Chapter Three

COMMUNITY - ORIENTED EDUCATION IN INDIA

A HISTORICAL OVERVIEW

School and community were closely related entities in ancient

India. Other social institutions such as joint family and kinship

group collaborated with the school, and together they

accomplished the broad objectives of education. These included

the inculcation of the norms and values of society, skills for life,

culture and refinement, in addition to reading, writing and

arithmetic. The gurukulas, the viharas, and the madrasas were

the standard institutions which carried out this mission under

different religious/political influences. Cutting across all these

differing influences, there was the underlying community-

orientation which always characterized India's educational

system.

With the British came the twist. They, deliberately and

calculatedly, gave an orientation to Indian education to suit their

political and economic agenda in this colony. Behind the so-

called 'liberal', 'modem' English educatim, they had such

malignant intentions as should have kindled indignation in any

lndian citizen. Unfortunately the lndian elite of those days did not

care to see through these designs, because they had personal

ga'ins from the British system.

It was Gandhi who, along with the struggle for political freedom,

questioned the British system. He developed the basic

education model to counter the British model. Unfortunately, in

spite of a dozen or so experiments in basic education along the

Wtardha pattern, it stands a stunted model.

In the independent lndia we have seen a series of educational

reforms trying to put the derailed bogies of Indian education back

on the rails. UGC's role is mentioned in this chapter also with

due emphasis. The effort is still on; and the present study is part

of the ongoing struggle to regain the community orientation of

lndian education, without neglecting its need to keep abreast of

advancements in the field in these days of globalization.

Detailed Contents

1.3.1 Ancient lndian Tradition

1.3.1.1 Schools in Ancient India

1.3.1.2 Socialization through Schools

1.3.1.3 The Ciunrkulas

1.3.1.4 Growing Relationship between School and Community During Buddhist Period

1.3.1.5 School Community Relations in Medieval lndia

1.3.1.6 Bhakti Movement and the Element of Extension Education

1.3.1.7 Education for the Elite

1.3.1.8 Concept of Knowledge and Education

1.3.2 The British Twist

1.3.2.1 Objectives of British Education in India

1.3.2.2 Macaulay's Speech in the House of Commons

1.3.2.3 The Minutes of Macaulay CI

1.3.2.4 The Filtration theory of Education

1.3.2.5 Other Important Landmarks of Education in British India

1.3.3 The Gandhian Re-orientation

1.3.3.1 Gandhian Critique of British.Education

1.3.3.2 Basic Education

1.3.3.3 Genesis of Adult Education in India

1.3.3.4 Other Experiments in Gandhian Education

1.3.4 The Post-Independence Scene

1.3.4.1 University Education Commission

1.3.4.2 The Origin of University Grants Commission (UGC)

1.3.4.3 The Kothari Commission

1.3.4 4 National Adult Education Programme (NAEP)

1.3.4.5 National Literacy Mission

1.3.5 ~oncjusion

Notes and References

1.3.1 ANCIENT INDIAN TRADITION

1.3.1.1 Schools in Ancient India

In ancient India, education formed an integral part of social structure

and schools operated as a part of the total social system. The educational

processes reflected the dominant cultural patterns. The keenly felt need to

educate the younger generations to acquire the cultural heritage had given

rise to social institutions like Ashram, Gurukula, Pathasala, Vihara.

Vidyapeeth, etc. The all-round cultural development of the person, and

formation of integrated moral character were the aims and objectives of

educational processes. The nature of closely integrated relations of the

school and the community in India can be seen in the jointly shared

educational activities conducted by various other social institutions like joint

family, the kinship group, the temple and the rural community. For it was

implicitly recognized that it was not only the school, but also the joint

family, the kinship groups, the temple and the entire community which

shared the responsibilities for educating the young.

