Chapter II

Trajectory of Revisits of The Mahabharata

Introduction

The previous chapter examined the revisits of the epic by Bhasa (fourth

century BC). This chapter traces the trajectory of the revisits of The Mahabharata

from Bhasa’s period to contemporary times, in order to understand the patterns of

changes in genres and shifts in themes. If Bhasa’s revisits are at one end of a

spectrum, the contemporary revisits occupy the other end. The present analysis

provides a snapshot of this wide spectrum, indicating the evolution of the preferred

genres, themes, and languages. Authors of every era revisit the epic according to the

values of their times and their personal preferences, and so foreground and

popularise certain episodes and heroes. Royal patronage and regional sensibilities

are other factors that influence the content and the manner of the revisits.

In presenting a map of the revisits of The Mahabharata, it is important to

classify periods and indicate their dates. Table 2 lists this information gathered from

various sources including anthologies commissioned by Sahitya Akademi (T. R. S.

Sharma, Ayyappa Paniker, K. M. George, Pusalker, R. S. Sharma); the range of

dates given are approximate since there is considerable overlap and uncertainty in

fixing the dates. A unique categorisation of the periods is yet to emerge despite the

initiatives of Sahitya Akademi1. Table 2 also lists some representative literary works

of the periods.

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Table 2

Classification of Periods of Indian Literature

Name of the Period Dates Some Important Literary works

Vedic 1000 BC

400 BC

Evolution of the Vedas

Compilation of Epics and Puranas

Bhasa’s Plays

Classical 400 BC

AD 1100

Kalidasa—Abijnana Sakuntala

Bharavi – Kirata Arjuniam

Kshemendra-- Chitrabharata

Medieval AD 1100

AD 1800

Bhakthi literature a

Translations and Transcreationsb of Epics

Emergence of Vernacular Writings

Pre- and Post-Independence

AD 1800

Till date

Vernacular Revisits

English Translations & Writings

a Bhakti literature spans the period AD 600-1800, overlapping the Classical and the Medieval.

b The term ‘transcreation,’ though is of 20th Century origin.

Revisits in the Classical Period (400 BC-AD 1100)

The study of Bhasa’s revisits of The Mahabharata revealed the influence of

the social and cultural context on his works. In the Classical period too, these factors

had an impact on the intellectuals and their literary output. At the social level,

reforms in religious tenets and practices manifested in reformist movements like

Buddhism, Jainism and the Bhagavata tradition. Establishment of powerful

monarchies and their expansionist tendencies shaped the political system. The ruling

class played a significant role in shaping the society as a whole. They traced their

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genealogy to epic heroes in order to establish their claim to kingship and fashioned

themselves and their actions after them. They influenced the culture and art forms by

their support and patronage2. The writers on their part, metaphorically referred to the

feats of the rulers in their revisits. As a result, the intellectuals, by compulsion or

inducements, used the literary medium to depict the contemporary social scene,

while extolling the virtues of their patrons. To their credit, it must be mentioned that

they also documented the decay in value systems. They analysed the changes and

made a point of creating new social paradigms. In their endeavours, they had to

adopt and modify genres for appropriate literary expression. While articulating their

views on the society, authors employed stylistic innovations in order to reach across

to various sections of the society.

During the Classical period that followed the epic, Sanskrit language

dominated the literary scene. The history of Sanskrit literature of the classical period

chronicles the tradition of revisits of the epics. Though there are exemplary revisits

of The Ramayana, like Raghuvamsam, and Uttara Ramayanam, this study focusses

on the revisits of The Mahabharata. Unlike The Ramayana, which foregrounds a

single hero, The Mahabharata is woven around the lives of many heroes. The epic

offers means to:

i) express cultural diversity

ii) mirror socio political environs and

iii) provide perspective to match the author’s worldview

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The study demonstrates that the cultural diversity of the period and the complex

socio political environments are best mirrored in the revisits of The Mahabharata.

Socio-Politico- Cultural Scene

The Classical period witnessed the growth of monarchy as a dominant

political system. It also registered many invasions from foreigners. It is a period

marked by strong and well-administered empires such as Mauryan, Gupta and

Sunga. The royals, on their part, patronised various art forms, especially literature.

During the period of Asoka, many Buddhist missionaries travelled to far off places

including Central Asia, Southeast Asia, Burma and Ceylon. Chinese travellers used

the silk route for trade with Indian empires. These travels provided an opportunity

for exchange of ideas and the spread of epics. The period of Guptas' reign is

regarded as the golden period for the development of arts, crafts and literature. They

commissioned famous temples with remarkable sculptures. Chanakya’s Artha

Sastra, a seminal work on governance, provides details of the social, political and

economic life of that period. This period witnessed the blossoming of all genres of

Sanskrit literature, including drama. The royals who wished to fashion their reign

after the epic rulers, patronised these revisits (Sharma R. S. 173).

