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CHAPTER III
METHODOLOGY
3.1 INTRODUCTION
3.2 VARIABLES AND THEIR OPERATIONAL DEFINITIONS
3.3 DESIGN AND HYPOTHESES
3.4 SAMPLE
3.5 TOOLS
3.5.1 STRESS MEASUREMENT SCALE
3.5.2 COPING RESOURCE INVENTORY
3.5.3 ALTRUISM TEST
3.5.4 RELIGIOSITY SCALE
3.5.5 SELF-PERCEPTION INVENTORY
3.6 PROCEDURE
3.7 DATA ANALYSES
3.8 SUMMARY
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3.1 INTRODUCTION
The present study is designed to gain an insight into combat experiences
and perceptions of serving armed forces personnel of Indian army on certain
important psychological aspects such as stress in routine military life, coping
resources, altruism, religiosity, and self-perception. In present research, responses
of serving combat veterans injured in battle (CVI), serving combat veterans
uninjured in battle (CVU), and other serving armed forces personnel not initiated
as yet into combat (non-combat veterans- NCV) have been compared on
measured variables. This chapter states operational definitions of variables
selected in present study and hypotheses framed to study difference between
several groups of serving military personnel of Indian army. Tools to measure
these aspects have also been described. This chapter states rationale for tools used
for the present study as well as gives description of these tools.
The chapter provides details of sample selected from given population,
procedure for data collection as well as proposed statistical analyses of present
research.
3.2 VARIABLES AND THEIR OPERATIONAL DEFINITIONS
The present study attempts to investigate certain important psychological
aspects of serving combat veterans of Indian army.
88
Variables that are examined in the study are as follows:
Stress
Coping resources
Altruism
Religiosity
Self-perception
Operational Definitions
Variables of present study have been operationally defined in this section.
Stress
Stress has been defined as physical and psychological demands and
constraints that impinge on an individual as a result of operating in military
environment (Staal, 2004). In the present study, stress being measured pertains to
perceived stressors of routine military life in operational as well as non-
operational areas.
Stress will be measured on six dimensions in present study. These are as
follows:
1. Cognitive Stress: Cognitive stress is defined as information processing
load placed on the human operator while performing a particular task in a military
environment. It is assumed that cognitive stress increases with task difficulty
(Lively, Pisoni, van Summers, & Bernacki, 1993).
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2. Occupational Stress: Stress due to demands and constraints of operating in
military environment (Staal, 2004).
3. Physical Stress: Stress accruing due to physical pressure acting on an
individual as a result of performing military duties.
4. Emotional Stress: Emotional stress is psychological and physiological
arousal due to emotions triggered before or during a task while operating in
military environment (Lively et al., 1993).
5. Social Stress: Stress in an individual due to inability to meet social
demands and expectations of family, friends, and significant others due to
exigencies of military service. Social stress results from interruption of the
feedback loop that maintains identity processes (Burke, 1991).
6. Personal Stress: Stress in relation to subjective, internal responses in
appraisal of military environment.
Coping Resources
Coping resources are operationally defined as those resources inherent in
individuals that enable them to handle stressors more effectively, to experience
fewer or less intense symptoms upon exposure to a stressor, or to recover faster in
stressful situation (Hammer & Marting, 1988, p. 2).
In present study, coping resources are measured on five dimensions and
are operationally defined as follows:
90
1. Cognitive Coping Resource: It is defined as the extent to which
individuals maintain a positive sense of self worth, a positive outlook towards
others, and optimism about life in general.
2. Social Coping Resource: It is defined as degree to which individuals are
embedded in social networks that are able to provide support during periods of
stress.
3. Emotional Coping Resource: It is defined as degree to which individuals
are able to accept and express a range of affect based on the premise that range of
emotional responses aid in overcoming long term negative consequences of stress.
4. Spiritual Coping Resource: It is defined as degree to which actions of
individuals are guided by stable and consistent values derived from religious,
familial, or cultural tradition or from personal philosophy. Such values might
serve to define meaning of potentially stressful events and prescribe strategies for
responding effectively.
5. Physical Coping Resource: It is defined as degree to which an individual
enacts health-promoting behavior which may contribute to increase in physical
well being. Physical well being may decrease level of negative response to stress
and enables faster recovery. It may also help attenuate potentially chronic stress-
illness cycle resulting from negative physical responses to stressors that they
themselves become major stressors.
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Altruism
Altruism has been operationalized as voluntary behavior carried out to
benefit another individual without anticipation of rewards from external resources
and done for its own sake (Baron & Bryne, 1997).
Religiosity
Religiosity indicates degree to which an individual can be identified as
religious. Religiosity has been operationalized as having faith in a power beyond
oneself with which individuals seek to satisfy emotional need and gain stability in
life. An individual expresses religiosity by acts of worship and service (Galloway,
cited in Bhushan, 1990, p.1).
Self-perception
Self-perception is a part of one‟s personality and is multi dimensional in
nature. In present research, self-perception has been measured under two domains
of general adjustment and general maladjustment. One can form clusters of
different subscales and obtain an index of personality patterning (Martin, 1968).
General adjustment gives an overall profile and differentiates between
disturbed and non-disturbed individuals. It comprises of three dimensions and has
been operationalized as follows:
1. Consistency: It is the integrated thought process of an individual that
enables a person to think and act in a coherent way.
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2. Self actualization: It is striving towards realization of one‟s own potentials
and seeking personal growth.
3. Supervision: It is an individual‟s insight into effective human interaction
and inclination towards leadership role.
General maladjustment gives an overall profile and differentiates between
disturbed and non-disturbed individual. It comprises of six dimensions and has
been operationalized as follows:
4. Rigidity–Dogmatism: It is characterized as inflexibility in attitudes,
arrogant behaviour, and stubborn assertion of personal belief or opinion.
5. Uncommon response: It pertains to presenting oneself in a pathologically
obvious manner, identifying oneself as severely maladjusted individual or
pretending to display psychological disturbance.
6. Authoritarianism: It pertains to rigid conventionalism, aggression, power
aspirations, and destruction.
7. Anxiety: Anxiety is operationally defined as restless, apprehensive, and
agitated behavior.
8. Depression: Depression refers to self-devaluing and emotionally disturbed
behavior.
9. Paranoia: Paranoia is behaviour characterized as having delusions of
grandeur and persecution, ideas of reference, and self-pity.
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Combat Veterans (CV)
For purpose of present study, combat veterans have been operationally
defined as those serving armed forces personnel of Indian army who have
continuously served for more than 90 days in a combat zone where military
operations have taken place against enemies of the country (e.g. military
operations in Siachen glacier, Kargil, Jammu and Kashmir). They also meet
criteria of having either fired upon enemy or themselves have been fired upon by
enemy with weapons, grenades, mines, or aerial shelling. Combat veterans have
been further classified into two categories. These are as follows:
Combat veterans injured in battle (CVI): Those serving armed forces
personnel who have suffered with any physical disability during military
operations due to any of the following:
Gun shot wound
Mine blast injury
Splinter injury due to enemy shelling
Grenade blast injury.
Combat veterans uninjured in battle (CVU): Those serving armed forces
personnel who despite continuous service for more than 90 days duration in a
combat zone have themselves not suffered with any physical disability due to
enemy action.
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Non-combat veterans (NCV)
In the present study, non-combat veterans refer to those serving armed
forces personnel who have no combat experience and have not been initiated as
yet into combat zone.
3.3 DESIGN AND HYPOTHESES
The present research is designed to study certain important psychological
aspects of serving combat veterans. Serving armed forces personnel not initiated
as yet into combat (non-combat veterans) have been selected as a comparison
group.
The present research is a 3 x 2 x 2 (types of military personnel with
respect to combat experience x number of years of military service x rank status)
between- subject design.
The subgroups of serving military personnel under study are compared on
variables of stress in routine military life, coping resources, altruism, religiosity,
and self perception.
Hypotheses and Rationale
Certain hypotheses are formulated regarding differences between serving
combat veterans and other serving armed forces personnel not initiated as yet into
combat on stress in routine military life, coping resources, altruism, religiosity,
and self perception. These were based on relevant literature on combat veteran
95
experiences and perceptions with reference to variables considered in present
study.
Main hypotheses of the study are:
1. Serving combat veterans injured in battle, serving combat veterans
uninjured in battle, and other serving armed forces personnel not initiated as yet
into combat differ on stress in routine military life.
1a. Serving combat veterans injured in battle perceive lesser stress in
routine military life as compared to other serving armed forces personnel
not initiated as yet into combat.
1b. Serving combat veterans uninjured in battle perceive lesser stress in
routine military life as compared to other serving armed forces personnel
not initiated as yet into combat.
1c. Serving combat veterans injured in battle perceive lesser stress in
routine military life as compared to serving combat veterans uninjured in
battle.
2. Serving combat veterans injured in battle, serving combat veterans
uninjured in battle, and other serving armed forces personnel not initiated as yet
into combat differ on coping resources.
2a. Serving combat veterans injured in battle have better coping resources
as compared to other serving armed forces personnel not initiated as yet
into combat.
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2b. Serving combat veterans uninjured in battle have better coping
resources as compared to other serving armed forces personnel not
initiated as yet into combat.
2c. Serving combat veterans injured in battle have better coping resources
as compared to serving combat veterans uninjured in battle.
3. Serving combat veterans injured in battle, serving combat veterans
uninjured in battle, and other serving armed forces personnel not initiated as yet
into combat differ on altruism.
3a. Serving combat veterans injured in battle are more altruistic as
compared to other serving armed forces personnel not initiated as yet into
combat.
3b. Serving combat veterans uninjured in battle are more altruistic as
compared to other serving armed forces personnel not initiated as yet into
combat.
3c. Serving combat veterans injured in battle are more altruistic as
compared to serving combat veterans uninjured in battle.
4. Serving combat veterans injured in battle, serving combat veterans
uninjured in battle, and other serving armed forces personnel not initiated as yet
into combat differ on religiosity.
97
4a. Serving combat veterans injured in battle display more religiosity as
compared to other serving armed forces personnel not initiated as yet into
combat.
4b. Serving combat veterans uninjured in battle display more religiosity as
compared to other serving armed forces personnel not initiated as yet into
combat.
4c. Serving combat veterans injured in battle display more religiosity as
compared to serving combat veterans uninjured in battle.
5. There is no difference in self-perception of serving combat veterans
injured in battle, serving combat veterans uninjured in battle, and other serving
armed forces personnel not initiated as yet into combat.
6. There is a negative correlation between stress and coping resources
amongst serving combat veterans.
7. There is a negative correlation between stress and altruism amongst
serving combat veterans.
8. There is a positive correlation between stress and religiosity amongst
serving combat veterans.
9. There is a negative correlation between stress and self-perception amongst
serving combat veterans.
Rationale behind hypotheses stemmed from the reasoning that combat
experience changes viewpoint of an individual. Combat veterans attach new
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meaning to life as has been suggested by review of related literature. With this
background, above hypotheses of differences between serving combat veterans
injured in battle, serving combat veterans uninjured in battle, and other serving
armed forces personnel not initiated as yet into combat on the variables under
study have been framed.
Additional analyses will also be carried out by considering number of
years of military service (0-10 and 11-20 years respectively) and rank status
(officer and personnel below officer rank) with respect to measured variables,
namely, stress in routine military life, coping resources, altruism, religiosity, and
self-perception.
3.4 SAMPLE
Total sample for present research constitutes 360 serving armed forces
personnel. The sample includes 120 serving combat veterans injured in battle, 120
combat veterans uninjured in battle, and 120 other serving armed forces personnel
not initiated as yet into combat (non-combat veterans). Each group has a further
split of 60 personnel from range 0-10 years of military service and 60 personnel
from range 11-20 years of military service. In each sub group, 30 officers and 30
personnel below officer rank are included in equal numbers to maintain
homogeneity of groups. The entire sample of serving armed forces personnel is
selected from military cantonment in Pune city. Figure III-1 shows split of entire
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sample. Since the study has been based on random stratified sampling, study
groups are selected and matched on parameters of types of military personnel with
reference to combat experience, number of years of military service, and rank
status.
All serving armed forces personnel in the present study were selected from
those serving officers and personnel below officer rank (PBOR) who have upto 20
years of military service. Review of studies suggests that individuals in all walks
of life are more fit in range of mid twenty to mid forty years of age after which
other factors like family pressure, supersession, retirement, and resettlement start
coming into play. In army, first twenty years are spent in direct contact with
troops at unit and sub-unit level with greater emphasis on physical training and
conditioning. Besides, more than 90% of fighting army falls in range 0-20 years
of military service and only serving army personnel within this range have been
selected for present study. Military personnel having different rank status perform
different roles and duties and have different responsibilities. It is perceived that
their perceptions too would differ and hence, they have been grouped into officer
rank and personnel below officer rank (PBOR).
Although females are also serving in armed forces, they are not considered
in the present research as they are yet to be inducted into combat. Besides, there
are behavioral differences in gender, hence only males serving in armed forces are
considered in present research.
100
Figure III-1: Figure showing the split of the entire sample.
* PBOR = Personnel Below Officer Rank
Serving Armed
Forces Personnel
N= 360
Serving Armed Forces Personnel
Not Initiated As Yet Into Combat
N= 120
Combat Veterans Injured in
Battle
N= 120
0-10 Years of
Military Service
N= 60
Combat Veterans
Uninjured in Battle
N= 120
11-20 Years of
Military Service
N= 60
Officers
N= 30
PBOR*
N= 30
Officers
N= 30
PBOR*
N= 30
0-10 Years of
Military Service
N= 60
11-20 Years of
Military Service
N= 60
Officers
N= 30
PBOR*
N= 30
Officers
N= 30
PBOR*
N= 30
0-10 Years of
Military Service
N= 60
11-20 Years of
Military Service
N= 60
Officers
N= 30
PBOR*
N= 30
Officers
N= 30
PBOR*
N= 30
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3.5 TOOLS
A personal data sheet has been developed to obtain basic demographic
information of respondents. It also facilitates in categorizing serving armed forces
personnel into different groups according to their combat experiences including
injury in battle, number of years of military service, and rank status.
