Rao, ed., Travancore Archaeological Series (hereafter TAS) Vol II & III, Thiruvanandhapuram, p.115. See also, A.Sreedhara Menon, op.cit., p.95.

12 Ibid., p.125ff.

48

century.13 The temple contains idols of Parsvanatha, Mahavira and Padmavathi

Devi. The Ganapathi Vattam area near Sultan Battery was a great Jain centre. 14 The

famous Hindu temples of Mathilakam and Kudalmanikkam are also believed to be

Jain temples.15 In Kerala Jainism was popular in Wynad, Palghat and the inland

regions of Travancore.16

Jainism began to decline in Kerala from the 8 th century A. D. as the power of

the Nambudiris began to dominate.17 By the 16 th century, Jainism, almost,

disappeared from Kerala. According to Logan the Hindu temples and even the

Muslim mosques of Malabar have been built in the style peculiar to the Jains. 18

Even today a few Jain families are seen in the Palghat, 19 Calicut, Wynad and

Kasargod areas as living monuments of Jainism.

2.4 Buddhism

Buddhism appears to have been more popular in Kerala than Jainism.

According to one of the Asoka inscriptions, the Cholas, Pandyas and Keralaputras

instituted arrangements in their own countries for the prevention and treatment of

diseases of men and animals.20 It is also believed that some of the missionaries sent

by Asoka reached South India to propagate the gospel of Dharma. Hence it can be

13 Ibid., p. 127.

14 K.J. John, “Jain Architecture in Kerala”, Proceedings of SIHC, Bangalore.

15 Ibid.

16 K.K.N. Kurup, Aspects of Kerala History and Culture, College Book House, 1977, p.12

17 Narendra Singh, Encyclopedia of Jainism, Vol.1., Indo European Jain Research Centre, New Delhi, 2001, p. 3035; A.Sreedhara Menon, Op.cit., p.98.

18 William Logan, Malabar Mannual, Madras, 1951, pp. 185-186.

19 Ibid., p.187.,See also. A.Sreedhara Menon, Op.cit., p.97.

20 Charles Eliot, Hinduism and Buddhism: An Historical Sketch, volume.1, London, 1921, p. 89.

49

safely assumed that Buddhism came to the land of Cheras during the reign of

Asoka, in the third century B. C. itself.21

The Sangam works contain several references to the active efforts of

Buddhist missionaries to spread the message of the Buddha in Tamilakom. The

Manimekhalai of 9th century A.D., contains a comprehensive and detailed

discussion of the different doctrines of Buddhism. 22 The Chera rulers followed a

policy of religious toleration and they patronized Buddhist temples without

reservation. According to Kiliroor and Nilemperoor tradition of a later period, a

Chera king called Palli Bana Perumal and Varaguna Vikramadithya of the Ay

kingdom, embraced Buddhism as their religion. 23

Under the patronage of the Chera rulers, Buddhist centres were established

at Trikkannamatilakam.24 Another famous Buddhist centre was at Sreemulavasam. 25

The Ay king Vikramadithya Varaguna made liberal grants and endowments to their

great centre of education. It attracted a large number of devotees from different

parts of the country.26 According to some authors, some of the famous Hindu

temples of the present day, such as the Vadakkunnathan temple, Trichur and the

Kurumba Bhagavati temple, Cranganore, may have been Buddhist temples at one

time.27 A large number of Buddhist images of medieval period, were found in the

21 TAS, Vol. II & III, Op.cit., p.115.

22 Sakkotai Krishnaswamy Aiyangar, The Buddhism of Manimekhalai, Madurai, 1931; see also: A.Sreedhara Menon, op.cit., p.98.