Prevalent Literary Form

In the history of Indian literature, Sanskrit occupies a unique and prime

place. The Vedas were passed on from generation to generation, thus establishing an

oral tradition. The Vedas are narratives interspersed with dialogues, in the form of

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questions and answers. They contain musical recitations (chandas), episodes

(upakhyanas), stories about lineages and moral instructions. The oral tradition of

vedic recitation helped their subsequent metamorphosis into epics. The epic poetry

of The Ramayana and The Mahabharata, followed the course of oral tradition

initially, before evolving into written texts. Didactic discourses like the Bhagavad

Gita were embedded in them. These served as vehicles of prescriptive principles

exhorting people to follow their ordained duties. The incidents described in the epics

had the potential for dramatic representation. Innovative writers like Bhasa,

Kalidasa, and Battanarayana tapped this potential to create a radically new genre of

drama. This genre owes its popularity to its visual appeal, as well as the episodic

structure. The influence of epics on the cultural and social lives forms the

substratum of our collective cultural consciousness. Sanskrit, the spoken language of

the period, was the language of the Vedas and the epics. In his Ashtadhyayi Panini

refers to the use of Sanskrit in many literary compositions and religious works.

Eminent scholars like V. Varadachari, M. Krishnamachariar, C. Kunhan Raja and

Krishna Chaitanya have examined the history of Sanskrit literature right from the

beginning of the Vedic period. They serve as reference source for our analysis of

Sanskrit literary works, in the Classical as well as the Medieval periods. Before

analysing the revisits of the epic in the Classical period, the revisits in the Classical

period are compiled and tabulated in Table 3.

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Table 3

Sanskrit Revisits in the Classical Period

Name of the Work Author Genre Type, Hero, Source 1st Century BC Abijnana Sakuntala Kalidasa Drama Episode, Sakuntala. Adi

Parva Vikrama Urvasiyam Kalidasa Drama Forefather of the Kuru clan 6th Century BC Kiratarjuniya Bharavi Poetry Episode, Arjuna. Vana Parva 7th Century BC Venisamhara Bhatta Narayana Drama Episode, Bhima. Sabha

Parva Sisupalavadha Magha Poetry Episode, Krishna. Sabha

Parva 8th Century BC Subhadra-Dhananjaya

Kulasekara Varman

Drama Episode, Arjuna. Sabha Parva

Tapati Samvarana Kulasekara Varman

Drama Episode, Samvarana. Adi Parva

10th Century BC Keechaka Vada Niti Varman Poetry Episode, Bhima

Virata Parva Prachanda Pandava Rajasekhara Drama Episode,

Sabha Parava Naishadananda Kshemiswara Drama Episode, Nala, Vana Parva Nalachampu Trivikrama

Bhatta Champu3 (a mix of Prose and poetry)

Episode, Nala, Vana Parva

11th Century BC Bharatamanjari Kshemindra Poetry Abridged version of The

Mahabharata Chitrabharata Kshemindra Poetry A story from The

Mahabharata (lost ) Dhananjayavyayoga Kanchana

Pandita Drama Episode, Arjuna. Virata

Parava

88

Kalidasa (~50 BC) is a well known poet of Sanskrit literary tradition. His

Abhijnana Sakuntala is a resonance of a minor episode in the Adi Parva of The

Mahabharata. To suit the changing needs of his society, Kalidasa has chosen the

dramatic form as it creates the necessary distance from the epic. Unlike Bhasa,

Kalidasa prefers a more ornate language. He also effects changes in the story of

Sakuntala to align it with the prevalent values in the society. Sakuntala of the epic

was a bold woman who makes a choice and is not afraid of the consequences. She

openly questions Dushyanta’s credibility in his court. However, Kalidasa has

transformed her into a soft spoken woman. He has introduced incidents like the ring

and the curse to spare Dushyanta of a negative portrayal. He employs these

strategies to uphold the honour of a king, lest it casts a dark shadow on his character.

Thus, Kalidasa changes the portrayal of the main characters by introducing new

incidents. The treatment of the theme, the hero and the strategies reflect the

influence of Bhasa. The social scene was the stimulus, the epic stories were the

illuminating pathways, and the monarchy of the period was the substantive support

base for the seminal works of Bhasa and Kalidasa. The literary works of Bhasa and

Kalidasa reveal their role as agents of social change.