Following tools will be used to measure variables under study:
Stress measurement scale (developed by present researcher).
Coping resource inventory (Hammer & Marting, 1988).
Altruism test (Jain, 1989).
Religiosity scale (Bhushan, 1990).
Self-perception inventory (Martin, 1968).
Personal data sheet (developed by present researcher).
Tools used in present study have been previously used in various studies
by their authors as well as by other researchers. In present study, both Indian as
well as foreign tools have been selected based on the requirement. Since not all
serving armed forces personnel selected for present research are fully conversant
with English language, translation of tools in national language, Hindi, has been
done and an option given to respondents to answer in language of their choice.
While all 180 respondents(100%) of officer rank answered in English, 171 out of
180 personnel below officer rank (95%) answered in Hindi with remaining 9
respondents (5%) answering in English.
102
Rationale for selection of these tools and their description are given
below:
3.5.1 Stress Measurement Scale
Most stress in military setting cannot be replicated in civilian life. Hence,
stress measurement scale is specially developed by researcher to cater to peculiar
nature of stress amongst serving armed forces personnel. Review of literature has
also shown that most tools on stress, in India as well as abroad, have been
research specific. Therefore, it appears logical and necessary to construct a tool
measuring stress amongst serving armed forces personnel.
Stress measurement scale is a 5-point rating scale with options ranging
from Extremely stressful (05), Very stressful (04), Stressful (03), Least stressful
(02), to Not at all stressful (01). Stress measurement scale is a list of 120 items
with 60 items measuring stress in peace locations and 60 items measuring stress
in operational locations. Stress measurement scale comprises of 10 items in each
of 6 sub-scales namely cognitive stress, occupational stress, physical stress,
emotional stress, social stress, and personal stress in peace locations as well as in
operational locations. Stress measurement scale gives a total stress score in peace
location and a total stress score in operational location as well as a combined total
stress score for individual. Higher score indicates higher stress. The stress being
measured with this tool pertains to stressors of routine military life in operational
as well as non-operational areas. All items in stress measurement scale measure
103
negative aspects of stress and are scored in same direction. Brief and clear
instructions are printed on stress measurement scale with space provided
alongside each item for encircling appropriate score. Total scores range between
120 and 600. The content and methodology of tool has been discussed with
experts in psychology. Senior military officers as well as specialists in language
from army education corps have also been consulted for translation of tool into
Hindi language with forward and backward translation being resorted to. Changes
in content have been made as per their recommendations before finalizing items
for tool.
Reliability coefficient calculated on pilot testing range from .82 to .86
(Cronbach‟s alpha). A discussion with experts in psychology contributed to
validation of stress measurement scale.
3.5.2 Coping Resource Inventory
Coping resource inventory (CRI) is a Likert-type measure of a person‟s
coping resources (Hammer & Marting, 1988). This inventory contains 60-items
and provides a separate answer sheet. For each item, respondents have to select
any one option from Never (N), Sometimes (S), Often (O), or Always (A) and
mark it on a separate answer sheet.
Coping resource inventory covers 5 domains of resources. Cognitive scale
addresses an individual‟s optimism about life and sense of self-worth. Social scale
measures how much the person feels a part of social networks that one can count
104
on during times of stress. Emotional scale refers to an individual‟s ability to
accept and express emotions. Spiritual or philosophical scale assesses extent to
which an individual is influenced by values from religion, traditions or personal
philosophy. Physical scale covers an individual‟s health-promoting behaviours.
The test provides separate scoring stencils for each of 5 scales. Each item
is scored as Never/Rarely (4), Sometimes (3), Often (2), Always/Almost always
(1). There are 6 items in the test which are scored in reverse order. Total score on
coping resource is computed by adding 5 scale scores. Higher scale score
indicates higher resources.
The authors have reported Cronbach‟s alpha values ranging from .71 to
.34 for five scales; and .91 for total test. Test retests reliability co-efficient for
inventory is reported as .73. With multivariate–multidimensional methods,
convergent and divergent scores of validity fall in .60 to .80 range for subscales.
Thus coping resource inventory has good psychometric properties. It gives
standard instructions and provides tables stating confidence bands for each scale.
This is particularly useful for comparison between 5 different subscales of coping
resources; namely cognitive coping resource, social coping resource, spiritual
coping resource and physical coping resource.
Several researchers have used coping resource inventory in their research
projects and have reported satisfactory reliability index (Meert, Thurston &
Thomas, 2001). Coping resource inventory has been described as a useful tool for
105
identifying individual‟s coping resources from several psychological testing
centers across the world (Hughes, 2006). Reliability coefficient calculated on pilot
testing on the local sample is .87
3.5.3 Altruism Test
Altruism test by Jain (1989) is a useful tool to measure altruistic behaviour
for personality studies. The test is bilingual in English and Hindi. It has a total of
25 items, 20 of which are positively scored and 5 items are negatively scored. For
each item, three alternate responses are provided ranging from Agree (3), Cannot
say (2), to Disagree (1). Respondent‟s altruism score is the algebraic sum of
scores obtained on all different items. As number of items in the test is 25, range
of possible scores on it is from 25 to 75, higher scores indicate greater altruism.
The author has reported Cronbach‟s alpha reliability coefficient of .76.
The tool has been validated against Buss Durkee‟s aggression inventory as well as
Pal and Naqvi‟s aggression inventory and showed correlation coefficients of –.47
and –.52 respectively.
Altruism test has been developed with Indian norms and has wider
application and acceptability in Indian context and hence, has been selected for
study. Another test of altruism by Rai and Singh (1988) has also been considered.
However, it has been rejected since most of test items in the tool pertained to
school and college children and hence, unsuitable for present study.
106
3.5.4 Religiosity Scale
Religiosity scale by Bhushan (1990) is a 5-point Likert-type scale
consisting of 36 items, 25 of which are positively scored and 11 are negatively
scored. For each item, five alternate responses are provided, ranging from Totally
Agree (5), Agree (4), Cannot say (3), Disagree (2), to Totally disagree (1).
Respondent‟s religiosity score is algebraic sum obtained on all different items. As
number of items in scale is 36, range of possible scores on it is from 36 to 180.
Higher scores indicate greater religiosity. Religiosity scale has a reliability
coefficient of .82 which is satisfactory for use as a research tool. The author
reports good predictive validity of test when administered to groups. Also, the test
was validated against „Religious value scale‟ of the Allport–Vernon–Lindzey
study of values. The two test scores yielded a positive correlation of .57 which has
been found to be significant at .001 level and indicates that the test possesses
concurrent validity as well.
Religiosity scale has not been used very widely and so studies relating to it
are not many. Reliability coefficient calculated on pilot testing on local sample is
.84.
3.5.5 Self-perception Inventory
Self-perception inventory by Martin (1968) is an objective test of
personality comprising of 200 items to be answered as either true or false on a
separate answer sheet. It provides information on general adjustment of an
107
individual, comprising of three factors of personality i.e. consistency (29 items),
self-actualization (29 items), and supervision (54 items). It also provides
information on general maladjustment of an individual, comprising of six factors
of personality i.e. Rigidity-dogmatism (10 items), uncommon response (9 items),
authorizationism (26 items), anxiety (16 items), depression (28 items), and
paranoia (26 items). Test provides scoring templates. Higher the general
adjustment score and lower the general maladjustment score, better is individual‟s
self-perception.
The test reports test-retest reliability scores for subscales ranging from .61
to .79. Inter-correlations of subscales range from .51 to .60. Cross-validation
studies of test report good validity of sub-scales. Test has been widely used in
hospitals, organizations, and educational institutions. It has also been used in
several research projects (Martin, 1968). Although test of self-perception is a
relatively older test of personality as compared to recently developed personality
tests as 16PF, MBTI, etc. which are also easily available, self-perception
inventory has been selected for present research since it is a comprehensive tool
measuring several aspects of personality and it provides total scores for general
adjustment as well as general maladjustment of an individual. Reliability
coefficient calculated on pilot testing on local sample is .87.
108
3.6 PROCEDURE
Data for the present study have been first collected for standardization of
newly constructed tool and then again collected for hypothesis testing. Stress
measurement scale has, at first, been administered on a sample of 100 serving
armed forces personnel. Individuals have been randomly chosen from a military
training center which adequately represented military population and only those
individuals have been selected who consented to volunteer and were able to spare
their time. Individuals were made to sit in batches of 20 in a controlled
environment free from any distractions. Clear instructions were communicated
regarding process of completing personal data sheet as well as answering
questionnaire. Adequate time has been given to complete individual responses to
all items. It has been ensured before collection of stress measurement scale that no
item has been left unanswered. Every response sheet has been scored and
responses have then been put through statistical package for social sciences (PC
version 7.5 and 11).
Main Study
Data has been collected from 360 serving armed forces personnel. They
include 240 serving combat veterans (120 of whom were injured in battle and 120
of whom were uninjured in battle) and 120 serving armed forces personnel not
initiated as yet into combat, all posted in Pune city. Pune is one of the largest
military cantonments in the country with various training establishments and
109
military organizations which provides representative sample of the military
population for the present study. After formal and written approval from army
headquarters in New Delhi; permission has been sought from Commandants and
heads of various military institutions in Pune to administer tests. This has been
done in groups of 20 selected individuals who have been then spared of their
military duties and made available for a continuous duration of 5 days to complete
the test in a suitable environment. Serving armed forces personnel have been
selected from those who met criteria of types of military personnel with respect to
combat experience, number of years of military service, and rank status. Rapport
has been established with individuals and before administration of tests their
consent to voluntarily participate has been confirmed. Importance of their sincere
and honest responses has been stressed upon to all individuals. Confidentiality of
their responses has been assured and a request has been reiterated to all
individuals to be as sincere and truthful as possible in responding, especially since
there were no correct or incorrect responses.
A nominal roll of individuals who have volunteered to participate from
given military establishment has been given to the researcher along with basic
details about individuals. Participants for research were randomly selected from
this nominal roll. Accordingly, batches were made of 20 individuals, a day prior
to administration of tests after matching their profile.
110
At first, respondents filled the personal data sheet. On basis of information
obtained from personal data sheet and as per control variables of types of military
personnel with respect to combat experience, number of years of military service
and rank status, their suitability has been confirmed. Respondents have been
approved for further testing and only then tests have been administered. For
standardized tests, they have been given instructions as stated in manual along
with examples regarding how to answer. All doubts have been clarified personally
by the researcher and it has been ensured that instructions were clear and have
been understood by one and all.
Most respondents verbally reported that these tests were generating food
for thought and led to a lot of introspection since this has been a unique
participation they have never experienced before. Though procedure of test
administration has been lengthy and spaced out during five days, respondents
have been very enthusiastic in answering each test. Five officers and eight
personnel below officer rank could not complete all tests due to their suddenly
leaving Pune cantonment on account of various reasons like death in family,
temporary duty, being detailed on long course, leaving for UN mission, telegram
from home, etc. As such their incomplete tests have been rejected and replaced
with randomly selected additional participants who met the criteria.
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3.7 DATA ANALYSES
Quantitative analyses
The present study involves testing differences and relationships. This
necessitates use of certain statistical techniques that will be applied accordingly
for analyses of data.
Three way (3 x 2 x 2) multivariate analyses of variance (MANOVA) and
subsequent multiple univariate analyses of variance (ANOVA) will be
implemented to study differences between types of military personnel with
respect to combat experience (serving combat veterans injured in battle, serving
combat veterans uninjured in battle, and other serving armed forces personnel not
initiated as yet into combat), number of years of military service (0-10 years and
11-20 years), and rank status (officer rank and personnel below officer rank) with
respect to measured variables.
Product moment correlation coefficients will be calculated to examine
relationship between stress and measured variables for serving combat veterans.
Chi-square will be calculated to find differences in alcohol consumption
and smoking habits of serving armed forces personnel.
Cronbach‟s alpha reliability analysis will be implemented to calculate
reliability co-efficient for tools on local sample.
112
Qualitative analyses
In present study, two case studies will be conducted to gain an insight and
have an understanding of serving combat veterans. Case studies reported in
present research will be based on information obtained from semi-structured
interviews of serving combat veterans. These case studies will also include
information obtained from parents, spouses and colleagues of serving combat
veterans.
3.8 SUMMARY
The purpose of this research is to investigate experiences and perceptions
of serving combat veterans. Hence, perceptions of serving combat veterans
injured in battle, serving combat veterans uninjured in battle, and other serving
armed forces personnel not initiated as yet into combat will be compared. The
present study attempts to examine certain psychological aspects such as stress in
routine military life, coping resources, altruism, religiosity, and self-perception of
serving combat veterans. The study will further endeavor to explore differences
within subgroups made on the basis of types of military personnel with reference
to combat experience, number of years of military service, and rank status.
It is hypothesized that serving combat veterans injured in battle, serving
combat veterans uninjured in battle and other serving armed forces personnel not
initiated as yet into combat would differ on variables selected for study. To test
113
this, data has been collected from 360 serving armed forces personnel (240
combat veterans of which 120 have been injured in battle and 120 who were
uninjured in battle and 120 serving armed forces personnel not initiated as yet into
combat) posted in Pune military cantonment.
The following tools will be used to test the hypotheses:
Stress measurement scale
Coping resource inventory
Altruism test
Religiosity scale
Self-perception inventory
Personal data sheet.