23 A.Sreedhara Menon, Ibid.

24 TAS, Vol. II & III, Op.cit., p.116.

25 Ibid.

26 Ibid., p.117.

27 A.Sreedhara Menon, Op.cit., p.98.

50

Kunnathur and Karunagappally Taluks of the Quilon district and the Mavelikara and

Ampalapuzha Taluks of the Aleppey District. It indicates the prevalence of

Buddhist faith in this area.28

The most notable of these Buddhist images is the famous Karumadi Kuttan

near Ampalapuzha. The Indalarappan idols found in different parts of Quilon,

Kottarakara and Chirainkil were originally Buddhist idols. 29 It is believed that

Srimoolavasam was an important Buddhist Shrine of Kerala. This Buddhist Shrine

which was famous throughout India was later destroyed by the sea. The Paliyam

Copper Plate of the Ay king Varaguna (885-925A.D) mentions that he donated

considerable land in South Travancore to the Srimoolavasam Buddhist Shrine. The

Buddhist religion in Kerala began to decline from the 9 th century A D.30 It is found

difficult to resist the onslaught of Vedic religion which became ascendant in the

wake of Brahminical dominance. “It seems that the Nambudiris installed the Sastha

in Hindu temples and thus attracted the remaining adherents of Buddhism into the

Hindu fold. In any case it can be said that the sway of Jainism and Buddhism ended

in Kerala by the 12th century”31

Though Buddhism disappeared from Kerala, it has left its lasting impact on

Kerala society. In fact, Buddhism at a decadent stage was absorbed in Christianity

along with some of its impressive ceremonies and customs. The images, processions

(pradikshinam) and festivals (Utsavams), and the decorative thoranams of the

28 Ibid; TAS, op.cit.

29 Ibid. p. 98, 99;

30 Ibid; See also S.K. Vasanthan, Nammal Nadanna Vazhikal (Mal), Thrissur, 2006, p.76.

31 Elamkulam Kunjan Pillai, Chera Samrajyam Onpathum Pathum Noottandukalil (Mal), Kottayam, 1961, p.41.

51

Church celebrations are said to be the legacy of Buddhism. 32 Some aspects of

Buddhist culture was submerged into Hinduism also. The festival, known as

Kettukazhcha,33which is observed in many temples in Kerala is regarded as one of

the relics of Buddhist festivals. According to some scholars, the famous deity

Sastha or Ayyappan is the hinduised version of Buddha. They have pointed out the

close resemblance between the figures of the Sastha and the Buddha in posture and

form.34 Buddhism has exerted a deep and profound influence on Kerala life and

culture.

2.5 Hinduism

Hinduism, as a religious tradition of Indian origin, comprises the customs,

beliefs and practices of Hindus. The word Hindu is derived from the river Sindhu,

or Indus. It was the land where river Indus flows. Thus Hindu was primarily a

geographical term that referred to India (Hindustan) or to a region of India (near the

Sindhu) as long ago as the 6 th century BC. The word Hinduism is an English word

of more recent origin.35 Hinduism entered the English language in the early 19 th

century to describe the beliefs and practices of those residents of India who had not

converted to Islam or Christianity and did not practice Judaism or Zoroastrianism.

In the case of most religions, beliefs and practices come first, and those who

subscribe to them are acknowledged as followers. In the case of the Hindu tradition,

32 Rowena Robinson, Sociology of Religion in India, New Delhi, 2004, p. 262; see also S.K. Vasanthan, Ibid., p.42.

33 Ibid., pp. 40- 41.

34 Ibid.

35 The term Hinduism to denote the religion of India, was used by the Europeans, only during the colonial period.

52

however, the acknowledgment of Hindus came first, and their beliefs, way of life

and practices constitute the contents of the religion.

How did Hinduism originate is a difficult question to answer.

In many religions truth is delivered or revealed from a divine source and enters the

world through a single agent: for example, Abraham in Judaism, Jesus in

Christianity, and Muhammad in Islam. These truths revealed by them, are then

recorded in scriptures that serve as a source of knowledge of divine wisdom to their

followeres. For e.g. the Hebrew Bible, the New Testament, and the Qur’an. 36 In

Hinduism rules emerged and crystallized in the form of Manusmriti, Dharma

Sastras, Upanishads, Ithihasas, Puranas etc., by which people may achieve

knowledge of the divine or lead a life backed by religious law. The Hindu tradition

acknowledges that there are many paths by which people may seek and experience

religious understanding and direction. It also claims that every individual has the

potential to achieve enlightenment, because of the presence of the atman or divine

kernel in the individual.