1.3.1.2 Socialization through Schools

Education was not merely a formal process of teaching lessons. It

meant living in Guru's ashram under a strict code of conduct and rendering

all possible services. It was a broad-based process of formation of character

and also the acquisition of knowledge of Vedas, philosophy and classical

literature. The school along with other social institutions like the family

participated in the process of 'socialisation" of the growing child, e.g., in

the task of transmitting the culture of the society from one generation to

another. In its ordinary sense the word 'culture', which carries much the

same idea as cultivation refers to a process by which a person acquires

knowledge, skills, ideas, beliefs, and attitudes through his contacts with

other persons or from such h g s as books or works of art. In times of

Ramayana and Mahabharata , pupils lived in Guru Ashrams and learnt not

only reading, writing, grammar, vedas, philosophy, etc. but also archery

and such other skills which were needed in their future social roles.

1.3.1.3 The Gurukulas

The prukulas were single-teacher schools, conducted by brahmins or

pandirs who had taken up teaching as a profession. Many of the gurukulas

were residential schools. Ofien they were situated in natural and pastoral

surroundings away from the din and bustle of towns and cities. After

upanayanam (initiation ceremony), which generally took place at the age

between 8 to 12, boys were sent to gurukulas for their studies. They stayed ff

with the guru at his hermitage. The guru treated his students as his own

sons. The whole institution functioned as a joint family as the name

indicated, viz. guru is the teacher and kula means extended family. The

students stayed together as brothers and respected the teacher as a father and

served him to the best of their abilities. For all practical purposes ancient

Indian schools functioned as community schools. Much of the teaching was

done by word of mouth. The oral tradition remained strong in the ancient

system of Indian education.

The guru was not only respected but also sought for and consulted by

community leaders as also the kings and princes in important state matters

and community problems. Guru acted like a friend, philosopher and guide

to the community. For the illiterate masses who craved for enlightenment

he organized discourses where large number of rural people came to listen

and to learn.

1.3.1.4 Growing Relationship between School and Community during

Buddhist Period

The inter-relations between the school and the community developed

further during the centuries when Buddhism flourished in India. During this

period educational activities were carried on in the Buddhist monasteries

called viharas. The whole educational establishment in viharas functioned

under the supervision of the Chief Abbot called bhikshu. From jataka

stories it is clear that the viharas conducted elementary schools for novices.

They also had centres of higher leaming. During the reign of emperor

Asoka some vrharas had been developing into famous universities of

learning. Some of the famous universities described in Buddhist literature

were Nalanda, Takshila, Vallabhi, Vikramasila, Jagadala, Odantpuri,

Mithila and Nadia. V

During this time viharas not only provided the education of the

young, but they also provided ample opportunities for popular and social

education. The scholarly bhikshus went round the countryside and

organized discourses where large masses of illiterate peasants came to

listen, to learn and to ask questions. By the time the famous Chinese

traveller Fa Hien (399-414 A.D.) visited India, Buddhist viharas were

already imparting mass education even to those who had not joined the

Buddhist religious order sangha. The syllabus taught in viharas included

many other subjects besides the religious textbooks. The subjects taught for

higher learning included five vidyas which means disciplines: (1) shabda-

vidya or grammar ( 2 ) shilpa vidya or arts and crafts (3) chikifsa vidya or

medicine ( 4 ) hefu vidya or logic; and (5) adhyafma-vidya or philosophy.

When Hiuen Tsang visited India in 7'h century A.D. there were 5,000

monasteries spread all over the country.

1.3.1.5 School Community Relations in Medieval India

During the medieval period of Indian history, with the advent of

muslim rule in India the traditional system of education received severe

blows. Some of the muslim rulers took a narrow view of education. They

used their power not only to change the Indian society but also to destroy

the system of education that existed. Pafhasala.~ and vlharas were replaced

by maktabs and madrasas. Maktabs were single-teacher primary schools

under the charge of a maulavi while madrasas were centres of higher

learning. Later on there were some enlightened muslim rulers who took a

liberal view of education. Rulers like Muhummad Tughaalaq, Akbar and

Shah Jehan tried to liberalize education.