Information about each tool including its reliability, validity, and
administration has already been stated. Details of newly constructed tool and its
standardization process have also been given. Procedure of administration of
standardized tests has been discussed. This chapter mentions quantitative as well
as qualitative analyses to be implemented in present research.
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CHAPTER IV
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
4.1 INTRODUCTION
4.2 DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS
4.3 RESULTS OF MANOVA
4.3.1 DIFFERENCES AMONG GROUPS ON STRESS
4.3.2 DIFFERENCES AMONG GROUPS ON COPING
RESOURCES
4.3.3 DIFFERENCES AMONG GROUPS ON ALTRUISM
4.3.4 DIFFERENCES AMONG GROUPS ON RELIGIOSITY
4.3.5 DIFFERENCES AMONG GROUPS ON SELF-
PERCEPTION
4.4 CORRELATION ANALYSES
4.5 CHI-SQUARE ANALYSES
4.5.1 INDEPENDENCE AMONG GROUPS ON ALCOHOL
CONSUMPTION
4.5.2 INDEPENDENCE AMONG GROUPS ON SMOKING
HABITS
4.6 QUALITATIVE ANALYSIS
4.7 SUMMARY
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4.1 INTRODUCTION
This chapter deals with analyses of results. The present research attempts
to investigate certain important psychological aspects, namely, stress in routine
military life, coping resources, altruism, religiosity, and self-perception of serving
combat veterans. The present research is conducted to examine the psychological
state of military personnel (serving combat veterans injured in battle (CVI),
serving combat veterans uninjured in battle (CVU), and other serving armed
forces personnel not initiated as yet into combat (non-combat veterans: NCV)),
their responses have been compared on variables under study. To verify the
hypotheses in this context, data of 360 serving armed forces personnel (240
combat veterans of which 120 were injured in battle, 120 who were uninjured in
battle and 120 other serving armed forces personnel not initiated as yet into
combat) has been analyzed and their means, standard deviations, and F-values
have been computed. Normal distribution of sample, linearity of dependent
variables, and homogeneity of variance has been confirmed using statistical
package for social science (SPSS, PC version 7.5). Multivariate analyses of
variance have been carried out to find difference among study groups. To
examine relationship between stress and other variables of present study,
correlation coefficients have been calculated. Correlation between stress and other
dependent variables of the study namely coping resources, altruism, religiosity,
116
and self-perception have also been studied. The obtained results have been
discussed in this chapter.
Chi-square has been calculated to see whether the study groups, namely,
serving combat veterans injured in battle, serving combat veterans uninjured in
battle, and other serving armed forces personnel not initiated as yet into combat
differ in alcohol consumption and smoking habits. Case studies of two serving
combat veterans have been included in the present study.
4.2 DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS
A total of five dependent variables, namely, stress, coping resources,
altruism, religiosity, and self-perception have been covered in this study.
3 x 2 x 2 factorial design has been employed with types of military
personnel with respect to combat experience, number of years of military service,
and rank status as independent variables. Types of military personnel with respect
to combat experience is varied at three levels- serving combat veterans injured in
battle, serving combat veterans uninjured in battle, and other serving armed forces
personnel not initiated as yet into combat. Number of years of military service is
varied at two levels- 0-10 years of military service and 11-20 years of military
service. Similarly, rank status is varied at two levels- officer rank and personnel
below officer rank (PBOR). The 3 x 2 x 2 design results in 12 cells. The cell wise
means and standard deviations for all variables have been presented from Table
IV-1 to Table IV-5.
117
Table IV-1: Descriptive Statistics: Mean and standard deviation for types of
military personnel with respect to combat experience, number of years of
military service and rank status.
S.N. Dependent
Variable
Types of military
personnel with respect
to combat experience
Number of
years of
military
service
Rank status Total
(N=
360)
CVI CVU NCV 0-10
yrs
11-20
yrs Officer PBOR
1 Stress
M 307.75 343.83 361.15 340.71 334.44 322.75 352.40 337.58
SD 68.82 72.87 54.60 72.36 66.33 62.14 73.16 69.39
N 120 120 120 180 180 180 180
2 Coping
Resources
M 179.03 181.19 176.23 178.70 178.93 185.24 172.39 178.82
SD 19.53 20.56 17.70 19.25 19.51 15.97 20.32 19.35
N 120 120 120 180 180 180 180
3 Altruism
M 61.63 61.38 57.02 59.94 60.0 59.56 60.46 60.01
SD 4.05 3.41 4.17 3.92 4.88 4.13 4.66 4.42
N 120 120 120 180 180 180 180
4 Religiosity
M 127.33 129.28 118.88 123.58 126.74 119.36 130.97 125.16
SD 18.74 15.90 14.22 17.35 16.46 14.72 17.11 16.96
N 120 120 120 180 180 180 180
5 General
Adjustment
M 66.58 63.08 61.28 63.74 63.56 64.73 62.57 63.65
SD 5.03 5.42 4.94 6.18 4.92 5.21 5.74 5.57
N 120 120 120 180 180 180 180
6 General
Maladjustment
M 38.73 35.38 39.43 38.98 36.72 28.46 47.23 37.85
SD 11.07 15.64 12.16 12.87 13.43 9.01 9.50 13.18
N 120 120 120 180 180 180 180
CVI- Combat veterans injured in battle.
CVU- Combat veterans uninjured in battle.
NCV- Non-combat veterans.
PBOR- Personnel below officer rank.
118
Table IV-2: Descriptive Statistics: Mean and standard deviation for types of
military personnel with respect to number of years of military service.
S.N. Dependent
Variables
Combat
veterans
injured in
battle (CVI)
Combat
veterans
uninjured in
battle (CVU)
Non-combat
veterans
(NCV)
Entire
sample
Mean
N=
360 0-10 11-20 0-10 11-20 0-10 11-20
1 Stress
M 318.77 296.73 341.43 346.22 361.93 360.37 337.58
SD 67.72 68.70 81.52 63.67 60.89 48.00 69.39
N 60 60 60 60 60 60
2 Coping
Resources
M 174.43 183.62 179.72 182.67 181.95 170.52 178.82
SD 19.02 19.10 19.21 21.89 19.06 14.22 19.35
N 60 60 60 60 60 60
3 Altruism
M 61.22 62.03 60.97 61.80 57.65 56.40 60.01
SD 4.10 3.99 3.01 3.75 3.56 4.65 4.42
N 60 60 60 60 60 60
4 Religiosity
M 118.95 135.72 129.13 129.42 122.67 115.08 125.16
SD 19.52 13.58 16.11 15.83 14.79 12.65 16.96
N 60 60 60 60 60 60
5 General
Adjustment
M 67.93 65.23 62.52 63.65 60.78 61.78 63.65
SD 4.63 5.08 6.31 4.35 5.12 4.75 5.57
N 60 60 60 60 60 60
6 General
Maladjustment
M 40.88 36.57 35.90 34.87 40.15 38.72 37.85
SD 7.85 13.27 16.08 15.30 12.95 11.38 13.18
N 60 60 60 60 60 60
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Table IV-3: Descriptive Statistics: Mean and standard deviation for types of
military personnel with respect to rank status.
S.N. Dependent
Variables
Combat
veterans
injured in
battle (CVI)
Combat
veterans
uninjured in
battle (CVU)
Non-combat
veterans
(NCV)
Entire
sample
Mean
N=
360 Officer PBOR Officer PBOR Officer PBOR
1 Stress
M 286.03 329.47 326.48 361.17 355.73 366.57 337.57
SD 43.84 81.69 73.23 68.82 44.04 63.35 69.39
N 60 60 60 60 60 60
2 Coping
Resources
M 190.67 167.38 190.58 171.80 174.48 177.98 178.82
SD 11.26 19.16 15.70 20.66 14.98 20.04 19.35
N 60 60 60 60 60 60
3 Altruism
M 61.73 61.52 60.98 61.78 55.97 58.08 60.01
SD 2.46 5.19 3.13 3.66 4.00 4.10 4.42
N 60 60 60 60 60 60
4 Religiosity
M 123.27 131.40 122.63 135.92 112.17 125.58 125.16
SD 16.26 20.26 14.08 14.91 10.74 14.18 16.96
N 60 60 60 60 60 60
5 General
Adjustment
M 66.88 66.28 65.43 60.73 61.87 60.70 63.65
SD 4.02 5.89 5.24 4.54 5.00 4.85 5.57
N 60 60 60 60 60 60
6 General
Maladjustment
M 32.32 45.13 22.67 48.10 30.40 48.47 37.85
SD 8.13 9.88 8.55 9.55 7.35 8.84 13.18
N 60 60 60 60 60 60
120
Table IV-4: Descriptive Statistics: Mean and standard deviation for number
of years of military service and rank status
S.N. Dependent
Variables
0-10 years of
military service
11-20 years of
military service
Entire
sample
Mean
N= 360 Officer PBOR Officer PBOR
1 Stress
M 327.19 354.23 318.31 350.57 337.57
SD 68.00 74.42 55.70 72.25 69.39
N 90 90 90 90
2 Coping
Resources
M 184.30 173.10 186.19 171.68 178.82
SD 14.54 21.69 17.32 18.95 19.35
N 90 90 90 90
3 Altruism
M 59.91 59.98 59.21 60.94 60.01
SD 3.68 4.16 4.53 5.08 4.42
N 90 90 90 90
4 Religiosity
M 116.32 130.84 122.39 131.09 125.16
SD 15.17 16.39 13.66 17.89 16.96
N 90 90 90 90
5 General
Adjustment
M 64.47 63.02 64.99 62.12 63.65
SD 5.87 6.42 4.46 4.96 5.57
N 90 90 90 90
6 General
Maladjustment
M 31.36 46.60 25.57 47.87 37.85
SD 10.28 10.49 6.38 8.40 13.18
N 90 90 90 90
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Table IV-5: Descriptive Statistics: Means and Standard Deviations
S.N. Dependent
Variable
Combat veterans injured in battle
(CVI)
Combat veterans uninjured in
battle (CVU)
Serving armed forces personnel
not initiated as yet into combat
(Normal)
Entire
sample
Mean
N=
360
0-10 11-20 0-10 11-20 0-10 11-20
O PBOR O PBOR O PBOR O PBOR O PBOR O PBOR
1 Stress
M 293.20 344.33 278.87 314.60 327.20 355.67 325.77 366.67 361.17 362.70 350.30 370.43 337.58
SD 48.04 75.30 38.67 86.30 84.40 77.69 62.01 59.47 49.28 71.50 38.16 54.97 69.39
N 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30
2 Coping
Resources
M 186.27 162.60 195.07 172.17 187.13 172.30 194.03 171.30 179.50 184.40 169.47 171.57 178.82
SD 6.16 20.20 13.41 17.07 14.26 20.82 16.53 20.84 19.28 18.85 5.74 19.40 19.35
N 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30
3 Altruism
M 62.30 60.13 61.17 62.90 60.43 61.50 61.53 62.07 57.00 58.30 54.93 57.87 60.01
SD 2.17 5.20 2.64 4.89 2.78 3.19 3.40 4.10 3.77 3.26 4.01 4.84 4.42
N 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30
4 Religiosity
M 112.33 125.57 134.20 137.23 122.03 136.23 123.23 135.60 114.60 130.73 109.73 120.43 125.16
SD 14.88 21.53 8.32 17.36 15.03 14.08 13.29 15.94 14.35 10.21 4.05 15.81 16.96
N 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30
5 General
Adjustment
M 67.07 68.80 66.70 63.77 65.30 59.73 65.57 61.73 61.03 60.53 62.70 60.87 63.65
SD 3.69 5.33 4.37 5.38 6.45 4.82 3.78 4.08 5.52 4.75 4.35 5.02 5.57
N 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30
6 General
Maladjustment
M 38.67 43.10 25.97 47.17 23.77 48.03 21.57 48.17 31.63 48.67 29.17 48.27 37.85
SD 3.50 10.14 6.22 9.34 10.49 10.56 6.03 8.60 9.32 10.21 4.47 7.39 13.18
N 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30
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4.3 EVALUATION OF EFFECTS OF TYPES OF MILITARY
PERSONNEL WITH RESPECT TO COMBAT EXPERIENCE, NUMBER
OF YEARS OF MILITARY SERVICE AND RANK STATUS: RESULTS
OF MANOVA AND SUBSEQUENT UNIVARIATE ANALYSES
To evaluate main effects and interaction effects of types of military
personnel with respect to combat experience, number of years of military service,
and rank status, three-way MANOVA has been carried out.
In the present analysis Wilks‟ Lambda has been used in interpreting
MANOVA results. The results have been presented as follows:
1. The overall MANOVA for main effects and interaction effects of variables
under study.
2. Separate univariate analyses of variance for each variable to understand
significant effects of dependent variables amongst study groups.
3. Post hoc comparison tests, wherever necessary, using Duncan‟s test and their
interpretation have been used to understand significant differences in
dependent variables amongst study groups.
4. Graphical representation of interactions (for significant only).
123
Table IV-6: Table showing summary of results of MANOVA with types of
military personnel with respect to combat experience, number of years of
military service, and rank status as independent variables and stress in
routine military life, coping resources, altruism, religiosity, general
adjustment, and general maladjustment dimensions of self-perception as
dependent variables.