The almost accepted theory about the origin of Hinduism is that it was

evolved after the historical meeting between the Indo- Aryans and Dravidian

speakers. Some claim that Hinduism is mainly an Aryan culture whereas the others

claim that it is mainly a culture of Dravidian speakers.

It was the Hindu revival during the period of Guptas that paved the way for

the eclipse of heterodox religions like Jainism and Buddhism. It was the

Brahminical immigrants who brought Hinduism to Kerala. In the eighth century

36 The followers of Judaism, Christianity and Islam were described as ‘the people of the Book’ or Vedakkar, because they have scriptures.

53

AD, the Hinduisation of Kerala37 reached its climax with the arrival of a large batch

of Brahmins. The Brahmin scholars had debates with the Buddhists and ultimately

the former were able to score over the latter. This gave an opportunity for the

Brahmins to establish superiority of their religion and Varna model society, in

Kerala.

The Hindu religion and the culture and traditions thereof with its inherent

goodness and accompanying merits have together with the parochial cultural

idioms, woven the basic fabric of the society of Kerala. Hindu revivalism movement

initiated by Sankaracharya38 of Kerala and his doctrine of Advita Vedanta39 is

India’s unique contribution to the philosophy and sciences of religion. To this day

traditions and folklores, temples and festivities, customs and practices retain its

priority in everyday life of the people of Kerala.

2.6 Judaism

"Judaism", the religion of the Jews has a long history. In India we find two

kinds of Jews (i) the Cochin Jews 40, and (ii) the Bene Israel Jews. Both these kinds

are further divided into "Black" Jews and the "White" Jews. 41

Kerala was known to the Jews as early as the days of Solomon. 42 It is

believed that the earliest Jews came to Kerala in the ships of King Solomon (1000

B.C.). The Jewish Diaspora caused by Babylonian captivity in the sixth century

37 M.G.S. Narayanan, Aspects of Aryanisation of Kerala, Trivandrum, 1973.

38 Arvind Sharma, op. cit., p.118.

39 Ibid., p.146.

40 J.B. Segal, A History of the Jews of Cochin, London, 1993.

41 For more information about this community see: Shirley Isenberg, India’s Bene Israel, Bombay, 1982.

42 2 Kings: 17: 5, 6, 24: 14- 16, 10: 22. in Holy Bible, Bangalore, 1910.

54

B.C. may have opened doors for the Jewish migration to Kerala, a place known to

them right from the time of King Solomon. The St. Thomas tradition associates

Jews settlements with Kerala during the formative years of Christian era. 43 However

there is no evidence of a Jewish settlement in Kerala before the beginning of the

Christian era. As per tradition large scale migration of the Jews took place in 68

A.D. in order to find a refuge, after the destruction of their great temple at

Jerusalem by the then Roman Emperor Titus. 44 It is suggested that they established

their first settlement at Cranganore. New batches of Jewish immigrants came in

subsequent centuries and they laid the foundation of community life in this land.

The Jewish settlers of Kerala made a good deal of economic prosperity by trade and

commerce.45 With the well known Copper Plate Grant of King Bhaskara Ravi

Varman (1000 A.D.),46 he bestowed certain rights and privileges on a Jewish chief,

Joseph Rabban. The charter, which is now preserved in the white Jew synagogue at

Mattancherry, Cochin contains the earliest reference to the Jewish community in

India. The Jews also built their synagogues in Kerala. But in 1524, Muslim traders

attacked the Jewish colonies and burnt down their synagogues at Cranganore. 47 And

they were forced leave Cranganore and to take shelter in Cochin. During the Dutch

and British period, the Jews enjoyed complete commercial and religious freedom.

43 P.M. Jussay, The Jews of Kerala, Calicut, 2005, p.22.

44 Shaul Cohen, The Politics of Planting: Israeli – Palestinian Competition for Control of Land in the Jerusalem Periphery, University of Oregon, 2005, P. iv.

45 Details of Jewish trade between the Mediterranean area and India may be availed from the Genizah Documents. S.D. Goitein, Mediterranean Society, I-V., Berkelay and Los Angeless, 1967-88.