This period saw other authors like Bhattanarayana (~AD 650), who revisited

the epic, in the popular genre of drama. His Venisamhara alludes to the incident of

Draupadi’s humiliation. He projects Bhima as an invincible hero, and presents

Duryodhana as a vicious and mean antagonist. He has introduced new incidents and

deviations from the epic story to effect character transformation. In his play Bala

Bharata, Rajasekara (10th Century AD) employs new situations and expressions.

The influence of Bhasa, especially the strategies he employs in his revisits, is

discernible in these works.

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Bharavi (6th Century AD) introduces an additional character, Kumara, the

son of Lord Siva, in his poem Kirata Arjuniyam, to enhance the heroic capability of

Arjuna. In his classic poem Sisupalavada, which earned him the epithet ‘Ghanta–

Magha,’ Magha (7th Century AD) has deified Krishna. Nitivarman (10th Century

AD) depicts Keecaka in a better light in his poem Keecaka Vada. The poem has won

him accolades for the skill in verbal usage and for evoking apt sentiments (rasas).

Trivikrama Bhatta adopted a new genre, Champu3, which is a mix of prose and

poetry, in his Nala Champu, probably for the first time in Sanskrit. Champu appears

to have been used extensively in Prakrit works of Jain and Buddhist poets of those

periods.

During the reign of Asoka, it was customary to inscribe in stone, royal edicts

using Prakrit and Pali, the common spoken languages of the people and not

exclusively in the royal language namely Sanskrit. The spread of the Magadha

Empire across the Indian subcontinent facilitated the development of the regional

dialects and vernacular languages (Majumdar et al 99). The mutual influence of

Sanskrit enabled the dissemination of the epic at one level while strengthening the

vocabulary of the growing vernacular languages at another.

In this period, Bharata wrote a prescriptive treatise, Natyasastra. Likewise,

Panini wrote Ashtadhyayi, and Dhandin wrote Kavyadarsana. Several seminal

works on literary criticism like Dasarupaka (Dhananjaya), Dhvaniyaloka

(Anandavardhana) were also products of this period. Great philosophers like

Sankara, Ramanuja and Madhwa quoted extensively from The Mahabharata to

expound their respective religious doctrines and spiritual philosophy. In fact, the

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Classical period witnessed a change from the oral to the written tradition. The oral

tradition continued its authority on literature, albeit with decreasing vigour. Many a

critic terms the Indian literary scene organic because of this continuing influence.

The study examines the emerging pattern in the revisits of the epic during the

Classical period. At one level, the authors adopt novel strategies to effect changes in

their characters. At another level, their work forms the basis of generic conventions

and unique innovations. The choice of the episode is evidently based on action-

oriented heroic exploits. It is evident that the revisits of the epic offer different

perceptions of the epic and its characters. The dramatic form enables the episodic

form of revisits and offers freedom and scope to transform the characters of the epic

within certain broad conventions. The characters are reinterpreted in consonance

with the prevalent values while retaining their essential qualities. The authors adopt

various strategies to effect character transformation and in turn present a new

perspective on the epic. These strategies are very similar to those employed by

Bhasa. This proves that creative articulations of a particular period either endorse or

contest the epic in varying degrees. Thapar in her analysis of Sakuntala states that,

“Each new treatment provides an aspect which either illuminates the text or is a

reflection of the historical moment when its particular perspective came into being”

(Thapar Sakuntala 6). Thus Sanskrit literature, especially the revisits, undergoes a

gradual change from the sacred to the secular, as it shares a common oral tradition

with folklore. This has influenced the style of literary forms, from the ornate to the

simple. The present study reveals the emergence of a hero-centric dramatic form of

revisits.

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Revisits in the Medieval Period (AD 1100-1800)

The Medieval period witnessed foreign invasions and brought about lifestyle

changes. The invasions also prompted migration of the population. Royal patronage

enabled supra regional dissemination of the epic (Pollock 232). This spurred the

growth of the vernacular, which in turn, dominated the social and literary spheres.

The symbiotic relationship between Sanskrit and vernacular languages helped in the

dissemination of the epic and enriched the vernacular. Recreations of The

Mahabharata in regional languages have been a strong influence on local cultures.

The period saw an upsurge of religious faith and a spread of the Bhakti movement.

The poet saints of the period were responsible for the ‘resurgence of faith in a new

idiom.’ They revisited the epics to spread their religious message in Sanskrit as well

as regional languages. They adopted folk styles for communicating with the masses.