Source of Variance Wilks’
Lambda F
Hypothesis
df
Error
df p
Types of military personnel
with respect to combat
experience
.525 21.730 12 686 <.001
Number of years
of military service .959 2.445 6 343 <.05
Rank status .389 89.908 6 343 <.001
Types of military personnel
with respect to combat
experience x
Number of years
of military service
.793 7.034 12 686 <.001
Types of military personnel
with respect to combat
experience x Rank status
.783 7.430 12 686 <.001
Number of years of military
service x Rank status .923 4.737 6 343 <.001
Types of military personnel
with respect to combat
experience x Number of
years of military service x
Rank status
.911 2.715 12 686 =.001
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Results in Table IV-6 reveal that main effect of types of military personnel
with respect to combat experience is highly significant (F (12, 686) = 21.730,
p<.001). The main effect of number of years of military service is also significant
(F (6, 343) = 2.445, p<.05) (Table IV-6). The main effect of rank status is also
highly significant (F (6, 343) = 89.908, p<.001). The table reveals that types of
military personnel combat experience-wise, number of years of military service-
wise and rank status-wise, there are highly significant differences for the
dependent variables.
Types of military personnel with respect to combat experience x number
of years of military service interaction is significant (F (12, 686) = 7.034, p<.001).
Types of military personnel with respect to combat experience x rank status
interaction is highly significant (F (12, 686) = 7.430, p<.001). Number of years of
military service x rank status interaction is also significant (F (6, 343) = 4.737,
p<.001). Types of military personnel with respect to combat experience x years of
military service x rank status interaction is highly significant (F (12, 686) = 2.715,
p= .001).
Since MANOVA effects as revealed by Wilks‟ Lambda are significant,
univariate analyses of variance (ANOVA) followed by Duncan‟s multiple
comparison test has been carried out. Duncan‟s multiple comparison tests are
carried out wherever analysis of variance indicates significant differences among
125
the group means. Post Hoc tests like Duncan‟s test focus on which of several
variables exhibit the main effect demonstrated by initial analysis (Mertens, 2005).
The results of univariate ANOVAs are presented subsequently.
4.3.1 Differences among groups on stress.
In the present study MANOVA followed by univariate analysis of
variance has been used for finding difference among groups with stress as
dependent variable and types of military personnel (Serving combat veterans
injured in battle (CVI), serving combat veterans uninjured in battle (CVU), and
other serving armed forces personnel not initiated as yet into combat (non-combat
veterans: NCV)), number of years of military service (0-10 years of military
service and 11-20 years of military service), and rank status (Officer rank and
personnel below officer rank (PBOR)) as independent variables. Further,
Duncan‟s test has also been carried out. The total stress scores comprise of 6
dimensions, namely, cognitive, occupational, physical, emotional, social, and
personal stress. Stress in routine military life has been measured using stress
measurement scale (SMS) developed by present researcher.
126
Table IV-7: Table showing summary of results of Univariate ANOVA with
types of military personnel with respect to combat experience, number of
years of military service, and rank status as independent variables and stress
in routine military life as dependent variable.
Source of Variance Sum of
Squares df
Mean
Square F p
Types of military personnel
with respect to combat
experience
178124.85 2 89062.425 21.625 <.001
Number of years of
military service 3540.669 1 3540.669 .860 NS
Rank status 79121.025 1 79121.025 19.212 <.001
Types of military personnel
with respect to combat
experience x Number of years
of
military service
11783.406 2 5891.703 1.431 NS
Types of military personnel
with respect to combat
experience x Rank status
17081.450 2 8540.725 2.074 NS
Number of years of military
service x Rank status 611.003 1 611.003 .148 NS
Types of military personnel
with respect to combat
experience x Number of years
of military service x Rank
status
4921.806 2 2460.903 .598 NS
Error 1433209.8 348 4118.419
Total 1728394.0 359
NS= Not Significant
127
Table IV-8: Duncan’s Multiple Comparison Test for Stress.
Types of
Military
Personnel
N
Subset
1 2 3
CVI 120 307.75
CVU 120 343.83
NCV 120 361.15
Sig. 1.000 1.000 1.000
CVI- Combat veterans injured in battle.
CVU- Combat veterans uninjured in battle.
NCV- Non-combat veterans.
In the present study, it is found that there is significant difference between
serving combat veterans injured in battle, serving combat veterans uninjured in
battle, and other serving armed forces personnel not initiated as yet into combat
with respect to variable stress (F (2, 348) = 21.625, p<.001) (Table IV-7). As
shown in Table IV-8, lower mean score of serving combat veterans injured in
battle (307.75) as compared to other serving armed forces personnel not initiated
as yet into combat (361.15) indicates that serving combat veterans injured in
battle perceive lesser stress in routine military life as compared to other serving
armed forces not initiated as yet into combat. Thus, hypothesis 1a, stated as,
serving combat veterans injured in battle perceive lesser stress in routine military
life as compared to other serving armed forces personnel not initiated as yet into
combat, has been accepted.
128
Table IV-8 reveals that serving combat veterans uninjured in battle have
lower mean score (343.83) as compared to other serving armed forces personnel
not initiated as yet into combat (361.15). This indicates that serving combat
veterans uninjured in battle perceive lesser stress in routine military life as
compared to other serving armed forces personnel not initiated as yet into combat.
Thus, hypothesis 1b, stated as, serving combat veterans uninjured in battle
perceive lesser stress in routine military life as compared to other serving armed
forces personnel not initiated as yet into combat, has been accepted. Definitely,
impact of war stressors cannot be eliminated from life of combat veterans. As a
result, back to routine military life will certainly be less stressful than war
situation (Bramsen et al., 2002).
The finding of present research is in consonance with related research
literature. Research studies have reported that combat experiences are perceived
positively by veterans in the sense of personal growth, thereby reducing their
perception of war stressors (Antonovsky, 1987; Bartone, 2005; Frankl, 1973).
Researchers have also noticed that soldiers trained for combat are frustrated if not
sent to the warfront (Mehlum & Weisaeth, 2002; Weisaeth & Sund, 1982). Some
research studies indicate that the combat veterans perceive lesser stress in routine
military life as compared to other serving armed forces personnel not initiated as
yet into combat (Aldwin et al., 1994; Antonovsky & Bernstein, 1986; Breznitz &
Eshel, 1983; Collins, Taylor, & Skokan, 1990; Elder & Clipp, 1989).
129
Researchers have noticed that war situations are definitely more stressful
than routine military life (Green, Grace, Lindy, & Gleser, 1990; Hobfoll et al.,
1991; Solomon, 1993, 1995; Wardak, 1993). Combat veterans have faced
stressful situations and experienced psychological and physical stress in actual
battlefield (Mehrotra, 2006). However, some research studies have reported
higher stress amongst combat veterans as compared to nonveterans (Frey-
Wounters & Laufer, 1986; Kulka et al., 1990). Bower (1984) stated that this is
probably due to violent experience in war situation and lack of empathy from
others on their return. Evidence on stress and combat experience shows that as
compared to life in combat zone, military personnel in routine military life find
themselves exposed to cumulative stress resulting from boring missions and
ambiguity often present in peacekeeping operations (Carlstrom, Lundin, & Otto,
1990; Elklit, 1998, Huffman, Adler, & Castro, 1999).
From Table IV-8, it is found that serving combat veterans injured in battle
have lower mean score (307.75) as compared to serving combat veterans
uninjured in battle (343.83). This indicates that serving combat veterans injured in
battle perceive lesser stress in routine military life as compared to serving combat
veterans uninjured in battle. Thus, hypothesis 1c, stated as, serving combat
veterans injured in battle perceive lesser stress in routine military life as compared
to serving combat veterans uninjured in battle, has been accepted. This is,
perhaps, due to their being placed in sheltered appointments with sedentary duties
130
only to be performed due to their battle injury. This, understandably, is less
stressful (Chibber, 1986; Srivastava, 2006).
The F value (F (1, 348) = .860) (Table IV-7) of military personnel with
respect to number of years of military service is not significant for stress.
However, the F value (F (1, 348) = 19.212, p<.001) of military personnel
with respect to rank status is significant for stress. The results from Table IV-1,
reveals that mean score of officers (322.75) is lower than mean score of personnel
below officer rank (352.40). This indicates that there are differences in perception
of stress amongst officers and personnel below officer rank, probably due to
differences in training standards and higher educational levels. Findings of the
present study have yielded similar results from previous research (Farrell, 1990;
Goel, 2005; Jones, Roberto, Hooper, & Wesseley, 2006; Kroesen, 2001;
MacIntyre, 1998; Spielberger & Reheiser, 1994).
Types of military personnel with respect to combat experience in
interaction with number of years of military service has not yielded significant
source of variance (F (2, 348) = 1.431) (Table IV-7) in stress.
The F ratio (F (2, 348) = 2.074) pertaining to interaction effect of types
of military personnel with respect to combat experience and rank status is not
significant in stress.
Number of years of military service in interaction with rank status has not
yielded significant source of variance (F (1, 348) = .148) in stress.
131
The F ratio (F (2, 348) = .598) pertaining to interaction effect of types of
military personnel with respect to combat experience, number of years of military
service and rank status is not significant in stress.
Thus, studies stated earlier support finding of present study that serving
combat veterans perceive lesser stress in routine military life as compared to other
serving armed forces personnel not initiated as yet into combat.
4.3.2 Differences among groups on coping resources.
In the present study, MANOVA followed by univariate analysis of
variance has been used for finding difference among groups with coping
resources as dependent variable and types of military personnel (Serving combat
veterans injured in battle (CVI), serving combat veterans uninjured in battle
(CVU), and other serving armed forces personnel not initiated as yet into combat
(non-combat veterans: NCV)), number of years of military service (0-10 years of
military service and 11-20 years of military service), and rank status (Officer rank
and personnel below officer rank (PBOR)) as independent variables. The total
coping resource scores comprise of 5 dimensions, namely, cognitive, social,
emotional, spiritual, and physical coping resources.
132
Table IV-9: Table showing summary of results of Univariate ANOVA with
types of military personnel with respect to combat experience, number of
years of military service, and rank status as independent variables and
coping resources as dependent variables.
Source of Variance Sum of
Squares df
Mean
Square F p
Types of military personnel
with respect to combat
experience
1482.917 2 741.458 2.619 NS
Number of years of
military service 4.900 1 4.900 0.17 NS
Rank status 14873.878 1 14873.878 52.532 <.001
Types of military personnel
with respect to combat
experience x Number of years
of military service
6707.817 2 3353.908 11.846 <.001
Types of military personnel
with respect to combat
experience x Rank status
12341.439 2 6170.719 21.794 <.001
Number of years of military
service x Rank status 246.678 1 246.678 .871 NS
Types of military personnel
with respect to combat
experience x Number of years
of military service x Rank
status
284.606 2 142.303 .503 NS
Error 98531.667 348 283.137
Total 134473.90 359
NS= Not Significant
F-value (F (2, 348) = 2.619) (Table IV-9) for serving combat veterans
injured in battle, serving combat veterans uninjured in battle, and other serving
133
armed forces personnel not initiated as yet into combat is not significant on
coping resources.
Thus, hypothesis 2a, stated as, serving combat veterans injured in battle
have better coping resources as compared to other serving armed forces
personnel not initiated as yet into combat, has been rejected.
Also, hypothesis 2b, stated as, serving combat veterans uninjured in battle
have better coping resources as compared to other serving armed forces personnel
not initiated as yet into combat, has been rejected.
Hypothesis 2c, stated as, serving combat veterans injured in battle have
better coping resources as compared to serving combat veterans uninjured in
battle, has also been rejected. Thus, findings of the present study indicate no
difference in coping resources of serving combat veterans injured in battle, serving
combat veterans uninjured in battle, and other serving armed forces personnel not
initiated as yet into combat. This is probably due to tough military training
imparted to all military personnel which enhances their coping resources. It has
been seen in the present study that all the three groups have scored high on coping
resources. These findings are in consonance with other research studies (Bartone,
1996; Fontana & Rosenheck, 1998; Schnurr et al., 1993).
Evidence from the present study indicates that there is no difference
between combat veterans and non-combat veterans on coping resources. Review
of literature reveals that although lots of studies have been carried out which deal
134
with stressors of combat, findings with respect to coping resources of combat
veterans is in short supply. However, while few research studies have reported
that combat veterans have better coping resources (Aldwin et al., 1994; Bartone,
1996; Britt et al., 2005; Hautamaki & Coleman, 2001; Jennings et al., 2006;
Seudfeld, 1997) other research studies have shown contradictory findings (Bjorck
& Klewicki, 1997; Green et al., 1989; Hyer et al., 1996).
The F value (F (1, 348) = 0.17) (Table IV-9) of military personnel with
respect to number of years of military service is not significant for coping
resources.
However, the F value (F (1, 348) = 52.532, p<.001) of military personnel
with respect to rank status is significant for coping resources. In the present study,
as shown in Table IV-1, mean score of officer (185.24) is higher as compared to
mean score of personnel below officer rank (172.39). This indicates that officers
have better coping resources as compared to personnel below officer rank,
probably due to differences in training and resilience. Evidence from the present
study has yielded similar results as previous research (Goel, 2005; Jones et al.,
2006; MacIntyre, 1998; Spielberger & Reheiser, 1994). Few studies have,
however, reported results which contradict findings of present study (Cotton,
1981; Kumar & Mishra, 2006).
Interestingly, types of military personnel with respect to combat
experience in interaction with number of years of military service has yielded
135
significant source of variance (F (2, 348) = 11.846, p<.001) (Table IV-9) in
coping resources. The findings from Table IV-2 reveal that serving combat
veterans injured in battle with 11-20 years of military service have highest mean
score (183.62). This indicates that they have better coping resources as compared
to other groups. The findings also reveal that serving armed forces personnel not
initiated as yet into combat with 11-20 years of service have the least mean score
(170.52), indicating that they have the least coping resources as compared to other
groups. While, neither types of military personnel with respect to combat
experience nor number of years of military service have been found to be
significant on coping resources in the present study, their interaction has yielded
significant source of variance as mentioned earlier. This is probably due to the
crucial interplay of combat experience and years of service of these soldiers. This
interaction is graphically represented in Graph 1.