46 P.M. Jussay, op.cit., pp. 23- 24; also see J.B. Segal, op.cit., p.9.

47 Shaikh Zainuddin, Tuhfatul Mujahiddin, trans., M.S. Rawlandson, London, 1833, Chapter 4.

55

After the birth of the Jewish state of Israel in 1948, most of the Jews of Kerala have

migrated to their country of origin

2.7. Islam

Like Christianity, Islam also came to Kerala after its inception in Arabia.

The main reason for all this religious awakening was the trade connection between

Kerala and the outer world. Kerala had commercial contacts with the Arabian coast

even before the introduction of Islam. The Jews and Arabs of the Pre-Islamic period

were among the pioneers of spice trade with Kerala. The Arab traders might have

introduced the religion of Islam in Kerala in the 9 th or 10th century A.D.48 Arabic

language contributed a lot to Malayalam. 49 To this day Muslims are very proficient

in trade and commerce. Muslims in Kerala, as anywhere else in the world, are

close-knit unit with clear cut religious and political agenda. The absence of revival

and reformation movements in the society resulted in the neglect of education,

which in turn created a very narrow outlook at life till 19 th century.

However the Muslim community traditionally believes that Islam reached

Kerala during the days of its founder, Mohammed, the prophet. Arabic records

suggest that a few missionaries sent out by the prophet in his 57 th year might have

reached Kerala. If this is true, Islam must have entered Kerala in the early half of

the seventh century A. D. According to tradition, the pioneers of Islam in Kerala

were Malik-Ibn-Dinar of Arabia and his followers. 50 They reached Cranganore

48 A.P. Ibrahim Kunju, “Origin and Spread of Islam in Kerala” in Kerala Muslims: A Historical Perspective, ed., Asghar Ali Engineer, Delhi, 1995. p. 17.

49 M.N. Karassery, “Arabic Malayalam” in Ibid., p. 170.

50 William Logan, op.cit., p. 194; A.Sreedhara Menon, op.cit., p.111; also see K.J. John, “The Muslim –Arabs and Mosque Architecture in Malabar”, in Asghar Ali Engineer, ed., op.cit., p.47.

56

where they were warmly welcomed by the Chera rulers. The first mosque was built

at Cranganore and Malik-Ibn-Dinar acted as the Khasi. Then, the followers of

Malik- Ibn- Dinar divided themselves into two groups and propagated their faith in

the different parts of Kerala. The tolerance of the native rulers enabled the pioneers

of Islam to establish eleven mosques in places like Srikantapuram, Chaliyam,

Dharmadom, Valarpatanam etc. Arakkal51 records show that this Muslim

principality was established in the first century of the Muslim era 52 itself. The

historical account on Kerala written by Sheik Sainuddin 53 and archaeological

evidence attests that the Arab Muslims had begun to settle down in Kerala in the

seventh century A. D.54 itself. During the period of the Mahodayapuram Cheras, the

Muslims resided in almost all the important port towns of Kerala from Quilon to

Cannanore. A number of coins belonging to Omayyad Caliphs (8 th century) have

been found in the various parts of Kerala. When the Zamorin founded the new city

of Calicut, he gave special rights and privileges to the Arabs to settle down in his

new town and to carry on their commercial activities in an atmosphere of freedom

and security. The Arab traders preferred Calicut to any other port on the west-coast

to take their cargoes because it was “perfectly a secure harbour.” The tolerant

policy of the Zamorin enabled them to enjoy complete freedom of worship. 55 As a

result, the number of Muslim traders increased in Calicut which soon developed

into a great emporium on the west-coast by the 13 th century, the Arabs controlled all

51 The only Muslim dynasty of Kerala.

52 The plight of prophet Mohammed from Mecca to Madeena marked the beginning of a Muslim era called Hijra.

53 Shaikh Zainuddin, Tuhfatul Mujahiddin, trans., M.S. Rawlandson, London, 1833.

54 K.J. John, n.50, p.47.

55 K.V. Krishna Ayyar, The Zamorins of Calicut, Calicut, 1999, p.83.

57

the sea- born trade between Calicut and the Middle-east countries. At the time of