Other poets of this period too emulated these styles. Thus there was a continuous

interpenetration of folk style and the classical, each influencing the other and

contributing significantly to the development of the literature of the region as well as

the regional languages (Paniker Medieval Literature, xxiii). Concurrently, Sanskrit

revisits continued to flourish. This analysis points to the trajectory of writers’

preferred choice of themes as well as genres. For instance, the stories of Sakuntala,

Nala-Damayanti, Satyavan-Savitri, the exploits of Bhima and Arjuna and the vow of

Draupadi find resonance in a large segment of literature. Eminent poets like Pampa

(Kannada), Gnaneswar (Marathi), Shailabhadra Suri (Gujarati), Sarala Das (Odia),

Ezhuthachan (Malayalam), Nannaya (Telugu), Villiputhurar (Tamil) among others

transcreate The Mahabharata in part or in its entirety. They introduce new metrical

forms to suit their languages and enrich them in turn. Table 4 is a compendium of

revisits in Sanskrit in the Medieval period.

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Table 4

Sanskrit Revisits in the Medieval Period

Name of the Work Author Genre Type,Hero, Source 12th Century Naishadiya Charitha Sriharsha Poetry Nala, Vana Parva NalaVilasa Ramachandra Drama Nala, Vana Parva Nirbhaya Bhima Ramachandra Drama Episode, Bhima Harakeli nataka Vigraha Rajadeva

Visaladeva Drama Arjuna, Vana Parva

Samudra Manthana, Vatsaraja Drama Episode, Adi Parva Tripuradaha Vatsaraja Drama Epoisode, Siva Karna

Parva Sharmishtha-Yayati Krishna Kavia Drama Yayati, Adi Parva Draupadi Svayamvara, Vijayapala Drama Episode, Draupadi

Sabha Parva Srikantta Charitam Mankhaka Poetry Siva, Karna Parva 13th Century Kiratarjunia, Vatsaraja Drama Episode, Arjuna, Vana

Parva Sahrudayananda Krishnananda

Mahapatra of Puri Poetry Episode, Nala, Vana

Parva Bala Bharatha Amara Chandra

Suri Poetry Enire epic

Pandava Charita Devaprabha Suri Poetry Pandavas, Entire epic Nara Narayana Ananda Vastupala Poetry Episode, Arjuna. Sabha

Parva 14th Century Bala Bharatha, Agastya Poetry Entire Epic Nala Kirti Kaumudi Agastya Poetry Nala Episode, Vana

Parva Yadavabhyudayam Venkatanatha Poetry Episodes, Krishna Partha parakrama Prahladana Deva Play Episode, Arjuna. Vana

Parva Saugandhikaharana Vishwanatha Play Episode, Bhima. Vana

Parva Pandava Charita Devaprabha Suri Poetry in 18 cantos Entire epic 15th Century Nalabhyudaya Vamana Bhatta

Bana Poetry in 8 cantos Episode, Vana Parva

Yudhishthira Vijaya Vasudeva Poetry Epic complete Nalodhaya Vasudeva Poetry Episode, Nala, Vana

Parva

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Table 4 (Continued)

Name of the Work Author Genre Type, Hero, Source

16th Century

Bharatachampu Anantabhatta Poetry Prose mixed (Champu)

Entire epic

Bhaimini parinaya Srinivasa Dikashita

Play Episode, Nala, Vana Parva

Pandavabhyudhaya Vyasa Sriramadeva

Play Story of Pandavas

Subhadraharanamadhava Anon Play Episode, Arjuna,

17th Century

Subhadra Dhananjya Gururama Play Episode, Arjuna

Panchali Swayamvara Narayana Bhatta Poetry Prose mixed (Champu)

Episode, Draupadi

Bharatha Champu Raja Chudamani Dikshita

Champu Entire epic

Draupathi Parinaya Champu

Chakra Kavi Poetry (Champu) Episode, Draupadi

Nala Charita

Neelakantha Dikshita

Play Episode, Nala, Vana Parva

Subhadra Parinay Nalla Kavi Play Episode, Arjuna, Subhadra

Kalyana Saughandhika Neelakhantha Dikshita

Play Episode, Bhima and Hanuman

a dates uncertain '

Table 4 clearly demonstrates the rich literary output as well as the exceptional

growth of Indian literature in the Medieval Period. It contests the conventional

notion that the Medieval Period is a dark age. The period, in fact, witnessed a rich

literary growth in regional languages too, as discussed in the following section.