U

1.3.1.6 Bhakti Movement and the Element of Extension Education

Between 13' and 17" Century A.D. Bhakti movement flourished in

different linguistic groups in India. This reformation movement started

from unusual quarters of Indian society. Great bhaktas arose from all

different walks of life and strata of society. Among them were shudras,

petty traders, artisans, farmers and even women like Meerabai.

Bhaktas established truly popular vehicles of mass education

variously known as harikatha, keertan, parayana, katha, akhyan, etc.

During this mass upsurge the bhaktas preached and sung in the respective

language of the people of the region. Their melodious songs, aphorisms,

proverbs and sayings were written in vernacular languages. The literary

activities in modem Indian vernaculars may be said to have made a

begming with the writings, preachings and songs of the bhaktas. The

bhaktas re-interpreted the scriptures in the language of the masses and their

day-to-day life and problems. Rural masses walked miles to have a glimpse

(darshan) of the bhaktas and hear their discourses. Though the original

inspiration of the bhaktas was religious in character, they touched upon

many socio-economic problems of their times. Hindu-Muslim unity became

the moving theme of the songs of Kabir, Nanak and many others.

Untouchability was condemned by Narasinh Mehta - a great poet and bhakta

in Gujarat who went to the quarters of the untouchables to conduct Hari-

Keertran. Meerabai, the Rajput princess, deplored the royal pomp and

distinction of high and low and she freely conducted bhajans sitting side by

side with ordinary persons. Bhaktas gave liberal solutions of the burning

socio-economic problems of their times and re-interpreted scriptures in the

context of changing political and social life. They made a deep and abiding

impact on the minds of the people.

v

1.3.1.7 Education for the &lite

White Bhakti movement provided a sort of mass-education for the

inculcation of the norms and values of the society, it is also clear that formal

and institutionalized education was not provided for all sections and strata

of society at this time of Indian history. Formal education was generally

acquired by the members of high-caste groups and elites of the society. The

Brahmins, the Rajputs and wealthy merchants made special artgngements

for the education of their sons. It was not customaxy for lower-caste

familics to send their children to schools. Actually women and shudras

were debarred from reading or reciting of scriptures. The norms and

customs of 'varna-shram-dhanna', forbade women and shudras from

acquiring formal education.

1.3.1.8 Concept of Knowledge and Education

Knowledge in Indian culture was conceived as the light which

dispelled the darkness of ignorance and liberated human mind from the

oppressive realities of here and now. Education and knowledge were also

synonymous with culture and refinement. An educated man was a refined

person. He was cultured and had highly developed moral character. For

him discipline was self-discipline which he imposed on himself as a

penance to be performed for the higher status and prestige which he

received from society. He was respected and consulted by community

leaders. Kings and princes paid homage to him.

This overview of education in ancient India reveals that extension

was a definite dimension of education in our tradition in spite of dogmatic

discriminations against women and shudras.

THE BRITISH TWIST

1.3.2.1 Objectives of British Education in India

We have historical evidence to prove that the British rulers of India

promoted education unwillingly. At a time when continuous territorial

Gictories necessitated elaborate network, they needed men and women of

certain kind of education to manage the system. There was also a political

motivation behind the education they introduced. This was based on the

calculation that people educated in English would be more loyal to the

British rule in India. There was some demand also from the people, mostly

based on the utilitarian aspects of English education in the prevailing

English environment.

In 1792 when the House of Commons debated the renewal of the East

India Company's charter, Wilberforce, the leader of the Evangelical Party,

sponsored a well-meaning resolution to make arrangements to send school-

masters fiom England to teach in India. Wilberforce's move met with

severe opposition. One of the members who opposed the move is reported to

have observed that they "had just lost America fiom the folly of having

allowed the establishment of schools and colleges, and it would not do for

them to repeat the same act of folly in regard to ~ndia'?