Ibn Batuta’s visit to Kerala in the 14 th century, the Muslim community was well-

established and prosperous.56 His observation about Malabar Muslims reflects their

social and economic condition of the pre- Portuguese period. He says that the

greater part of the Muslim merchants of this place was so wealthy that any one of

them can buy the whole cargo of such vessels put there. They had control over the

business of Calicut. The Zamorin’s overseer who valued cargoes was a Muslim and

the activities of the market were determined by the Muslim religious customs. 57 Ma-

Huan, the Chinese traveller who visited Calicut in the 15 th century also records that

many of the king’s subjects were Mohommedans and there were twenty or thirty

mosques in the kingdom.58 Most of these Arab merchants took native women as

wives and the offspring of these unions were called the Mappilas. 59

The Mappilas are the Malayalam speaking Muslims of Kerala. The word

Mappilai is derived from Maha-pillai which means great or respected person. It is

used as a synonym for son-in-law in Tamil and for husband in Malayalam.

Originally the name was given to the Christian, Jewish and Muslim colonists of

Malabar who had married the native women. But now the name is confined to the

Muslims. They are generally called Jonaka Mappilas to distinguish them from the

56 Ibid.

57 Velayudhan Panikkassery, Ibn Batuta Kanda India (Mal), Kottayam, 1973, p.312.

58 Ibid., p. 327.

59 The Arabs began marrying native women- a kind of temporary marriages called Muta (Pittance in Arabic) that required paying only a small mehr or bride price. When the weather cleared they simply annulled the temporary alliance and departed to their homeland. Naturally, the local brides and their offsprings were admitted in to Islam. This forms the origin of today’s Mappila community in Malabar and the rest of Kerala. See: Deccan Herald, Thursday, April 14, 2011, Akber Ayub, “ The Moplahs of Malabar”; also see: A. Sreedhara Menon, op.cit., p.112.

58

native Christians and Jews who are locally known as Nasarani Mappilas and Jutha

Mappilas60 respectively. The word indicates the honoured status enjoyed by the

early Muslim settlers in the Kerala society.

According to tradition,61 Cheraman Perumal embraced Islam and went on a

pilgrimage to Mecca. But this story was not acceptable to the absurdity of the story

has been pointed out by many historians.62 The Muslims of Kerala feel proud of the

royal family of Ali Raja of Cannanore. The name is derived from Azhi Raja, the

king of deep waters signifying his naval power. He ruled over the territory of

Cannanore and Laccadives. Legend has it that a princess of the Chirakkal royal

family was saved from drowning by a Mappila youth. As she was polluted by the

touch of a Muslim she could not go back to her Hindu family. She fell in love with

her saviour and married him. The Chirakkal Raja gave him the territory of

Cannanore as well as the title Azhi Raja. The Arakkal palace in the heart of the

Cannanore town contains many antiques and regalia relating to the past history of

Ali Raja.63

60 According to Hermann Gundert (who wrote the first Malayalam dictionary), the term 'mapilla' was a title used to denote semitic migrants from West Asia. Thus the term Mapilla was used to denote both Arab and Christian-Jewish descendants in Kerala. The descendants of Arabs are called Muslim Mappilas or Jonaka Mappilas, while the descendants of Syrian-Jewish Christians are called Nasrani Mappilas and the descendants of the Cochin Jews who have traditionally followed Halakhic Judaism are known as Juda Mappila. See Z.M. Paret, Malankara Nazranikal ‘Padaviyum Jatyacharangalum’(Mal), Kottayam, 1966, P.178.

61 M.G.S. Narayanan, op.cit., p. 65; A.P. Ibrahim Kunju, “Origin and Spread of Islam in Kerala” in Kerala Muslims, op.cit., p. 21; A. Sreedhara Menon, Op.cit., p.111.