94

Development of Indian Languages and Their Literatures

With the influx of migratory population, the innumerable communities and

tribes living in India, present a fascinating yet bewildering picture of the

development of different languages and local customs. In ancient India, Sanskrit

occupied the most revered place as most of the literature was in that language. The

migration of a small but dynamic group of erudite scholars, well versed in the epics

and Sanskrit Literature, from one area to another acted as a catalyst in influencing

the local languages (Paniker Medieval Literature Vol.1 xxvi). The epics remain

timelessly present, as a source of inspiration or guidance for the writers as well as

for the people. The basic theories underlying Sanskrit literature are explored in the

emerging languages and new insights are found. The local idioms and customs are

represented through the framework of the epics. At one level the spread of Sanskrit

Literature stimulated the emergence of new genres and styles in the regional

languages. At another level, traditional values and cultural mores of the epic

permeated into the growing regional societies and cultures. The active dialogue

between the society and the language of that particular society gave an

unprecedented impetus to the development of literature in each language. In due

course of time, this pre-eminent position of the language and literature slowly but

steadily declined and gave way to derived languages such as Urdu, Prakrit and

Hindi. A variety of reasons are attributed to this phenomenon. External invasions

and cultural intrusions partly contributed to this. Besides, the language itself became

stagnant and sterile. Religious decline and revisionist movements also gave a natural

impetus for the literary activities in the languages of the masses. This period saw the

evolution of new languages by conscious acquisition of elegant expressions and

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thoughts expressed in the epic. During this period there were at least five major

forms of Prakrit, namely Ardha-Magadhi, Saurseni, Maharastri, Magadhi and

Paisaci. Besides Sanskrit, Buddhists and Jains used Pali and Ardha-Magadhi

profusely as literary languages (Maheswari 3). The epics played an important role as

a common resource text in the evolution of new languages.

The development of the Tamil language in the South took place

simultaneously with that of Sanskrit in the North. The Sangam Literature is the

treasure trove of Tamil culture and literature ( 3rd century BC-4th century AD). That

the stories from the epics are mentioned in Sangam literature is evidence to the

awareness of epics during those periods. The earliest translation of The

Mahabharata is by Perumtevanar who wrote prefatory prayer poems for some of the

anthologies in the Sangam classics (Meenakshisundaran 158). Unfortunately his

major work, the Bharatham, is lost. However some of the verses of his work are

quoted in Tholkappiyam (a treatise on grammar), and Yappirunkalam.

Perumtevanar’s Bharatham is set in Agaval4 metre, in the form of a narrative

interspersed with poetry. The impact of Tamil on the development of South Indian

Languages in the Medieval period has been widely acknowledged.

The Sanskrit epics extended their influence in all corners of India and

supported the regional development of languages, during the Medieval period. This

study points to the fact that in this period, because of developments in Sanskrit, the

local languages grew in stature. The Medieval period therefore saw the growth of

vernacular languages rather than their decay, even though the pace of developments

of each of the languages may have varied considerably (Paniker Medieval Literature

Vol.1 xxiv-xxvi). Nevertheless, there has been substantive literary output, judging by

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the number of revisits. Tables 5−8 list the revisits of The Mahabharata during the

Medieval period in various Indian languages.

Table 5

Revisits of The Mahabharata in Indian Languages: 9th —14th Centuries AD

Language Name of the Work Author Genre Type, Hero, Source

9th Century

Tamil Mahabharatam Anon (most part missing, known through references)

Prose-Poetry

Entire epic, mix of genre and mix of language

10th Century

Kannada Vikramarjuna Vijaya

Pampa Poetry Entire epic

Kannada Gada Yuddha (Sahasa Bhima Vijayam)

Ranna Poetry Champu

Episode, Bhima

11th Century

Telugu Andhra Mahabharatam

Nannaya Poetry Two Parvas of the epic.

13thCentury

Telugu Andhra Mahabharatam

Tikkanna and Errana

Poetry Continuing from Nannaya

Marathi Gnaswari Sant Gnaneswar Poetry Primarily Bhagavad Gita

Assamese Bhabruvahana Yuddha

Vipra Harivara Episode, Arjuna, Aswameda Parva

Assamese Jayadratha Vadha Kaviratna Saraswati

Poetry Episode, Arjuna, Drona Parva

14th Century

Gujarati Pancha Pandava Raso

Sailabhadra Suri Poetry Virata Parva

Malyalam Bharata Mala Sankara Paniker Poetry Complete epic

97

Table 6

Revisits of The Mahabharata in Indian Languages: 15th Century AD

Language Name of the Work Author Genre Type,Hero,

Source Malayalam Mahabharata Rama Paniker Poetry Complete epic

Malayalam Bhagavad Gita Madhava panikkar

Poetry Episode

Malayalam Bharata ghatha Cheruseri Poetry Entire epic Malayalam Bharata Pattu Ayyana Pillai Poetry Entire Epic Odia Mahabharata Sarla Das Poetry Entire Epic Bengali Rajasuya Yajna Madhava Deva Poetry Episode, Sabha

