Chapter Seven

Individuals With Learning Disabilities

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– The term learning disability represents a fairly new concept- a disability that is not physically apparent and cannot be seen.

– In 1977, to comply with the Education for All Handicapped Children Act, a “specific learning disability” was determined to mean a disorder that manifest itself in children’s inability to perform certain tasks in specified ways. This disability excludes children who have other disabilities that contribute to their learning delays. This definition remained largely unchanged in later legislation. Current federal criteria for diagnosing a learning disability includes:• Student does not achieve at expected age and ability levels when

compared to age-level norms on standardized assessment measures

– Current IDEA definition

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A team determines that a severe discrepancy is present between a child’s actual levels of achievements and their potential for achievement in one or more of the following areas– Oral expression– Listening comprehension– Written expression– Basic reading skill– Reading comprehension– Mathematics calculation– Mathematic reasoningThe problems are not the result of sensory impairments, intellectual disability, emotional problems, environmental, cultural, or economic disadvantage (exclusionary clause).

Defining Learning DisabilitiesIDEA definition:• Child does not achieve at expected age and ability levels• A severe discrepancy is present between a child’s

achievement and potential in one or more of the following areas:

Oral expressionListening comprehensionWritten expressionBasic reading skillsReading comprehensionMathematics calculationMathematic reasoning

• Student does not respond to Response to Intervention (RTI) strategies

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Brief History of the Field

Foundation Phase Brain research conducted on adults with brain injuries

Transition Phase Scientific research applied to children’s learning

Integration Phase Legislation fostered educational changes based on research findings and introduced the new term learning disability in 1963.

Current Phase Educators face new challenges, and embrace new educational advances, to meet the needs of their students with learning disabilities

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Prevalence of Learning Disabilities• Largest category of students with disabilities• The federal government suggested that

approximately 2.35 million students ages 6 to 21 were identified as having learning disabilities

• The federal government now counts preschoolers with learning disabilities

• Since 2000, the number of students identified with learning disabilities has decreased

• More common in boys, in 10-16 year olds

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Suspected Etiologies of Learning Disabilities

– Acquired trauma to the central nervous system: Such as prenatal, perinatal, or postnatal injuries

– Genetic/hereditary influences: Family and twin studies seem to indicate that learning disabilities run in families

– Biochemical abnormalities: Current research does not support allergies or vitamin deficiencies as the cause of learning disabilities

– Environmental possibilities: Factors such as poverty, malnutrition, lack of access to health care and other factors may contribute to learning disabilities

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Characteristics of Individuals With Learning Disabilities

• Disorders of attention• Hyperactivity• Poor motor abilities• Psychological process deficits • Information-processing problems• Lack of cognitive strategies needed for efficient

learning• Memory difficulties

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Characteristics of Individuals With Learning Disabilities

• Metacognitive deficits• Oral language difficulties• Reading difficulties• Written language problems• Quantitative disorders• Success and failure attributions• Social skills deficits

Language Difficulties• Comprehension• Decoding• Word recognition • Phonological awareness• Dyslexia • Spelling• Writing• Speaking• Organizing thoughts into words (written or spoken)

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Mathematics Difficulties

• Computational skills• Word problems• Spatial relationships• Writing numbers• Copying shapes, patterns• Understanding mathematical concepts• Dyscalculia

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Social and Emotional Difficulties

Lower self-esteem Poor self-concept Frustration Difficulty understanding and interpreting

social cues and social situations Difficulty making and maintaining friendships

and relationships

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Assessment of Students with Learning Disabilities

IDEA requires a multidisciplinary evaluation:• Tests are administered by trained professionals• Tests are reliable and valid• Tests are not discriminatory• Tests are administered in the student’s native

language• A single measure cannot be used to determine

eligibility

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Assessment Decisions

Assessments are conducted to determine if a severe discrepancy exists between the child’s potential and achievement.

• Includes a variety of intellectual, achievement, and other assessments to determine the child’s potential and actual achievement.

• Discrepancies formulas and eligibility vary by state.

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Response to Intervention (RTI)• States have the option to use a discrepancy

model to determine eligibility or they may implement RTI strategies.

• RTI is generally a process that increases the levels of instructional interventions provided in the regular classroom.

‒ Students who do not meet with success with intensive interventions may have a learning disability.

• Provides instructional support without waiting for a special education label.

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– Assessment methods include:• Norm-referenced assessment: An individual’s

performance is compared to the performance of a normative group• Criterion-referenced assessment: Measures a student’s

ability to meet or master specific criteria• Curriculum-based assessment: Assessment of the

curriculum that the child has been taught• Portfolio assessment: Displays student’s progress over

a period of time

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Assessment Strategies

• Norm-referenced assessment• Criterion-referenced assessment• Curriculum-based assessment• Portfolio assessment

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Approaches to Teaching Academic Skills

Cognitive training– Help students learn new ways to complete tasks and

think about their learning (see Table 7.4, page 231)

Direct instruction– Teacher-directed lessons that provide step-by-step

explicit instruction

Mnemonic strategies– Aids with recall by creating an association that is

easily remembered

Learning strategies– Teach students how to learn

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Preschool Risk Factors for Learning Disabilities

• Accidents and head trauma• Chronic poverty• Inadequate stimulation in home environment• Inadequate maternal and child nutrition• Low birth weight• Maternal alcohol and drug abuse• Oxygen deprivation• Prematurity• Prolonged or unusual delivery• Rh incompatibility

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Transition Into Adulthood

Transition planning requirements:• Vocational training• Preparation for post secondary education• Employment possibilities• Independent living• Social skills• Self-determination skills

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Adults With Learning DisabilitiesSupports and modifications needed for

college success:• Time management issues• Organizational skills• Self-discipline• Self-advocacy

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Family Issues

Lerner and Johns (2009) offer the following recommendations for parents of children with learning disabilities:

• Become an informed consumer• Be an assertive advocate• Be firm yet empathetic in managing a child’s behavior• Devote time and attention to their family members• Make a life for yourself

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Issues of Diversity

• Differentiating between cultural and language differences and learning disabilities

• Disproportionate representation of minority groups• May need to improve identification, assessment, and

evaluation practices

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Technology and Individuals With Learning Disabilities

• The use of technology has been a great benefit to people with disabilities including those with learning disabilities.

• Students with learning disabilities are increasingly making use of technology to assist them in achieving academic success including word processing, the internet, assistive technology, smartphones, calculators, organization and self-management helpers, note-taking devices

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Trends, Issues, and Controversies

Full Inclusion Movement• Equity of full inclusion• Moral imperative of inclusion• Often inadequate resources in full inclusion• Data suggest that full inclusion does not meet

needs of all students with learning disabilities• Opposition by professional organizations and

advocacy groups.

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