62 The traditional date of Cheraman Perumal and the historical date of the beginning of Islam is not matching in the case of this legend. Thus this element of anachronism causes disagreement among historians regarding this legend. See A.P. Ibrahim Kunju, “Origin and Spread of Islam in Kerala” in Kerala Muslims, op.cit., p. 21

63 Genevieve Bouchon, Regent of the Sea, Oxford- Delhi, 1988, pp. 24-6, 37, 38, 170, 172 -74: also see K.K.N. Kurup, “The Ali Rajas of Cannanore – A Historiographical Study” in Asghar Ali Engineer, ed., op.cit., p. 83ff.

59

The Mappilas and the Arab traders waged a bitter struggle against the

Portuguese traders. The Portuguese failed to get liberal concessions from the

Zamorin of Calicut mainly due to the excessive influence of the Muslim traders at

Calicut. After the fall of Kunjhalis the Mappila leadership in marine trade declined.

The advent of the Dutch saw the further deterioration of the Muslim community

both in trade and navigation.

The Muslims of Malabar assisted the Mysore Sultans, Hyder Ali and Tipu in

their campaigns in Malabar.64 The strength of the Muslim community increased to a

great extent due to the large scale forcible conversion of the Hindus to Islam. The

Muslims enjoyed extra-ordinary rights and privileges under the Mysore Sultans. A

large number of mosques were built in the various parts of Malabar. 65

But the establishment of British rule in Malabar adversely affected the

interests of the Muslim community. The British wanted to get the support of the

Hindus. So they appointed upper caste Hindus as Jenmis, disregarding the rights of

the Muslim tenants. It led to the growth of Jenmi-tenant conflicts. The Muslims

rose in revolt against their Hindu landlords. The British officials gave a deep

communal colour to these Muslim riots. The government passed a series of stringent

Acts- the Mappila Acts, to suppress the Muslim rebellion. In spite of draconian

measures, the Mappila unrest continued unabated. The last revolt, generally known

as the Malabar Rebellion took place in 1921. 66

64 A. Sreedhara Menon, Op.cit., p. 317.

65 M. Janaki, “Hyder Ali and Tipu Sulthan in Malabar” in Asghar Ali Engineer, ed., op. cit., p. 111.

66 M. Gangadharan, Malabar Rebellion, Kottayam, 1998.

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In the wake of the Non-cooperation Movement and the Khilafat agitation67,

the Muslims of Malabar challenged the British authority in Malabar. The rebellious

Muslims eliminated the British authority and established their own government for

some time. But the arrival of strong British forces turned the tide of the revolt. The

British army suppressed the rebellion with an iron hand. About 4000 Muslims were

killed in the rebellion and many more were captured prisoners. The most pitiable

incident was ‘the wagon tragedy’ which took away the lives of about 90 Muslim

prisoners who were carried to Coimbatore in a closed railway wagon. 68

The Muslims of Malabar took part in the struggle for freedom. In the post-

independence period, the Government of India as well as the Government of Kerala

adopted a number of measures to improve the condition of the Muslim community.

The Muslim League69, the strong political party of the Muslims has an important

share in the coalition ministries of Kerala.

The Muslims of Kerala are strict in the observance of their religious customs

and practices. They are either Sunnis or Shiyas. The orthodox Sunnis acknowledge

Ponnani Thangal as their religious head. The Shiyas have Kondotti Thangal as their

chief priest. The Thangals are supposed to be the direct descendants of Mohammed,

the prophet. The Muslims celebrate festivals like Ramzan, Bakrid etc. The customs

of the Kerala Muslim exhibit a strange mixture of Hinduism and Islam. In North

67 A movement for the restoration of Turkey Caliphate after the I World War. See M. Gangadharan, Ibid.

68 Ibid.

69 A National Political Party composed mainly of the Muslims. See M. Gandharan, “Emergence of the Muslim League in Kerala- An Historical Enquiry”, in Kerala Muslims, op. cit., p. 207-209.