1.3.2.2 Macaulay's Speech in the House of Commons

The charter acts of 1813 and 1833 encouraged missionaries to run

educational institutions in India. This, however, led to the sprouting of local

initiatives also, as is evidenced by establishment of Hindu Colleges in

Bengal promoting English education. The act of 1833 also declared that any

educated person, irrespective of caste and creed, will be eligible for

employment in government. This acted as an incentive for education. W

Education thus became a passport to a job in India as early as 1833. It did

not have anything to do with preparing people for life, nor with making

them know more about their own culture. How calculatedly the British

played their cards is evident from the ideas embodied in a speech which

Macaulay, the then Law Member of the Governor General's Executive +

Council in India, made in the House of Commons.

Are we to keep the people of India ignorant in order that we

may keep them submissive? Or do we mean to awaken

ambition and to provide it with no legitimate vent? It may be

that the pitblic mind of India may expand under our system

until it has outgrown that system, that by good government we

may educate our subjects into a capacity for better

government, that having become instructed in European

knowledge, they may in some future age demand European

institutions. Whether such a day will ever come, I know not.

Whenever it comes it will be the proudest day in English

history. The sceptre may pass fiom us. Victory may be

inconstant to our arms. But there are triumphs which are

followed by no reverses. There is an empire exempt from all

natural causes of decay. These triumphs are the pacific

triumphs of reason over barbarism3.

1.3.2.3 The Minutes of Macaulay

Macaulay, profound scholar, successful writer and eloquent speaker,

is sufficiently notorious in India ever since, as the person responsible for

implementing the educational policies detrimental to our national interests.

Based on the famous Minutes which he presented to Lord William

Bentinck, Governor General in 1835, a resolution was passed y i t h

following points:4

1. "That the great object of the British Government ought to be the

promotion of European literature and science amongst the natives of

India and that all finds appropriated for the purpose of education

would be best employed on English Education alone."

2. "That, while the colleges of oriental learning were not to be

abolished, the practice supporting their students during their period

of education was to be discontinued."

3. "That Government Funds were not to be spent on the printing of

oriental works."

4. "That all the funds at the disposal of the Government would

henceforth be spent in imparting to the Indians a knowledge of

English literature and science."

1.3.2.4 The Filtration theory of Education

A major harm which the British did while designing an educational

system for India is known as "The Filtration Theory of Education" - that is

to say, educate the top few, education will filter down (percolate) in due

course! On July 3 1, 1937 Macaulay wrote:

We do not at present aim at giving education directly to the

lower classes of the people of this country. We aim at raising

up an educated class who will thereafter, as we hope, difise

among their countrymen some portion of the knowledge we

have imparted to them5.

The real purpose of the Filtration Theory of Education can be

summed up in these words;

Education was to permeate the masses from above. Drop by

drop from the Himalayas of Indian life, useful information

was to trickle downwards, forming in time a broad and stately

stream to irrigate the thirsty plains6.

And then we have the most notorious of the statements in Macaulay's

Minutes:

We must at presenl'do our best to form a class who may be

interpreters between us and the millions whom we govern: a

class of persons Indian in blood and colour, but English in

tastes, in opinions, in morals and in intellect7.

1.3.2.5 Other Important Landmarks of Education in British India

Important landmarks in the next few years are the Wood's Despatch

(1 854) which introduced grant-in-aid, and the Indian Education Commission

(1885) which strongly recommended steps for gearing up primary,

secondary and collegiate education. Then came Indian Universities

Commission (1902), Gokhale's Bill (1910), the Educational Resolution

(1913) and the Calcutta Education Commission (1917). In 1920s Gandhi's

basic education was enunciated and with it there was a strong popular

demand for the introduction of universal, free and compulsory education.

This overview of British education reveaIs that the foreigners saw

education as a tool for the furtherance of their political and economic goals

in India. It was more of their intention to prepare people for life nor to make

them appreciate the native culture from which alone real development can

spring.