Parva Assamese Sathyakhi

Pravesa Rudra Kandali Poetry Krishna

Gujarati Virata Parva Shaili Suri Poetry Virata Parva Gujarati Purushottama

Pancha Pandava Phaghu

Anon Poetry Episode; Pandavas

Gujarati Nalopakhyan Bhalan Poetry Episode Nala, Vana parva

Gujarati Pandavono Paraba

Imam Shah Poetry Episode

Rajastani Katha Ahmani Belji Poetry Episode; Abhimanyu, Drona Parva,

Kannada Jaimini Bharata (Trns)

Lakshmi Sa Poetic Episode, Aswamaedha yajna

Kannada Nala Chartitre Kanaka dasa Poetry Episode, Nala, Vana parva

Telugu Jaimini Bharata (Trns)

Pillalamarri Pinaveerabhadhra Kavi

Poetry Episode, Aswamaedha yajna

Telugu Planati Bharatamu

Srinathudu Poetry Episode, about the war

Telugu Bala Bharatam Talappakka Pedda Tirumalacharyudu

Poetry Parts of the epic

98

Table 7

Revisits of The Mahabharata in Indian Languages: 16th Century

Language Name of the

Work Author Genre

Type, Hero, Source

Kannada Bharata Katha Manjari/ Gadugina Bharata

Kumara Vyasa Poetry Entire Epic

Kannada Mahabharata Thimmanna Poetry Entire Epic

Assamese Mahabharata Rama Saraswati Poetry Entire Epic

Assamese Virata parva Kamsaari Poetry Virata Parva

Assamese Santhi Parva Lakshminath Poetry Santhi Parva

Assamese Salya Parva Damodar Das Poetry Salya Parva

Assamese Sthuthi Parva Jainarain Poetry Sthuthi Parva

Assamese Aswamedha parva Gana Das, Sudhiri Bhavani Das

Poetry Aswamedha Parva

Bengali Jaimini Mahabharata

Srikara Nadvi Poetry Entire epic

Gujarati Mahabharata Nakar Poetry Entire epic

Gujarati Mahabharata Vishnu Das Poetry 15 Parvas

Gujarati Rajasuya yajna Shedhadji Poetry Episode

Rajastani Katha Bhim-Dussasani

Kesodas Godhara

Poetry Episode

Rajastani Katha Surgarohani Kesodas Godhara

Poetry Episode; Swargharohana Parva

Rajastani Katha Bahsowani Kesodas Godhara

Poetry Episode

Telugu Mahabharata Battepati Thimmayya, Bala Saraswati, and Atmakuri Somanna

Poetry Epic

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Table 7 (Continued)

Language Name of the

Work Author Genre

Type, Hero, Source

Telugu Raghava Pandaveeyamu

Pingali Surana Poetry Slesha kavya

Both epics in one work

Telugu Yayati Charitramu Ponnikanti Telahanais

Poetry (kavya)

Episode, Yayati, Adi Parva

Telugu Tapathi Samvaranopanamu

Addanki Gangadharudu

Poetry Prabhandam

Episode, Samavara, Adi Parva

Tamil Nalavenba Pukzhendi Pulavar

Poetry Episode, Nala, Vana Parva

Tamil Pavazhakkodi Malai

Pukzhendi Pulavar

Poetry (Folk Song and Ballet)

Innovative Episodes, Arjuna

Tamil Alli Arasani Malai Pukzhendi Pulavar

Poetry,Folk Song, Ballet

Innovative Episodes, Arjuna

Tamil Naidatham Athiveera Rama Pandian

Poetry (Virutham)

Episode; Nala, Vana Parva

Malayalam Mahabharatam Ezhuthachan Poetry (Kilipattu)

Entire Epic

Marathi Mahabharata Vishnudas Nama

Poetry 19 Parvas of the epic

Marathi Mahabharata Mukhteswar Poetry 5 Parvas available

Odia Sakuntala Chautisa

Raghu Arakhitha

Poetry Episode; Sakuntala, Adi Parva

100

Table 8

Revisits of The Mahabharata in Indian Languages: 17th and 18th centuries

Language Name of the Work Author Genre Type, Hero,

Source 17th Century Bengali Mahabharata Kansh Ram

Das Poetry Entire

Epic Gujarati Bhagavad Gita Narahari Poetry Episode Gujarati Nalakhyana Premanand Poetry Episode Telugu Mahabharata Kaluve

Veera Raju Prose Entire

Epic Telugu Draupadi Kalyanamu Shaji Poetry(folk) Tamil Bharatam Villiputhurar Poetry (Viruttam) Entire