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Malabar especially in the port towns, the mappilas followed Marumakkathayam70

and in the interior South Malabar, Makkathayam71 system is the rule. Trade is in the

very blood of the Muslims and they do not shrink from seeking their fortune far and

near. They are a hardworking and adventurous lot. The Muslims of Kerala accepted

modern education slowly and with reluctance. The contribution of M. E. S. 72 to the

eradication of illiteracy among the Muslim masses is immense. The community has

now woken up to its educational backwardness and rapid strides have been made in

the last few years. They also developed a form of writing known as Arabic-

Malayalam in which Malayalam is written in the Arabic script. 73 The Mappilapattu

is an important branch of their literature. 74 The Muslims have a peculiar dance form

called ‘Kolkali. Though the Muslims have the same culture and tradition as the rest

of the Malayalis, they maintain a certain group individuality of their own by their

tradition and religion. It is clear that Islam came to Kerala with a message of

peace75 and goodwill and not with sword in hand. Trade and traders and mercantile

prosperity must have played a part in its development in Kerala. This probably

explains the cordiality and good relations that have always existed between

Muslims and the followers of other religions in Kerala.

2.8 Religious Tolerance

70 Matrilineal System of succession. See: V.V. Kunhikrishnan, “Matrilini Among the Mappilas of Malabar” in Kerala Muslims, op.cit., p. 61.

71 Patrilineal System of succession. See: Ibid., p. 63.

72 Muslim Educational Society.

73 The script is called Arabi- Malayalam. See Roland Miller, ed., The Encyclopedia of Islam, Vol. VI, Brill, 1988, pp. 458-466.

74 Ibid., p. 517.

75 The word Islam itself meant ‘Peace’

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Kerala is a melting pot where several ethnic and religious groups mingle.

Nowhere in India, or may be in the entire world, one can witness such tolerance and

co-operation and religious amity as seen in Kerala.

Religious harmony is a focal point of Kerala, where three major religions -

Hinduism, Christianity and Islam- coexist without much quarrel. Fifty seven percent

of the thirty million people are Hindus; Christians and Muslims, the remaining forty

three percent.76 Religions in Kerala have paid their due share in this great scenario.

All the major religions like Jainism, Buddhism, Christianity and Islam have exerted

considerable influence on the culture of Kerala. Over the centuries, they have lived

side by side, each influencing and being influenced in turn, by the culture of the

other. Unlike, other parts of India, communal and religious conflicts have never

arisen in Kerala. As observed by many the most significant feature of Kerala life

from the earliest times has been the wide sense of tolerance and mutual respect

between the different communities who had made their home in this land.

A good illustration of the religious tolerance or secularism is found in the

heart of Kerala’s capital, ‘Thiruvananthapuram’, where a Hindu temple, a mosque

and a cathedral stand side by side. The ancient rulers of Kerala never practiced

religious discrimination. Patronage was distributed not only to the Hindus, but also

to the Christians, the Jews and the Muslims. It has been an open field for the

missionaries of all religions.

An important feature of the geographical spread of religions in Kerala is that

despite evidence of localization of a particular religion in some parts of the country,

76 Census Report (Population by religious communities) 2001.

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each religious group is spread out throughout the country. This has necessitated a

large measure of inter-religious interaction, borrowings of ways and styles of life,

sharing common languages and cultural practices across religious affiliations. This

has led to a diversification of cultural sub-groups belonging to each religion.

2.9 European Advent and the Problem of Identity

India is a country, well known for her hospitality. The upanishadic message

‘Athidi devo bhava’ means, guest is to be treated as god, is the manifestation of

Indian philosophical religion. The warm welcome extended to the foreigners like

travelers, traders, missionaries and even colonial exploiters shows her glorious

heritage and cultural nobility.

The religious accord that prevailed during those years greatly helped the

religions like Christianity and Islam to flourish and branch out.

The synod of Diamper was an organized attempt of the Portuguese religious

authority to bring the entire native Christians under the Roman yoke. In other

words, it was the extension of their colonial policy. The peculiar social and

religious background of the period tempted them to interfere in the religious

sentiments of the natives, and through which they could create confusion in the

socio –religious realm. The question of identity of the Christians that put forward

by the synod of Diamper has its own repercussion in the Kerala society. Until then

the Christians were Hindus in the social and cultural matters outwardly, and

religious aspirations were only a personal affair. They were the part and parcel of

the Kerala society.

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