1.3.3 THE GANDHIAN RE-ORIENTATION

With Gandhi's appearance on the scene we find a positive turn in the

history of education in India? The following passage from the Harijan

brings out the prophetic, nationalist, humane and realistic vision which

Gandhi had in this regard:

As a nation we are so backward in education that we cannot

hope to fulfil our obligations in this respect in a given time

during our generation. I have, therefore, made bold, even at

the risk of losing reputation for constructive policy, to suggest

that education should be self-supporting. By education, I

mean an all-round drawing out of the best in the child and

man - body, mind and spirit. Literacy is not the end of

education, nor even the beginning. It is only one of the means

whereby men and women can be educated. Literacy in itself

is not education. I would, therefore, begin the child's

education by teaching it a useful handicraft, enabling it to

produce Grom the moment it begins its training. Thus, every

school can be made self-supporting, condition being that State

takes over the manufacture (products) of these schoolss.

1.3.3.1 Gandhian Critique of British Education

In his forthright manner Gandhi criticized Enghsh education for four

reasons: one, it is associated with the utterly unjust Government; two, it is

based upon a foreign culture to the almost entire exclusion of indigenous

culture; three, it ignores the culture of the heart and the hand and confines

itself simply to the head; and four, real education is impossible through a

foreign medium. A very small percentage of people could manage to

acquire English education. In the process they lost all their ties with

illiterate masses. Educational institutions worked in ivory towers

completely oblivious of the needs and problems of Indian Society. They

trained Indian youths in academic subjects which prepared them for

Government service or clerical jobs. The intellectuals and the educated lost

all their moorings in Indian culture and developed a sort of social blindness

towards the urgent problems and sderings of Indian masses. This is the

reason why Gandhi felt aggrieved to see what he called the "hard-

heartedness" of the educated in India. Gandhi deplored the yawning gap

between the educated and the vast illiterate masses of Indian people. In his

concept of education the basic values such as truthhlness, ahimsa, self-

control and service to the community were given high priority.

Gandhi deplored the tendencies of English Education to develop

intellect without inculcation of human values which are the very basis of a

good system of education. Though Gandhi did not minimise the value of

intellect and academic learning, he placed highest value on development of

character. High integrity of character was for him sine qua non of real

education.

For this vital process of building character Gandhi advocated close

integration of the process of education with the life and work in the

community. For such integration Gandhi sought to make education at

primary levels craft-centred so that the growing child may not only acquire

knowledge but also manual skills which are familiar to him and would be

immediately useful to his family. With that sense of practical wisdom so

characteristic of the Mahatma, he saw in such a scheme the means to relieve

the burden of organizing primary education for vast masses of Indian people

and what is even more important, a method of making education more

relevant to the needs of rural communities.

1.3.3.2 Basic Education

w Mahatma Gandhi had started his experiments in educational activities

in Wardha. In the Wardha Scheme it was made absolutely clear that

education has a close relation with life of the child, i.e. his home, his village,

crafts, industries and occupations of his village.

The basic education as it is accepted for primary schools emphasizes

close integration of school and community activities. It aims at educating

the children through the most important craft of the community. This means

a close relationship between the work done at the school and work done in

the community. Such a close relationship will also enable the children to

cany the outlook and attitudes acquired in the school environment into

wider world outside. This will augment their sense of personal worth,

dignity and efficiency and their desire for self-improvement and social

service.

The basic education teacher takes the activities which are being

canied out in the community as the basis to plan his lessons. He relates his

academic symbols to the day-to-day experiences of the pupils which they

bring to the class. For it is obvious that students learn more fiom life than

fiom books. Whatever experience they get in the community Me is the

starting point of their learning. The teacher assesses the available local

resources to make full use of them in planning lessons in the school.

Learning by doing is the accepted principle of basic education. When the

school develops activities on this principle, it naturally relates its activities

to the life of the community.