The F ratio (F (2, 348) = 21.794, p<.001) (Table IV-9) pertaining to
interaction effect of types of military personnel with respect to combat experience
and rank status is significant in coping resources. In the present study, as shown in
Table IV-3, serving combat veterans injured in battle from officer rank (190.67)
and serving combat veterans uninjured in battle from officer rank (190.58) have
scored higher mean scores. Thus, they have better coping resources as compared
to other groups since higher the mean score, better are the coping resources. The
findings reveal that serving combat veterans injured in battle from personnel
136
below officer rank have lowest mean score (167.38), indicating that they have
least coping resources amongst groups. While, types of military personnel with
respect to combat experience is not significant on coping resources in the present
study, rank status has been found to be significant, hence, rank status plays an
important role in the interaction between the two which has yielded significant
source of variance as mentioned earlier. This interaction is graphically
represented in Graph 2.
Number of years of military service in interaction with rank status has not
yielded significant source of variance (F (1, 348) = .871) (Table IV-9) in coping
resources.
The F ratio (F (2, 348) = .503) pertaining to interaction effect of types of
military personnel with respect to combat experience, number of years of military
service and rank status is not significant in coping resources.
137
Graph 1: Graph showing types of military personnel with respect to combat
experience x number of years of military service
DV: Coping Resources
Types of Military Personnel
NCVUCVI
Me
an
Co
pin
g R
eso
urce
s
186
184
182
180
178
176
174
172
170
168
Years of Service
0-10
11-20
138
Graph 2: Graph showing types of military personnel with respect to combat
experience x rank status
DV: Coping Resources
Types of Military Personnel
NCVUCVI
Me
an
Co
pin
g R
eso
urce
s
200
190
180
170
160
Rank Status
Officer
PBOR
139
4.3.3 Differences among groups on altruism.
In the present study, MANOVA followed by univariate analysis of
variance has been used for finding difference among groups with altruism as
dependent variable and types of military personnel (Serving combat veterans
injured in battle (CVI), serving combat veterans uninjured in battle (CVU), and
other serving armed forces personnel not initiated as yet into combat (non-combat
veterans: NCV)), number of years of military service (0-10 years of military
service and 11-20 years of military service), and rank status (Officer rank and
personnel below officer rank (PBOR)) as independent variables. Further,
Duncan‟s test has also been carried out. Altruism has been measured using
altruism test by Jain (1989).
140
Table IV-10: Table showing summary of results of Univariate ANOVA with
types of military personnel with respect to combat experience, number of
years of military service, and rank status as independent variables and
altruism as dependent variables.
Source of Variance Sum of
Squares df
Mean
Square F p
Types of military personnel with
respect to combat experience 1608.539 2 804.269 55.727 <.001
Number of years of
military service 1.600 1 1.600 .111 NS
Rank status 72.900 1 72.900 5.051 <.05
Types of military personnel with
respect to combat experience x
Number of years of military
service
86.117 2 43.058 2.983 =.05
Types of military personnel with
respect to combat experience x
Rank status
82.117 2 41.058 2.845 NS
Number of years of military
service x Rank status 62.500 1 62.500 4.331 <.05
Types of military personnel with
respect to combat experience x
Number of years of military
service x Rank status
73.717 2 36.858 2.554 NS
Error 5022.467 348 14.432
Total 7009.956 359
NS= Not Significant
141
Table IV-11: Duncan’s Multiple Comparison Test for Altruism.
Types of Military
Personnel N
Subset
1 2
NCV 120 57.03
CVU 120 61.38
CVI 120 61.63
Sig. 1.000 .622
CVI- Combat veterans injured in battle.
CVU- Combat veterans uninjured in battle.
NCV- Non-combat veterans.
In the present study, it is found that there is a significant difference
between serving combat veterans injured in battle, serving combat veterans
uninjured in battle, and other serving armed forces personnel not initiated as yet
into combat with respect to variable altruism (F (2, 348) = 55.727, p<.001) (Table
IV-10). Results from Table IV-11 reveal higher mean score of serving combat
veterans injured in battle (61.63) as compared to other serving armed forces
personnel not initiated as yet into combat (57.03). This indicates that serving
combat veterans injured in battle are more altruistic as compared to other serving
armed forces not initiated as yet into combat. Thus, hypothesis 3a, stated as,
serving combat veterans injured in battle are more altruistic as compared to other
serving armed forces personnel not initiated as yet into combat, has been
accepted. It is probable that serving combat veterans injured in battle tend to be
more altruistic than other serving armed forces personnel not initiated as yet into
combat due to positive affect in aftermath of combat which is found to be
142
predicted by response patterns of self-disclosure, finding meaning in survival
despite injury, and altruism.
In the present study, Table IV-11 reveals higher mean score of serving
combat veterans uninjured in battle (61.38) as compared to other serving armed
forces personnel not initiated as yet into combat (57.03). This indicates that
serving combat veterans uninjured in battle are more altruistic as compared to
other serving armed forces not initiated as yet into combat. Thus, hypothesis 3b,
stated as, serving combat veterans uninjured in battle are more altruistic as
compared to other serving armed forces personnel not initiated as yet into combat,
has been accepted. This is in consonance with previous research studies which
have reported that hardship and danger in combat gives birth to altruism and
generosity that transcend ordinary individual self-interest (Khan, 2006a; Kishon-
Barash et al., 1999).
The mean score of serving combat veterans injured in battle (61.63) as
compared to serving combat veterans uninjured in battle (61.38) indicates that
there is no difference between the two groups on altruism. Thus, hypothesis 3c,
stated as, serving combat veterans injured in battle are more altruistic as
compared to serving combat veterans uninjured in battle, has been rejected.
Serving combat veterans injured in battle as well as serving combat veterans
uninjured in battle have displayed equally high scores in altruism. This is
probably because both the groups of combat veterans find altruism as a useful
143
strategy as a means for coping with trauma of combat experience which
jeopardizes sense of meaning and bond with others.
Findings of present study are in consonance with previous research
literature (Baum, 2001; Kishon-Barash et al., 1999; Midlarsky & Kahana, 1994).
Results suggest that combat veterans (injured in battle and uninjured) tend to be
more helpful without anticipation of any reward in comparison to other serving
armed forces personnel not initiated as yet into combat. Combat veterans seem to
think about how their behavior will benefit others and derive pleasure just by
helping others.
Research studies have reported combat veterans to be more altruistic than
non-combat veterans who may have not yet undergone the bonding of group
formative experience (Hinde, 1993; Payne, Bettmann, & Johnson, 1992; Shaw &
Wong, 1989; Stern, 1995). Research studies have stated that this is probably due
to strong emotional bonding experience, cohesion, mutual cooperation and close
association in combat.
Other research studies have reported that war calls upon individuals to
make altruistic sacrifices out of loyalties and some times even give their lives to
defend their nation (Anderson, 1983; Druckman, 1993; Posen, 1993; Stern, 1995).
The F value (F (1, 348) = .111) (Table IV-10) of military personnel with
respect to number of years of military service is not significant for altruism.
144
The F value (F (1, 348) = 5.051, p<.05) of military personnel with respect
to rank status is significant for altruism. In the present study, as shown in Table
IV-1, mean score of personnel below officer rank (60.46) is higher as compared to
mean score of officers (59.56) on altruism. This indicates that personnel below
officer rank are more altruistic as compared to officers. However, Kumar and
Mishra (2006) reported contradictory findings.
Types of military personnel with respect to combat experience in
interaction with number of years of military service has yielded significant source
of variance (F (2, 348) = 2.983, p=.05) (Table IV-10) in altruism. In the present
study, as shown in Table IV-2, serving combat veterans injured in battle with 11-
20 years of military service have highest mean score (62.03) which indicates that
they are more altruistic as compared to other groups. Findings also reveal that
serving armed forces personnel not initiated as yet into combat with 11-20 years
of military service have lowest mean score (56.40), indicating that they are least
altruistic amongst groups. In the present study, while types of military personnel
with respect to combat experience has yielded significant source of variance,
number of years of military service has not yielded significant source of variance
on altruism. However, their interaction has yielded significant source of variance
as mentioned earlier. This is probably due to the crucial interplay of combat
experience of soldiers and their years of military service. This interaction is
graphically represented in Graph 3.
145
The F ratio (F (2, 348) = 2.845) (Table IV-10) pertaining to interaction
effect of types of military personnel with respect to combat experience and rank
status is not significant in altruism.
Number of years of military service in interaction with rank status has
yielded significant source of variance (F (1, 348) = 4.331, p<.05) in altruism.
Results from Table IV-4 reveal that personnel below officer rank with 11-20 years
of military service have highest mean score (60.94) which indicate that they are
comparatively most altruistic amongst groups. Findings also reveal that officers
with 11-20 years of military service have lowest mean score (59.21) indicating
that they are comparatively least altruistic amongst groups. While number of
years of military service has not yielded significant source of variance on altruism
in the present study, rank status of military personnel has yielded significant
source of variance. However, interaction between number of years of military
service and rank status has yielded significant source of variance as mentioned
earlier. This is probably due to the crucial interplay of years of military service
and rank status. This interaction is graphically represented in Graph 4.
The F ratio (F (2, 348) = 2.554) (Table IV-10) pertaining to interaction
effect of types of military personnel with respect to combat experience, number of
years of military service and rank status is not significant in altruism.
Research studies have noticed that fighting a war creates a situation,
wherein, on one hand enemy is to be killed whereas own countrymen need to be
146
protected, even at cost of soldiers risking their lives for others (Baum, 2001).
However, Bradshaw et al. (1994), reported lack of altruism among combat
veterans for any enemy killed or wounded. Research trend shows that altruism
towards fellow-countrymen helps combat veterans to reduce their stressful
experience (Kahana et al., 1988; Midlarsky, 1991). The psychological impact of
helping each other may be higher amongst combat veterans due to their combat
experiences than that of serving armed forces personnel not initiated as yet into
combat.
Thus, studies stated above support findings of present study that there is
significant difference between combat veterans (injured in battle and uninjured)
and other serving armed forces personnel not initiated as yet into combat with
respect to variable altruism.
147
Graph 3: Graph showing types of military personnel with respect to combat
experience x number of years of military service
DV: Altruism
Types of Military Personnel
NCVUCVI
Me
an
Altru
ism
63
62
61
60
59
58
57
56
Years of Service
0-10
11-20
148
Graph 4: Graph showing number of years of military service x rank status
DV: Altruism
Rank Status
PBOROfficer
Me
an
Altru
ism
61.5
61.0
60.5
60.0
59.5
59.0
Years of Service
0-10
11-20
149
4.3.4 Differences among groups on religiosity.
In the present study MANOVA followed by univariate analysis of
variance has been used for finding difference among groups with religiosity as
dependent variable and types of military personnel (Serving combat veterans
injured in battle (CVI), serving combat veterans uninjured in battle (CVU), and
other serving armed forces personnel not initiated as yet into combat (non-combat
veterans: NCV)), number of years of military service (0-10 years of military
service and 11-20 years of military service), and rank status (Officer rank and
personnel below officer rank (PBOR)) as independent variables. Further,
Duncan‟s test has also been carried out. Religiosity has been measured using
religiosity scale by Bhushan (1990).
150
Table IV-12: Table showing summary of results of Univariate ANOVA with
types of military personnel with respect to combat experience, number of
years of military service, and rank status as independent variables and
religiosity as dependent variables.
Source of Variance Sum of
Squares df
Mean
Square F p
Types of military personnel
with respect to combat
experience
7338.939 2 3669.469 17.709 <.001
Number of years of
military service 896.178 1 896.178 4.325 <.05
Rank status 12133.611 1 12133.611 58.557 <.001
Types of military personnel
with respect to combat
experience x Number of years
of military service
9265.072 2 4632.536 22.357 <.001
Types of military personnel
with respect to combat
experience x Rank status
544.539 2 272.269 1.314 NS
Number of years of military
service x Rank status 762.711 1 762.711 3.681 NS
Types of military personnel
with respect to combat
experience x Number of years
of military service x Rank status
264.206 2 132.103 .638 NS
Error 72109.400 348 207.211
Total 103314.66 359
NS= Not Significant
151
Table IV-13: Duncan’s Multiple Comparison Test for Religiosity.
Types of Military
Personnel N
Subset
1 2
NCV 120 118.88
CVI 120 127.33
CVU 120 129.28
Sig. 1.000 .296
CVI- Combat veterans injured in battle.
CVU- Combat veterans uninjured in battle.
NCV- Non-combat veterans.
In the present study, as can be seen from Table IV- 12, there is significant
difference between serving combat veterans injured in battle, serving combat
veterans uninjured in battle, and other serving armed forces personnel not initiated
as yet into combat on religiosity (F (2, 348) = 17.709, p<.001). Higher mean score
of serving combat veterans injured in battle (127.33) as compared to other serving
armed forces personnel not initiated as yet into combat (118.88) indicates that
serving combat veterans injured in battle display more religiosity as compared to
other serving armed forces not initiated as yet into combat (Table IV-13). Thus,
hypothesis 4a, stated as, serving combat veterans injured in battle display more
religiosity as compared to other serving armed forces personnel not initiated as
yet into combat, has been accepted. Greater religiosity amongst serving combat
veterans injured in battle as compared to other serving armed forces personnel not
initiated as yet into combat has been reported in research studies which account
for psychotherapeutic effects of religiosity amongst injured soldiers (Rudnick,
152
1997). However, few research studies have reported contradictory findings
(Misra, 2006) while, still other studies, have found no relation between surviving
injury in battle and religiosity of military personnel (Gallaway, 1988; Koing et al.,
2006).