Epic Malayalam Bakavadam Kottayam

Thampuran Drama Episodic,

Bhima Malayalam Kalyana Saugandhikam Kottayam

Thampuran Drama Episodic,

Bhima Malayalam Kirmeerevadam Kottayam

Thampuran Drama Episodic,

Bhima Malayalam Nivatakavaca

Kalakeyavadam Kottayam Thampuran

Drama Episodic, Arjuna

Malayalam Nala Charitram Ramapurathu Varier

Ballad Episodic, Nala

Malayalam Sabha Pravesam Kunjan Nambiar

Poetry (Thullal) Episode

Malayalam Kalyana Saughandikam Kunjan Nambiar

Poetry (Thullal) Episode

Malayalam Panchendropakhyana Kunjan Nambiar

Poetry (Thullal) Episode

Malayalam Nala charitam Unnai Varier Poetry (Traditional) Episode, Kathakali

Malayalam Subhadraharanam Karthigai Thirunal

Poetry (Traditional) Arjuna, Kathakali

Malayalam Bakavadam Karthigai Thirunal

Poetry (Traditional) Bhima, Kathakali

Malayalam Pancaliswayamvaram Karthigai Thirunal

Poetry (Traditional) Arjuna, Kathakali

Malayalam Kalyana Saughandikam Karthigai Thirunal

Poetry (Traditional) Bhima, Kathakali

101

Table 8 (Continued)

Language Name of the Work Author Genre Type, Hero, Source

Odiya Kapatapasha Bhima Dhibar Poetry Draupadi Odiya Subhadra Parinaya Upendra Banja Poetry Arjuna 18th Century Bengali Mahabharata Kavichandra

Chakravarty Poetry Entire Epic

Mahabharata Vidyasagar Poetry Parts of the epic Gujarati Aswameda Dhiro Poetry Episode Gujarati Draupadi Vastraharan Dhiro Poetry Draupadi Gujarati Rajasuya and

Aswameda Giridhar Poetry Episodes

Telugu Vijaya Vilasamu Cheemakura Venkata Kavi

Poetry (Vilasa Kavya)

Episodes, Arjuna

Malayalam Keecakavadam Irayaman Thampi

Poetry Episode, Bhima

Marathi Arya Bharat Moropanth Poetry Entire Epic

Revisits in Indian Languages

Initially the expressive capability of the Indian languages was limited by their

vocabulary; but assimilation of expressions and ideas from Sanskrit Literature

helped in their development. It is acknowledged that the literary inspiration of the

epics was at the core of these developments. Translation, transcreation and

transliteration of the epics formed the major portion of the literatures in the new

languages. While these revisits of The Mahabharata strengthened these languages,

they gave new relevance and new perspectives to this ancient epic (Pollock 363).

The symbiotic existence of the past interpreted by the present offered a different

frame of reference relevant to a particular language and its culture. Ayyappa Paniker

in his introduction to Medieval Indian Literature opines that, “the past was

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interpreted by the present, and the present was supported and sustained by the past in

these recreated works. Kampan in Tamil, Krittivasa Ojha in Bengali, Sarla Das in

Odiya, Ezhuthachan in Malayalam, Tulsi Das in Hindi, Nannaya in Telugu: the

names of these rejuvenators are legion” (Paniker Medieval Literature Vol. I xxvi).

Scholars in these languages hold the view that the versions of the epics by these

father figures are classics of the new literature and not just literal translations. These

eminent writers also introduced different metrical forms to suit the new language

and added to its richness. This led to further revisits of the epics in these languages,

employing some of the new metrical styles like Doha, Abhang and Kirtan. As a

result, one finds an uninterrupted tradition of revisits of the epics in different genres

and languages till today. This is evident from the examples in subsequent sections.

Stylistic Innovations

The stylistic innovations5 adopted by eminent poets of various languages

inform the revisits in the regional languages. Nannaya’s Telugu Mahabharata is

known as Kavya Ithihasa, a mixture of prose and poetry, in line with Champu form

of Sanskrit (Rao T.R. 28). The later day writers adopt this literary style, as it is most

suitable for their language. Raghava Pandaveeyamu (Telugu) by Pingali Surana is a

famous Sleshakavya of this period. He combined the story of The Ramayana and

The Mahabharata into one Kavya. By syntactic separation of words, it is possible to

read the work as either The Ramayana or The Mahabharata. He mentions six kinds

of puns employed by him in this work (Rao S.V.S.N. 6-7).

The Niranam poets, Madhava Paniker, Shankara Paniker and Rama Paniker

evolved diction almost completely independent of Tamil and by assimilation of

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Sanskrit vocabulary into Malayalam language. The metre they used is called

Tarangini, an appropriate name because it flows forward dancing in a wave like

movement. Rama Paniker wrote the epic in poetical form (viruttam) and brought

about structural changes in the language. He adopted and assimilated the changes of

linguistic style of Manipravala5 into poetic form. Cherusseri’s translation of the epic

known as Bharata Katha is composed in a flexible metre called Manjari, which is

remarkably musical. This metre has its origin in folk songs and ballads and hence

his work is very popular among all walks of people. Ezuthachan, the leading light of

Malayalam poetry, wrote the epic in 25000 lines in the form of verses, wherein he

introduced the genre of Kilipattu5 (Chaitanya Malayalam Literature 76-83).