For developing basic education successllly in schools Gandhi

visualized a close co-operation of the school and the community and he

advocated that teachers should play a dynamic role in promoting rural

reconstruction and adult education.

Similarly, for implementing the programme of compulsory primary

education educationists have visualized a close cooperation of the school

and the community and advocated that school teachers should play a

dynamic role in community education and adult education. Educationists

have now realized that the problem of wastage and drop-outs in primary

education is closely linked up with the existence of mass illiteracy in the

country. It is the children of illiterate parents who do not go to schools or

drop out early. This also points to the need for school-community

interaction.

1.3.3.3 Genesis of Adult Education in India

The very genesis of the modem forms of adult education in India can

be traced in the national struggle for independence. Himself a born teacher,

Gandhi had brought about a great awakening among Indian masses through

his speeches, discussions and writings. For him the very struggle for

independence itself was a great process of adult education. For he reiterated

again and again that the freedom of a nation does not consist merely in

political emancipation, nor even in economic prosperity. The real freedom

of a nation begins with the liberation of the minds of its people, and

education is the process which liberates the minds of a people. One of the

passions of Gandhi's life was to see every man, woman and child in India

educated. He had started his own experiments in adult education in

Champaran of Bihar.

Gandhi was gravely concerned about the existence of mass illiteracy

in India. He even considered it as India's sin and shame and wanted it to be

liquidated at the earliest. He also said that Adult Education should not be

confined to literacy programmes alone, but should also aim at the

"emancipation of the masses from the squalor of superstition and the

tyranny of taboo^."^ During theairties, a large number of adult literacy

classes were started in many cities and towns under his inspiration. Later on

Gandhi had started his own experiments in Wardha. But he constantly

reminded the workers that India lived in villages. Therefore he asked them

to go to villages, settle down there and mix with the people there and serve

them. To the extent that he serves the people, he will also be educating ,

them. "The problems of social education or education for the people," said

he, discussing the matter with the teachers of Rastriya Pathashala of

Sathyagrahasram, "are even more difficult than that of children's education.

For the latter, we have example of how it has been carried out. But for the

education of our masses, we may say that not even that much guidance is

available to us. In this respect, we can learn only a little even from foreign

countries. Conditions in India are also different from those in other

co~ntries"'~.

1.3.3.4 Other Experiments in Gandhian Education

One of the most important problems which faced the workers in adult

literacy classes during those days as well as now is the problem of relapse

into illiteracy. Gandhl had thought about this problem and given his own

solution. Gandhi wrote, "The lapse is bound to occur after the short courses

that are given. The lapse can only be prevented by correlating the teaching

to the villagers' daily wants. The dry knowledge of three R's is not, and can

never be, a permanent part of villagers' life. They must have knowledge

given to them which they must use daily. It must not be thrust upon them.

They should have the appetite for it. What they have today is something

they neither want nor appreciate"".

Other than the Sevagram model, we have a few other significant

experiments such as Tagore's Srinikethan which tries to relate education to

rural development, Gijubhai Badheka's experiments in teacher education in

Gujarat, Gandhigram Rural Institute started by G. Ramachandran,

Avinashilingam Home Science College started by T.S. Avinashilingam.

To conclude this part of the discussion we may note that Gandhi's

influence on Indian education was to take it closer to the lives of the

learners and to Indian culture. His models of basic education and adult

education were attempts to link education with community.

1.3.4 THE POST-INDEPENDENCE SCENE

1.3.4.1 University Education Commission

A new era in the history of education was ushered in with the

attainment of independence in 1947. It naturally brought a new hope, a new

vision, a new future for the subcontinent, the like of which was not possible

in the past. These hopes and aims, many people felt, could be realized

tluough the instrument of education. Education was also considered to be

the chief weapon in facing and solving new problems. The University

Education Commission (1948) under the chairmanship of Dr. S.

Radhakrishnan explained the situation in the following words.