Higher mean score of serving combat veterans uninjured in battle (129.28)
as compared to other serving armed forces personnel not initiated as yet into
combat (118.88) indicates that serving combat veterans uninjured in battle display
more religiosity as compared to other serving armed forces personnel not initiated
as yet into combat (Table IV-13). Thus, hypothesis 4b, stated as, serving combat
veterans uninjured in battle display more religiosity as compared to other serving
armed forces personnel not initiated as yet into combat, has been accepted.
Findings of the present studies are in consonance with other studies which have
stated that religiosity provides greater sense of meaning, purpose, connectedness,
and understanding amongst combat veterans and hence they display greater
religiosity as compared to non-combat veterans (Bhandal, 2007; Govadia, 2006a;
Meisenhelder, 2002; Schumm & Rotz, 2001; Singh, 2006a).
The mean score of serving combat veterans injured in battle (127.33) as
compared to serving combat veterans uninjured in battle (129.28) indicates that
there is no significant difference between the two groups on religiosity (Table IV-
13). Thus, hypothesis 4c, stated as, serving combat veterans injured in battle
display more religiosity as compared to serving combat veterans uninjured in
153
battle, has been rejected. Serving combat veterans injured in battle as well as
serving combat veterans uninjured in battle have displayed approximate equally
high scores in religiosity. This is probably because both groups of combat
veterans find religion to be beneficial in dealing with stressful combat experience
and this leads to deepening of religiosity. However, few studies have reported that
injured soldiers tend to lose faith in God due to battle injury which challenges
their inner resources (Fontana & Rosenheck, 2004; Misra, 2006).
The F value (F (1, 348) = 4.325, p<.05) (Table IV-12) of military
personnel with respect to number of years of military service is significant for
religiosity. The mean score of military personnel with 11-20 years of military
service (126.74) is higher than mean score of military personnel with 0-10 years
of military service (123.58) which indicates that military personnel with more
number of years of military service tend to be more religious (Table IV-1). More
research studies need to be carried out to replicate findings of present study with
respect to number of years of military service on religiosity.
The F value (F (1, 348) = 58.557, p<.001) (Table IV-12) of military
personnel with respect to rank status is significant for religiosity. The results from
Table IV-1 reveal that higher mean score of personnel below officer rank (130.97)
as compared to officers (119.36) indicates that personnel below officer rank are
more religious than officers.
154
Types of military personnel with respect to combat experience in
interaction with number of years of military service has yielded significant source
of variance (F (2, 348) = 22.357, p<.001) (Table IV-12) in religiosity. In the
present study, as shown in Table IV-2, serving combat veterans injured in battle
with 11-20 years of military service have highest mean score (135.72) which
indicates that they display more religiosity and are most religious amongst groups.
Findings reveal that serving armed forces personnel not initiated as yet into
combat with 11-20 years of military service have lowest mean score (115.08)
indicating that they are least religious amongst groups. Since types of military
personnel with respect to combat experience as well as number of years of
military service have showed significant source of variance as stated earlier, it is
understandable that interaction between the two is significant as well. This
interaction is graphically represented in Graph 5.
The F ratio (F (2, 348) = 1.314) (Table IV-12) pertaining to interaction
effect of types of military personnel with respect to combat experience and rank
status is not significant in religiosity.
Number of years of military service in interaction with rank status has not
yielded significant source of variance (F (1, 348) = 3.681) in religiosity.
The F ratio (F (2, 348) = .638) pertaining to interaction effect of types of
military personnel with respect to combat experience, number of years of military
service and rank status is not significant in religiosity.
155
Findings of the present study are supported by similar findings in previous
literature. Results reveal that serving combat veterans have more faith in power
beyond themselves and they indulge in acts of worship and service, more than
other serving armed forces personnel not initiated as yet into combat.
The findings may be attributed to the fact that although military personnel
are trained for war, they may find certain things out of their control in actual
combat situations. They are often exposed to death and disability of own friends
and colleagues. These combat experiences may induce greater religiosity among
combat veterans as compared to other serving armed forces personnel not initiated
as yet into combat who have not yet experienced stressors of combat. Schumm
and Rotz (2001) studied combat veterans during Persian Gulf War and reported
more intrinsic religiosity and an internal commitment to their religious beliefs as
compared to other military personnel.
Research studies have reported that combat veterans are more religious
since it may have a positive effect in coping with war and provides a sense of
confidence, assurance and serenity in the face of negative events which make
adjustment to war smoother (Moracco, 1983; Oweini, 1998; Patai, 1973)
However, few research studies have found that many combat veterans lost
their faith in religion and have deep feeling of anger towards God (Barton, &
LaPierre, 1997; Brende, & McDonald, 1989; LaPierre, 1997; Mahedy, 1986;
156
O‟Nell, 1999; Siemon-Netto, 1990). The researchers stated that this may probably
be a temporary effect of unresolved grief and anger, frustration and survivor guilt.
Thus, majority of studies support finding of present study on variable
religiosity.
157
Graph 5: Graph showing types of military personnel with respect to combat
experience x number of years of military service
DV: Religiosity
Types of Military Personnel
NCVUCVI
Me
an
Re
lig
iosity
140
130
120
110
Years of Service
0-10
11-20
158
4.3.5 Differences among groups on self-perception.
In the present study, self-perception has been measured on two
dimensions, namely, general adjustment and general maladjustment using self-
perception inventory (SPI) by Martin (1968). Higher scores on adjustment and
lower scores on maladjustment indicate better self-perception. MANOVA
followed by univariate analysis of variance has been used for finding difference
among groups with self-perception (general adjustment and general
maladjustment separately) as dependent variable and types of military personnel
(Serving combat veterans injured in battle (CVI), serving combat veterans
uninjured in battle (CVU), and other serving armed forces personnel not initiated
as yet into combat (non-combat veterans: NCV)), number of years of military
service (0-10 years of military service and 11-20 years of military service), and
rank status (Officer rank and personnel below officer rank (PBOR)) as
independent variables. Further, Duncan‟s test has also been carried out separately
for general adjustment and general maladjustment dimension of self-perception.
159
Table IV-14: Table showing summary of results of Univariate ANOVA with
types of military personnel with respect to combat experience, number of
years of military service, and rank status as independent variables and
general adjustment dimension of self-perception as dependent variables.
Source of Variance Sum of
Squares df
Mean
Square F p
Types of military personnel with
respect to combat experience 1743.200 2 871.600 36.936 <.001
Number of years of
military service 3.211 1 3.211 .136 NS
Rank status 418.178 1 418.178 17.721 <.001
Types of military personnel with
respect to combat experience x
Number of years of military
service
284.022 2 142.011 6.018 <.01
Types of military personnel with
respect to combat experience x
Rank status
296.156 2 148.078 6.275 <.01
Number of years of military
service x Rank status 45.511 1 45.511 1.929 NS
Types of military personnel with
respect to combat experience x
Number of years of military
service x Rank status
153.689 2 76.844 3.256 <.05
Error 8211.933 348 23.598
Total 11155.900 359
NS= Not Significant
160
Table IV-15: Duncan’s Multiple Comparison Test for General Adjustment.
Types of
Military
Personnel
N
Subset
1 2 3
NCV 120 61.28
CVU 120 63.08
CVI 120 66.58
Sig. 1.000 1.000 1.000
CVI- Combat veterans injured in battle.
CVU- Combat veterans uninjured in battle.
NCV- Non-combat veterans.
161
Table IV-16: Table showing summary of results of Univariate ANOVA with
types of military personnel with respect to combat experience, number of
years of military service, and rank status as independent variables and
general maladjustment dimension of self-perception as dependent variables.
Source of Variance Sum of
Squares Df
Mean
Square F p
Types of military personnel
with respect to combat
experience
1122.839 2 561.419 8.034 <.001
Number of years of
military service 460.136 1 460.136 6.585 =.01
Rank status 31715.669 1 31715.669 453.863 <.001
Types of military personnel
with respect to combat
experience x Number of years
of military service
192.539 2 96.269 1.378 NS
Types of military personnel
with respect to combat
experience x Rank status
2410.106 2 1205.053 17.245 <.001
Number years of military
service x Rank status 1120.069 1 1120.069 16.029 <.001
Types of military personnel
with respect to combat
experience x Number of years
of military service x
Rank status
1061.206 2 530.603 7.593 =.001
Error 24318.033 348 69.879
Total 62400.597 359
NS= Not Significant
162
Table IV-17: Duncan’s Multiple Comparison Test for General
Maladjustment.
Types of Military
Personnel N
Subset
1 2
CVU 120 35.38
CVI 120 38.73
NCV 120 39.43
Sig. 1.000 .512
CVI- Combat veterans injured in battle
CVU- Combat veterans uninjured in battle.
NCV- Non-combat veterans.
Test of self-perception is a self-reported personality test. Subscale of test
measure two major dimensions, namely, adjustment of an individual and
maladjustment of an individual. Results have been calculated separately for these
two dimensions.
Finding of the present study on general adjustment dimension of self-
perception reports that there are significant differences between serving combat
veterans injured in battle, serving combat veterans uninjured in battle, and other
serving armed forces personnel not initiated as yet into combat (F (2, 348) =
36.936, p<.001) (Table IV-14). Higher mean score of serving combat veterans
injured in battle (66.58) as compared to serving combat veterans uninjured in
battle (63.08) and other serving armed forces personnel not initiated as yet into
163
combat (61.28) indicates that serving combat veterans injured in battle are better
adjusted and other serving armed forces personnel not initiated as yet into combat
are least adjusted amongst groups (Table IV-15). Higher score on adjustment
indicates better perception of self.
The F value (F (1, 348) = .136) (Table IV-14) of military personnel with
respect to number of years of military service is not significant for general
adjustment dimension of self-perception.
The F value (F (1, 348) = 17.721, p<.001) of military personnel with
respect to rank status is significant for general adjustment dimension of self-
perception. Higher mean score of officers (64.73) as compared to personnel below
officer rank (62.57) as shown in Table IV-1 indicates that officers are better
adjusted and have better perception of self as compared to personnel below officer
rank.
Types of military personnel with respect to combat experience in
interaction with number of years of military service has yielded significant source
of variance (F (2, 348) = 6.018, p<.01) (Table IV-14) in general adjustment
dimension of self-perception. Serving combat veterans injured in battle with 0-10
years of military service have highest mean score (67.93) (Table IV-2) which
indicates that they have better perception of self and are better adjusted as
compared to groups. Findings reveal that serving armed forces personnel not
initiated as yet into combat with 0-10 years of military service have least mean
164
score (60.78) indicating that they are least adjusted and have poorer perception of
self. This interaction is graphically represented in Graph 6.
The F ratio (F (2, 348) = 6.275, p<.01) (Table IV-14) pertaining to
interaction effect of types of military personnel with respect to combat experience
and rank status is significant in general adjustment dimension of self-perception.
Serving combat veterans injured in battle from officer rank (66.88) as well as
personnel below officer rank (66.28) have higher mean score indicating that they
are better adjusted and have higher perception of self amongst groups (Table IV-
3). Serving combat veterans uninjured in battle from personnel below officer rank
(60.73) as well as serving armed forces personnel not initiated as yet into combat
from personnel below officer rank (60.70) have least score indicating that they
have poorer perception of self amongst groups. This interaction is graphically
represented in Graph 7.
However, number of years of military service in interaction with rank
status has not yielded significant source of variance (F (1, 348) = 1.929) (Table
IV-14) in general adjustment dimension of self-perception.
The F ratio (F (2, 348) = 3.256, p<.05) pertaining to interaction effect of
types of military personnel with respect to combat experience, number of years of
military service and rank status is significant in general adjustment dimension of
self-perception. Serving combat veterans injured in battle with 0-10 years of
military service from personnel below officer rank have highest mean score
165
(68.80) (Table IV-5). Thus, they are better adjusted and have better perception of
self amongst groups. Serving combat veterans uninjured in battle with 0-10 years
of military service from personnel below officer rank have least score (59.73)
indicating that they are least adjusted and have poorer perception of self.
Findings of the present study on general maladjustment dimension of self-
perception reports that there are significant differences between serving combat
veterans injured in battle, serving combat veterans uninjured in battle, and other
serving armed forces personnel not initiated as yet into combat (F (2. 348) =
8.034, p<.001) (Table IV-16). In the present study, as shown in Table IV-17
lower mean score of serving combat veterans uninjured in battle (35.38) as
compared to serving combat veterans injured in battle (38.73) and other serving
armed forces personnel not initiated as yet into combat (39.43) indicates that
serving combat veterans uninjured in battle are least maladjusted and other
serving armed forces personnel not initiated as yet into combat are most
maladjusted amongst groups. Lower score on maladjustment indicates better
perception of self.
The F value (F (1, 348) = 6.585, p=.01) (Table IV-16) of military
personnel with respect to number of years of military service is significant for
general maladjustment dimension of self-perception. Lower score of military
personnel with 11-20 years of military service (36.72) as compared to military
personnel with 0-10 years of military service (38.98) indicates that military
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personnel with 11-20 years of military service have better perception of self
(Table IV-1).
The F value (F (1, 348) = 453.863, p<.001) (Table IV-16) of military
personnel with respect to rank status is significant for general maladjustment
dimension of self-perception. Lower mean score of officers (9.01) as compared to
personnel below officer rank (9.50) indicates that officers are better adjusted and
have better perception of self as compared to personnel below officer rank (Table
IV-1).
Types of military personnel with respect to combat experience in
interaction with number of years of military service has not yielded significant
source of variance (F (2, 348) = 1.378) (Table IV-16) in general maladjustment
dimension of self-perception.
The F ratio (F (2, 348) = 17.245, p<.001) pertaining to interaction effect of
types of military personnel with respect to combat experience and rank status is
significant in general maladjustment dimension of self-perception. As shown in
Table IV- 3, serving combat veterans uninjured in battle from officer rank have
lowest mean score (22.67). This indicates that they are better adjusted and have
better perception of self as compared to groups, since, lower the mean for
maladjustment, better is the self-perception. Mean score of serving armed forces
personnel not initiated as yet into combat from personnel below officer rank
(48.47) and serving combat veterans uninjured in battle from personnel below
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officer rank (48.10) are higher on general maladjustment indicating that they have
poorer perception of self amongst groups. This interaction is graphically
represented in Graph 8.
Number of years of military service in interaction with rank status has
yielded significant source of variance (F (1, 348) = 16.029, p<.001) (Table IV-16)
in general maladjustment dimension of self-perception. Officers with 11-20 years
of military service have lowest mean score (25.57) (Table IV-4). This indicates
that they are least maladjusted and have better perception of self since lesser the
score on maladjustment, better is the self-perception. Findings also reveal that
personnel below officer rank with 11-20 years of military service have highest
mean score (47.87) on maladjustment indicating that they are the most
maladjusted amongst groups and have least perception of self. This interaction is
graphically represented in Graph 9.
The F ratio (F (2, 348) = 7.593, p=.001) (Table IV-16) pertaining to
interaction effect of types of military personnel with respect to combat
experience, number of years of military service, and rank status is significant in
general maladjustment dimension of self-perception. Serving combat veterans
uninjured in battle with 11-20 years of military service from officer rank have
lowest mean score (21.57) (Table IV-5). This indicates that they are better
adjusted and have better perception of self as compared to groups. Finding also
reveals that serving armed forces personnel not initiated as yet into combat with
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0-10 years of military service from personnel below officer rank have highest
score (48.67) on maladjustment indicating that they are most maladjusted
amongst groups and have lowest perception of self.
Higher scores on adjustment and lower scores on maladjustment indicate
better self-perception. Hypothesis 5, stated as, there is no significant difference in
self-perception of serving combat veterans injured in battle, serving combat
veterans uninjured in battle, and other serving armed forces personnel not initiated
as yet into combat, has been partially accepted. The results indicate that combat
veterans injured in battle and combat veterans uninjured in battle have high self-
actualizing motives, an integrated thought process and good insight into effective
human interaction. No significant difference has been observed between combat
veterans injured in battle and other serving armed forces personnel not initiated as
yet into combat on general maladjustment. However, significant differences were
found between combat veterans uninjured in battle and other serving armed forces
personnel not initiated as yet into combat on maladjustment. Serving combat
veterans uninjured in battle have lower mean score (35.38) as compared to mean
score of other serving armed forces personnel not initiated as yet into combat
(39.43). Significant differences were also found between combat veterans
uninjured in battle and combat veterans injured in battle on maladjustment.
Serving combat veterans uninjured in battle have lower mean score (35.38) as
compared to combat veterans injured in battle (38.73). Result reveals that
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perception regarding experiences of anxiety, depression, and paranoia does not
significantly differ among combat veterans injured in battle and other serving
armed forces personnel not initiated as yet into combat.
In other words, serving combat veterans have better perception of self as
compared to serving non-combat veterans with respect to adjustment. However,
serving combat veterans uninjured in battle display least maladjustment as
compared to serving combat veterans injured in battle and serving non-combat
veterans. In the present study it has also been seen that, military personnel with
11-20 years of service have better perception of self as compared to military
personnel with 0-10 years of service. The present study also reveals that officers
have better perception of self as compared to personnel below officer rank.
Findings of the present study on self-perception of combat veteran (injured
and uninjured) has great implication from point of view of military life. In fact,
most research studies have reported that effective use of coping resources and
positive coping strategies lead to better adjustment in normal military life of
combat veterans (Bartone, 2005; Green et al., 1988; Hyer et al., 1996). Besides
perceived stress and effective coping resources are other important aspects of
combat veterans for their adjustment (Card, 1983; Fiedler et al., 2000; Gimbel &
Booth, 1994; Pavalko & Elder, 1990; Rindfuss & Stephen, 1990; South, 1985;
Voydanoff, 1990). As already observed earlier, in the present study, mean scores
of combat veterans injured in battle and combat veterans uninjured in battle are
170
lesser on stress in routine military life and higher on coping resources (Table IV-
1) as compared to other serving armed forces personnel not initiated as yet into
combat. As a result, they have shown better adjustment than other serving armed
forces personnel not initiated as yet into combat. Few research studies have even
found low level of maladjustment among combat veterans (Gifford, Ursano,
Stuart, & Engel, 2006; Michel, Lundin, & Larson, 2003). Gaupp (cited in Lerner,
2000, p. 27) reported that maladjustment occurred less frequently in battlefront
soldiers than those behind the lines.
Appy (1993) reported that combat experience leaves soldiers with a sense
of control and feeling of self-actualization for a job well done which increases
their self-perception.
Several studies have stated that due to critical experiences of combat,
military personnel have problems in their adjustment after experience of combat
(Bower, 1997; DeFanzio, 1975; Egendorf et al., 1981; Haley, 1974; Laufer,
Thomas, Frey-Wouters, & Donnellan, 1981; Laufer et al., 1984; Newby et al.,
2005; Roemer, Litz, Orsillo, Ehlich, & Friedman, 1998; Southwick, Morgan,
Nicolaou, & Charney, 1997; Strange & Brown, 1970). Research studies have
reported that effect of traumatic experiences of war lead to maladjustment among
combat veterans (Davies, 2001; Hunt & Robbins, 2001b).
However, despite a large body of research supporting the notion that, war
stress precipitate adjustment problems amongst combat veterans, a considerable
171
number of studies contradict this finding and support findings of the present
research (Harel, Kahana, & Kahana, 1988; Rachman, 1990).
Research studies from previous literature support as well as contradicts
finding of present research on self-perception. This is because adjustment of
combat veterans cannot be taken in solitude. Besides, adjustment of combat
veterans depend on factors such as perceived stress, coping resources and
strategies, recovery from traumatic experiences, family acceptance and
homecoming experience, to name a few.
To sum up, research studies stated earlier support the finding of self-
perception. In the present study, it has been found that serving combat veterans
(injured and uninjured) have better self-perception as compared to other serving
armed forces personnel not initiated as yet into combat.
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Graph 6: Graph showing types of military personnel with respect to combat
experience x number of years of military service
DV: General Adjustment dimension of Self-perception
Types of Military Personnel
NCVUCVI
Me
an
Ge
ne
ra
l A
dju
stm
en
t
70
68
66
64
62
60
Years of Service
0-10
11-20
173
Graph 7: Graph showing types of military personnel with respect to combat
experience x rank status
DV: General Adjustment dimension of Self-perception
Types of Military Personnel
NCVUCVI
Me
an
Ge
ne
ra
l A
dju
stm
en
t
68
67
66
65
64
63
62
61
60
Rank Status
Officer
PBOR
174
Graph 8: Graph showing types of military personnel with respect to combat
experience x rank status
DV: General Maladjustment dimension of Self-perception
Types of Military Personnel
NCVUCVI
Me
an
Ge
ne
ra
l M
ala
dju
stm
en
t
50
40
30
20
Rank Status
Officer
PBOR
175
Graph 9: Graph showing number of years of military service x rank status
DV: General Maladjustment dimension of Self-perception
Rank Status
PBOROfficer
Me
an
Ge
ne
ra
l M
ala
dju
stm
en
t
50
40
30
20
Years of Service
0-10
11-20
176
4.4 CORRELATION ANALYSES
In the present study, correlation coefficient between stress and other
variables have been calculated using Pearson‟s product-moment correlation
method.
Hypothesis 6, 7, 8 and 9 have been verified by calculating coefficient of
correlation between stress and other variables of the present study.
Table IV-18: Table showing product moment correlation coefficient between
stress and other variables of the study for serving combat veterans (N= 240).
** Correlation is significant at 0.01 level.
* Correlation is significant at 0.05 level.
Variable Coefficient
Stress
Coping
resources
-.165*
Stress
Altruism .018
Stress
Religiosity -.022
Stress
General
Adjustment
-.316**
Stress
General
Maladjustment
.206**
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As shown in Table IV-18, there is a significant negative correlation
between stress and coping resource (r = -.165, p < .05). The findings of the
present study indicate that higher the stress perceived, lower are the coping
resources with an individual. Thus hypothesis 6, stated as, there is a negative
correlation between stress and coping resources amongst serving combat veterans,
has been accepted.
Research studies have reported that combat veterans who are better in use
of coping resources perceived lesser stress (Lambert et al., 2003; Lincoln,
Chatters, & Taylor, 2003). Martin and Brantley (2004) reported a negative
correlation between stress and coping resources. Researchers have reported that
stressors were negatively related to coping resources of interpersonal relations
which are most powerful predictors of individual soldier‟s combat performance
(Bliese & Britt, 2001; Shirom, 1976).
Mehrotra (2006) and Misra (2006) also found a negative relation between
stress and coping resources among military personnel. Thus, research findings on
stress support findings of the present study.
In the present study, there is no significant correlation between stress and
altruism (r = .018) (Table IV-18). Thus hypothesis 7, stated as, there is a negative
correlation between stress and altruism amongst serving combat veterans, has
been rejected. The research evidence on relationship between stress and altruism
suggests that stress and altruism are positively correlated (Batson, 1991; Cialdini
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et al., 1981; Eisenberg, Michelle, & Jerry, 1998; Penner, Dovidio, Piliavin, &
Schroeder, 2005; Piliavin et al., 1981). Research studies have reported that
individuals act altruistically to reduce their own negative emotional state in times
of stress. Kishon-Barash et al., (1999), reported a positive correlationship between
stressors of combat and altruism. Similar findings were reported by other research
studies (Laufer et al., 1984; Todorov, 1996; Wilson, 1986).
Research studies have reported that altruism is sometimes seen as a way to
elevate own mood and reduce stress by engaging in altruistic acts in the hope that
it will make individual feel better (Baumann, Cialdini, & Kenrick, 1981; Clark &
Isen, 1982; Mahoney, 2002; Post, 2005). However, in the present research, no
significant correlation was noted between stress and altruism. Besides cultural
factors, this could probably be attributed to Indian military value of commitment
to others, high sense of internalized moral and social responsibility inculcated
during military training and as a result, altruism does not have a significant impact
in perception of stress.
In the present study, there is no significant correlation between stress and
religiosity (r = -.022) (Table IV-18). Thus, hypothesis 8, stated as, there is a
positive correlation between stress and religiosity amongst serving combat
veterans, has been rejected.
On the basis of research trend religiosity is positively correlated with
stress (Koenig, George, & Siegler, 1998; Lindenthal, Myers, Peppers, & Stein,
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1970; McRae, 1984; Meisenhelder, 2002; Pargament, 1990; Rychlak, 1998), it
has been hypothesized that there is a significant positive correlation between
stress and religiosity amongst serving combat veterans.
However, few research studies have found an inverse relationship between
stress and religiosity (Chapman, 1987; King & Schafer, 1992; Schumm & Rotz,
2001; Spilka, Shaver, & Kirkpatrick, 1985). It is very difficult to conclude upon
the relationship between religiosity and stress. In the present research, no
significant correlation has been found between stress and religiosity amongst
serving combat veterans. The probable reason may be that as combat veterans
have reported good coping resources, as a result religiosity may not play an
important role in perception of stress.
In the present study, there is significant negative correlation between
stress and general adjustment dimension of self-perception (r = -.316, p < 0.01)
(Table IV-18). Also, there is significant positive correlation between stress and
general maladjustment dimension of self-perception (r = .206, p < 0.01). Thus,
hypothesis 9, stated as, there is a negative correlation between stress and self-
perception amongst serving combat veterans, has been accepted.
Few research studies have reported that positive coping and posttraumatic
growth facilitates psychological adjustment (Oaksford, Frude, & Cuddihy, 2005).
Previous research literature has reported a negative correlationship between stress
and adjustment and an improved emotional functioning in those combat veterans
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who cope with stressors of their traumatic memories with problem focused and
non-avoidant coping (Mikulincer, Florian, & Weller, 1993; Wolfe et al., 1993).
Similar findings were reported by other researchers also (Kelly, 2005; Litz, 2005).
Bowen and Orthner (1986) found that reduced stress levels are positively
correlated with adjustment to exigencies of military life. Similar findings were
reported by other research studies (Bowen, 1981; Carr, Orhtner, & Brown, 1980).
Research studies have reported positive correlation between stress and
maladjustment amongst combat veterans (Orcutt, King, & King, 2003; Schafer,
Caetano, & Clark, 1998; Straus & Gelles, 1990; Straus & Kantor, 1994; Zeller,
2005).
Researchers have stated that perception of stress is positively correlated
with maladjustment among individuals (Dohrenwend, 2000; Kulka et al., 1990;
Morgan, 1997; Roemer et al., 1998; Southwick et al., 1997). Numerous studies
have established a causal relationship between war stress and an array of
psychiatric disorders (Belenky, 1987; Day & Sadek, 1982; Hayman,
Sommers_Flanagan, & Parsonsm, 1987; Keane, Scott, Chavoya, Lamparski, &
Fairbank, 1985; Oweini, 1998). Research studies have reported a positive
correlation between stress of combat amongst war veterans and their
maladjustment due to coping with traumatic memories primarily with emotion
focused and avoidance strategies (Green et al., 1988; Hyer et al., 1996).
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Thus, research findings on adjustment pattern and stress supports the
finding of present study.