We are today faced with great problems, national and social,

the acquisition of economic independence, the increase of

general prosperity, attainment of an effective democracy

ovemding the distinctions of caste and creed, rich and poor,

and a rise in the level of culture. For the quick and effective

realization of these aims, education is a powehl weapon, if it

is organized efficiently and in the public interestI2.

India has today one of the largest education systems in the world with 69

a total enrollment exceeding 75 million. Teachers number over 2 million. In

higher education alone there are a little over 2 million students of whom

more than half a million are women.

1.3.4.2 The Origin of University Grants Commission (UGC)

The picture of the development of university education will remain

incomplete without a brief mention of University Grants Commission

(UGC). This was brought into being in 1953 through an executive order of

the Govt. of India. The UGC Act was passed by the Indian parliament in

1956. The main responsibility of UGC is to co-ordinate and maintain

standards. Ln addition to fulfilling this, it has created an appreciation of the

significance of higher education in the country as whole, and succeeded in

focusing attention on some of its urgent and important needs such as the

extension dimension. A gist of the guidelines on Adult Education and

Extension Programmes, issued by the UGC is included in the Annexures.

1.3.4.3 The Kothari Commission

Despite UGC's efforts and the rapid growth of higher education, there

was an air of dissatisfaction with education in the country, and consequently

a lot of criticism followed against its various aspects. It was in those

circumstances that under the chairmanship of Dr. D.S. Kothari, the Indian

Education Commission (1964) was appointed. Dr. Kothari's report is one of

the important landmarks in our on-going effort at renewing education in our

country. Perhaps no other commission has made a stronger plea for linking

education with the community.

The University Grants Commission has taken a number of steps to

promote and guide involvement of students and teachers in various agtivities

related to communitizing education.

These inc1udel3

Creation of departmentstcentres of Adult, Continuing Education and

Extension;

Assistance for various activities under the third dimension;

Promoting integration of extension in the curricula, and academic

incentives to students participating in such activities;

Provision for staff development for adult literacy and adult education

in the form of preparation of training manuals, short term training

courses, etc.;

Development of resource materials in print and audio visual formats;

Support to research methodology workshops, development-oriented

non-formal education etc.

Transforming Adult/Continuing Education movemei~t into a life

centred and life long learning process;

Promotion extension to permeate all disciplines of studies at all

levels;

An area based non-sectarian community approach extending access of

education to the door steps of all segments of people by promoting

micro-planning;

Encouraging students to opt for a semester to work in programmes for

preparing a project report in lieu of one of the optional papers in

every subject;

Mass campaigns by involving the entire student community along

with their teachers;

Transforming college-based area projects into community education

centres which should be run in the college premises on whole time

basis providing access to learners at their convenience and at their

own place; b,

Malung the programmes under the third dimension a part of the

larger national perspective on social development with eradication of

illiteracy as an entry point.

In spite of these guidelines and provisions for financial support fiom

UGC, adult education is yet to have the mass appeal which it naturally calls

for. The absence of an over all development perspective for adult education

is clearly visible in the style of functioning of the Departments of Adult

Education in most universities. Several review committees have submitted

their reports which contain progressive recommendations. Yet, these

departments or the general education machinery are yet to take steps which

will affect the social fabric in a significant manner.

1.3.4.4 National Adult Education Programme (NAEP)

On 2"* October 1978, the government of India launched a nation-wide

National Adult Eduaction Programme (NAEP) with the objective of literacy

for conscientization and formation of organizations of the poor to enable the

poor to rise to their own liberation through literacy, dialogue and action. In

1985, the Adult Education Programme, along with the entire education

system, was reviewed in a nation-wide open debate, and as on the basis of

discussion, a new National Policy on Education W E ) 1986 was formulated

and adopted by the Indian Parliament, adhering to the perspective that "the

role of education is to transform a static society into one vibrant with a

commitment to development and change".

1.3.4.5 National Literacy Mission

In May 1988 the National Literacy Mission (NLM) was launched w

with the objective of imparting functional literacy to 80 million adult

literates in the 15-30 age group by 1995. According to NLM, "functional

literacy among other elements, implies becoming aware of the causes of

their deprivation and moving towards amelioration of their condition

through organization and participation in the process of devel~~ment" '~. But

it is seen that when it comes to actual implementation, NLM's radical and

comprehensive definition of functional literacy gets reduced to teaching of

alphabets. The dominant strategy of NLM is campaign approach which is

area specific, time-bound, volunteer based and cost-effective". The

dynamism of NLM is definitely impressive. Acharya Ramamurthy has put

this issue in proper perspective in his report.

The content and process of adult education, as distinct from

adult literacy, is to be reorganized. The questions of survival,

development and justice are to be interwoven into the content,

pedagogy and learning situation of the adult, letting literacy

come organically in the process when, and if, it becomes the

felt need of the adult learners. This understanding would help

in avoiding the disproportionate emphasis on literacy

campaigns. A major objective of this campaign should be to

enthuse the adult illiterates to send their children for school

education. Other objectives may include education for

democracy and panchayatraj and eschewing violence,

casteism, communalism, gender bias and all other forms of

di~crimination'~.

1.3.5 Conclusion

What has been attempted in this chapter is an overview of education

in India from ancient times to modem times, with a search for community-

orientation. The overview reveals that in ancient India the school was

embedded in society and was an integral part of the social fabric. Families,

worship groups and temples participated in, and re-inforced the schooling

process. The gurus, bhikshus and bhaktas went out to the people to teach

them in the genuine spirit of what is today called "extension". - The chapter also reviews the manner in which this beautill system

was undone for political / commercial reasons by the foreign rulers of India.

The third part of the chapter traces the history of Indian education from

post-independence years. In the campaign for national freedom, in the basic

education model in the recommendations of Dr. S Radhakrishnan, in the

vision of UGC, in the establishment of NAEP and later NLM everywhere it

is seen that our national perspective on education is one that calls for a

creative linking of the campuses with the communities around them.

Notes and References

I In the sociology of education, the objective of education is usually

described as 'socialization' of the child as a functioning and responsible

member society. It was the publication of John Dewey's ideas on 'School

and Commhity' which created widespread interest in the role of school as

an agency of socialization.

Quoted by Laksmanaswami A Mudaliar : Education in India.

(Bombay: Asia Publishing House, 1960) 2 1-22.

3 Laksmanaswarni A Mudaliar. op. cit. 22.

4 Quoted by Shiv Kumar Saine, Development of Education in India:

Socio-economic and Political Perspectives, (New Delhi: Cosmo

Publications. 1980) 41.

5 Macaulay's Minutes. Quoted in S.K Saine, Development of

education in 1ndia:Socio-economic and Political Perspectives, (New Delhi:

Cosmo Publications, 1980) 43. LI

6 Macaulay, quoted in S.K Saine. op. cit. 43.

7 Macaulay, quoted in S.K Saine. op. cit. 42.

8 Ahmedabad: The Harijan, July 10,1937

9 Gandhi, op. cit. July 10, 1937

10 From V~nimaya: A handwritten Periodical conducted by teachers of

Rashtriya Pathasala of Satyagrahaashram, Vol. 2 (3)

11 Harijan , June 12,1940

l2 Govt. of India, NCERT: Report of University Education

Commission, Delhi, 1948

l3 UGC: New Guidelines on Adult, Continuing Eduaction and

Extension Programmes in the Universities and Colleges (New Delhi,

1988) 1 .

14 Govt. of India, National Literacy Mission: Annual Report 1993-94:

Literacy andpost Literacy Campaigns in India (New Delhi, 1995) 1.

15 Govt. of India National Literacy Mission: op. cit. 2.

l 6 Acharya Ramamurti: Towards an Enlightened and ~ i m a n e

Society: A Perspective on Education, Report of Committee for Review of

National Policy on Education (NPE)1986 (New Delhi, 1990)