4.5 CHI-SQUARE ANALYSES
In the present study, chi-square analysis has been done to check
independence between attributes (serving combat veterans and other serving
armed forces personnel not initiated as yet into combat) on alcohol consumption
and smoking habits.
4.5.1 Independence among groups on alcohol consumption
Chi-square analyses has been conducted to see whether combat veterans
and other serving armed forces personnel not initiated as yet into combat differ
with respect to drinking habits.
Table IV-19: Table showing values for drinkers and non-drinkers amongst
combat veterans (CV) and other serving armed forces personnel not initiated
as yet into combat (non-combat veterans: NCV) (N = 360).
Drinkers Non-Drinkers N Chi-Square
CV 153 87 240 27.78***
NCV 77 43 120
*** p < .001
In the present study, it is seen that chi-square value is 27.78 (Table IV-19)
which is highly significant indicating that combat veterans reported higher
182
drinking habits as compared to other armed forces personnel not initiated as yet
into combat.
Table IV- 20: Table showing values for drinkers and non-drinkers amongst
combat veterans injured in battle (CVI) and combat veterans uninjured in
battle (CVU) (N = 240).
Drinkers Non-Drinkers N Chi-Square
CVI 79 41 120 18.52***
CVU 74 46 120
*** p < .001
In the present study, it is seen that chi-square value is 18.52 (Table IV-20)
which is highly significant indicating that combat veterans injured in battle
reported higher drinking habits as compared to combat veterans uninjured in
battle.
4.5.2 Independence among groups on smoking habits.
Chi-square analyses has also been conducted to see whether combat
veterans and other serving armed forces personnel not initiated as yet into combat
differ with respect to smoking habits.
183
Table IV- 21: Table showing values for smokers and non-smokers amongst
combat veterans (CV) and other serving armed forces personnel not initiated
as yet into combat (non-combat veterans: NCV) (N = 360).
Smokers Non-Smokers N Chi-Square
CV 74 166 240 36.1***
NCV 55 65 120
*** p < .001
In the present study, it is seen that chi-square value is 36.1 (Table IV-21)
which is significant indicating that combat veterans and other serving armed
forces personnel not initiated into combat do not resort to smoking as there are
more non-smokers than smokers. It is seen that armed forces personnel not
initiated as yet into combat tend to smoke more than combat veterans.
Research studies have found that combat veterans consume alcohol as a
coping strategy to deal with restricted personal freedom, deployment in dangerous
combat zone for long duration and absence from family (Bray, Fairbank, &
Marsden, 1999; Watanabe, Harig, Rock, & Koshes, 1994).
Research studies have reported an approximate 50% increase in smoking
as well as alcohol consumption among military personnel in combat as compared
to peacetime (Britt & Adler, 1999; Hotopf et al., 2003a, 2003b; Schunkit et al.,
2001; Sridhar et al., 2003).
Few research studies have reported more alcohol consumption amongst
combat veterans with lesser years of military service and found them to be at
184
higher risk for alcohol abuse (Ames, Curadi, & Moore, 2002; Kennedy & Zillmer,
2006).
Researchers have reported that more combat veterans were medically
evacuated towards end of Vietnam War for alcohol and substance abuse than for
war wounds (Reinstein, 1972; Stanton, 1976; Watanabe et al., 1994). However,
consumption of alcohol by combat veterans has been reported to be less during
Gulf war since Muslim tradition of host nation Saudi Arabia forbade consumption
of alcohol (Watanabe et al., 1994; Kennedy & Zillmer, 2006).
Researchers have reported an increased consumption of alcohol by combat
veterans during times of war as compared to peacetime (Bray et al., 2003).
Research studies have reported that consumption of alcohol affects
mission readiness and performance of combat veterans in battle (Fisher,
Hoggman, Austin-Lane, & Kao, 2000).
4.6 CASE STUDIES
Two case studies have been considered in this research in an attempt to
have a better understanding of serving combat veterans. While both serving
combat veteran in the case studies are young officers who have been injured in
battle, they represent two ends of the stress continuum. Information stated in case
studies concentrates on experience in lives of serving combat veterans and have
185
focused on their perception. Case studies reported in present research are based on
information obtained from semi-structured interviews of serving combat veterans.
Case Study I
Capt. RD is a 24 year old serving combat veteran with three years of
military service. The officer lost his left arm barely two years after being
commissioned in an Infantry battalion, when his patrolling party was ambushed
by Afghani mercenaries along line of control in Jammu and Kashmir. The
individual survived the attack in which five of his soldiers were killed and along
with him, three others injured. His arm had to be amputated from the shoulder due
to gunshot wound which developed gangrene.
The officer belongs to a middle class family from Rajasthan. He has two
unmarried younger sisters staying with his widowed mother who is a government
employee in a nationalized bank.
Capt. RD has the highest stress score and the least religiosity score
amongst officers. With respect to coping resources, his score has been below
average mean score. However, his altruism score is surprisingly high as also his
maladjustment score in dimension of self-perception.
During the course of the interview, Capt. RD reported that he found it very
difficult to adjust to military life after his combat experience. He held himself
responsible for death of his colleagues in combat and felt remorseful that he
survived while they could not. At the same time, he found that he had to shoulder
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responsibilities of his aging mother and college going sisters. Capt. RD stated that
he felt disturbed due to his physical disability with which he had not yet come to
terms. Capt. RD reported that he felt embittered that „this should have happened
to me,‟ and that he had lost faith in God.
Capt. RD confessed that he feels „astonished by his bouts of angry moods‟
and often „goes into a shell‟ by avoiding interaction with people. The officer is
unable to maintain good working relations with his colleagues and often gets into
futile arguments.
Interaction with Capt. RD‟s colleagues confirmed his emotional outbursts
and vacillating temperament on return from combat zone. During course of the
interview, his colleagues and course mates who knew him from cadet days during
training in National Defence Academy (NDA) suggested that Capt. RD could not
overcome the grief stemming from loss of soldiers in military operations. They
reiterated that Capt. RD always assumed complete responsibility for tasks
entrusted to him. However, they noticed a marked shift in his attitude towards
work wherein Capt. RD would only work when he felt like working; this often led
to unwanted delays in the performance of tasks. His colleagues also reported on
his recent helping behavior towards others, a disposition he was lacking during
training in the academy.
Interview with the mother revealed that she had high expectation from
Capt. RD ever since she lost her husband in a train accident when her son was in
187
10th
standard. She admitted that she was reluctant in letting him join the army but
agreed to his demand with a heavy heart when he persisted with his choice of
career. The mother reported that ever since his tenure in the combat zone, Capt.
RD had developed an aversion to loud noise and would dive to the ground to take
cover from unseen enemies on hearing any loud noise.
She stated that at times, Capt. RD would wake up in the middle of the
night, sweating profusely, with bad dreams and nightmares of his ambush
experience.
(Capt. RD has been visiting a rehabilitation counselor in a military
research and referral hospital and has shown slight improvement in the past six
months.)
Case Study II
Capt. AB is a 26 year old serving combat veteran with four years of
military service. The individual joined Indian Military Academy, Dehradun
after completing graduation and has been commissioned in an
Infantry battalion.
Capt. AB is wheel-chair bound ever since he suffered splinter injuries
during enemy shelling on „line-of-control‟ in Siachen glacier, the highest
battlefield in world. The officer could only be medically evacuated from the post
(at an altitude of 21000 ft) after 23 days of injury as inclement weather and
snowstorms prevented casualty evacuation at air-maintained post. During this
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period, his condition deteriorated, despite best efforts of nursing assistant on post.
One month later, he was operated and both his legs amputated from knees. After
six months of hospitalization, Capt. AB has been posted in a sheltered
appointment in a static military formation. Two years later, the officer married his
childhood friend; they presently live with their 1 month old babygirl.
Capt. AB belongs to an agricultural family from Punjab; his father is a
well-to-do farmer while his mother is a homemaker. Capt. AB is the youngest son
of his parents; his elder brother is serving as a doctor in the army.
Capt. AB reported that he was motivated to join the armed forces ever
since childhood; all his maternal uncles and cousins were also donning military
uniform with pride. During military training he represented Indian Military
Academy, Dehradun and Services in shooting at National shooting championship,
where he was awarded gold medal as best shooter.
Capt. AB has been commissioned in one of the oldest infantry battalion of
the Mahar regiment. With a rich military tradition of over 200 years; grooming
the young officer in battalion received much attention. Accordingly, Capt. AB has
been imparted rigorous military training and ethos, wherein individual needs and
wants are subjugated to collective good of regiment and country. Since Capt. AB
has been markman and excellent shooter, he has also been officer-in-charge of
regiment as well as army shooting team.
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Within 1 year of commissioning and on return from commandos course in
which he excelled; Capt. AB‟s battalion was slated for induction to the Siachen
glacier. Accordingly, the battalion moved to high altitude warfare school for
specialized training and acclimatization in extreme cold climate. Capt. AB
reported that before combat experience, he was not religious at all, though he
admitted to altruistically helping villagers in remote areas with materialistic and
manpower resources that could be spared by the battalion.
However, after experiencing combat in the glaciated war-zone, Capt. AB
reported that his perception changed considerably. When enemy troops killed two
soldiers from his company during patrolling, he was seething with rage and
retaliated by attacking and blowing up enemy bunker with heavy machine gun-
fire and rocket launchers. The soldiers on the other post had become quite
religious after the first casualty and before moving out for any patrolling, would
pray and invoke blessing of God for courage and protection.
Accordingly, Capt. AB too prayed with the troops to honour their
sentiments and religious feelings. He soon realized the importance and crucial
role of religiosity in helping one overcome fear and placing one in hands of God.
Thereafter, Capt. AB started praying on regular basis even when there was no
patrol party leaving the post. Two months later, Capt. AB was injured in enemy
shelling on his post and subsequently evacuated by helicopter.
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Capt. AB reported that although the injury sustained in military operations
did change and impact his life tremendously, it also made him realize the
immense support and backing of the organization which made him feel worthy
and wanted. The officer reported that the army furnished adequate facilities,
stimulation, guidance, and encouragement which opened new windows of
opportunities and allowed him to invest the requisite drive and determination.
According to Capt. AB, the organization looks after a disabled veteran and
rehabilitates the injured soldier in sheltered appointments. All that is required for
an injured soldier is to recognize his worth and potential and utilize the
facilitation of the army which calls for maximum striving by the soldier.
According to Capt. AB, it is a peculiar imperative responsibility of every soldier
who has incurred a disability in combat to explore the reaches of one‟s
potentiality: his purpose is not to convince himself as to what he cannot do, but to
discover how many things he can do, and which of these he enjoys most. Being
fond of sports, Capt. AB has started playing wheel-chair basketball for an hour
daily, this gives him great satisfaction and joy, besides keeping him fit. In his
spare time, he enjoys gardening and reading books on nature and wildlife.
Capt. AB shared his view that the height an injured soldier achieves are
won by his own efforts. Capt. AB hoped that the attention of family, friends, and
community will be riveted not on the handicap due to battle injury, but on the
soldier and the potentialities and hope he brings.
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Interview with Capt. AB‟s spouse revealed that although they have been
married for two years now, she has known Capt. AB for over 15 years as they
studied together in the same school. Mrs. SB stated that her husband is very
strong willed and has a lot of determination. She revealed that he has overcome
his initial stage of disbelief on becoming confined to a wheel-chaired after
amputation of his legs and has now accepted his physical disability. She reported
that Capt. AB has adjusted himself in the light of his physical condition and now
intends to pursue a course in rehabilitation. According to Mrs. SB, Capt. AB is
unfettered by routine stressors of living and he values life more and displays
better social relations with family and friends. She reported that he has also
become more religious than what she had known him to be before his induction
into combat zone; this perhaps provides him a means of promoting greater well-
being and adjustment.
Interview with the mother reveal that ever since his return from combat
zone in Siachen glacier, Capt. AB‟s deep faith in God has increased
tremendously. When questioned about Capt. AB‟s helping nature, she reported
that both her sons have always gone out of the way to help others, a disposition
they inherited from grandparents.
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4.7 SUMMARY
The main objectives of the study have been to investigate certain
psychological aspects of serving combat veterans. The responses of serving
combat veterans injured in battle, serving combat veterans uninjured in battle, and
other serving armed forces personnel not initiated as yet into combat have been
compared by using multivariate analyses of variance. The results showed that
serving combat veterans injured in battle, serving combat veterans uninjured in
battle, and other serving armed forces personnel not initiated as yet into combat
significantly differed from each other on all the measured variables except coping
resources. The obtained results have been discussed in light of research studies on
measured variables.
Further subgroups of military personnel based on number of years of
service have been compared on all the variable selected in the present study by
using univariate analyses of variance. In the present study it has been found that
military personnel from the range 0-10 years of military service significantly
differ on military personnel from the range 11-20 years of military service on all
the measured variables. Also, officers and personnel below officer rank have been
compared on the measured variables by using univariate analyses of variance. In
the present study it has been found that officers and personnel below officer rank
significantly differ on the measured variables. The chapter has discussed results
obtained from findings of present study.
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Correlation between stress and other variables for combat veterans have
been discussed in this chapter. It has been found that stress is significantly
correlated with variables of coping resources and self-perception in the present
study. It has been found that stress is not correlated with variables of altruism and
religiosity in the present study.
Results of chi-square analyses indicate that more number of combat
veterans tend to consume alcohol as compared to non-combat veterans. Also,
more combat veterans injured in battle tend to consume alcohol as compared to
combat veterans uninjured in battle. With respect to smoking, non-combat
veterans tend to smoke more than combat veterans.
The chapter also includes two case studies of serving combat veterans.
Thus, this chapter discussed the results obtained from quantitative and
qualitative analyses of the present study.