Shailbhadra Suri of Gujarat has translated the Virata Parva from original

version of Vyasa. This is a long mythological narrative poem employing a Sanskrit

syllabic metre, which is considered a rare feature in Maru-Gujjar poetical

compositions (Maheswari 31, Das 191). Purushottam Panca Pandava Phaghu by an

unknown author describes the assembly of the Pandavas and the Yadavas at Kulu

for indulging in spring sports. Phagu5 is a form of poem in Gujarati and it describes

the spring season beautifully. Bhalan is a famous fifteenth century Gujarati poet and

is considered the father of akhyan form of poetry. He occupies a pre-eminent place

as a translator-poet and has produced several popular works such as Nalopakyan

(Jhaveri 21). He modified the Sanskrit form of akhyana to suit the Gujarati

language5.

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Kumara Vyasa is a poet who made complete use of the freedom lent to

Kannada language by the linguistic evolution of the vacanas. His transcreation of

the epic is known as Karnataka Bharata Kathamanjari (Mugali 70).

Rama Saraswathi is well known for his Bada Kavyas in Assamese, which

describes the superhuman feats of the Pandavas in destroying various Asuras.

Pukalenti Pulavar’s Nalavenba is a popular work in Tamil. It describes the

story of Nala-Damayanti from the epic in venba metre, a simple and musical style.

His mastery over the venba metre is extolled by scholars. Villiputhurar wrote

Bharatham in viruttam form of verses in Tamil during the seventeenth century. This

is a popular revisit of the Mahabharata in Tamil and continues to be an important

work. It consists of 4300 verses in a smooth, flowing style, reflecting the mood of

the narrative. The author employs a strident style while describing the war scenes

and a slow style to express melancholy or grief. The author succeeds in depicting the

whole of the epic by including all the important and interesting incidents of the epic.

He has achieved a highly musical and rhythmic symmetry in his poems through

adoption of suitable words from Sanskrit (Varadarajan 194-199).

The analysis shows that eminent authors of the Medieval period employed

various metrical styles for their revisits. They adopted, and frequently innovated,

new styles to facilitate their revisits in their respective languages. Their linguistic

skills and aesthetic sensibilities came to the fore through these revisits.

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Important Revisits

It was the royals who commissioned the translation and transliteration of the

epic in their respective languages. This privileged the eminent writers of the period

to produce remarkable revisits. By absorbing local customs and traditions, they

devised interesting deviations of the epic incidents, as is demonstrated in the

following.

i) Sarla Das (15th century AD), a famous Odia poet, recreates the epic in

Odia using the local idioms of language and topography of Odisha. He

consciously subverts the epic story at many levels and at many

surfaces. They can be recognised in the religious, socio-cultural,

ethical-intellectual-philosophical, structural and lingiuistic patterns

(Das S. 55). The poet identifies Lord Krishna and Lord Jagannath of

Puri as one and the same. He represents the cosmic form of the lord in

two distinct ways. On the occasion of Krishna’s diplomatic mission to

the Kaurava court, the author presents Krishna’s various incarnations,

and his compassion for Duryodhana. In the second instance of a

hesitant Arjuna in the battlefield, the author provides a unique

interpretation of Krishna’s cosmic form (Naba Gunjara form), to

illustrate that he is manifest in all beings. His portrayal highlights the

moods and sentiments of the peasant folk of Odisha. He provides space

for the common folk to identify themselves and relate to the characters

of the epic effectively. His work is so popular that it has been

translated in English and many other Indian languages (Mansinha 50-

69, Mohanty J. M. 15-35).

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ii) In the Kannada work, Bharata Katha Manjari/ Gadugina Bharata,

Kumara Vyasa (16th century AD) has created a text which examines

the characters and situations of the epic on the basis of devotion to the

Lord. Using his own experiences in life, he examines the outlook of

Bhakti in the context of ever-changing dynamics of human

relationships, and in turn, their relationship to God. His depiction of

Karna is in consonance with that in Vyasa’s original, rather than that of

Bhasa’s idealised Karna. Through a simple gesture, metaphor or

simile, Kumara Vyasa encapsulates the feelings and the motifs of

human nature in a realistic manner (Mugali 70-72). With great felicity,

he changes the mode of narrative according to the situation. For

example, he adopts narrative style for rendering Sabha Parva, but

dramatises Udyoga Parva.

iii) Poet Rama Saraswati (16th century AD), in collaboration with his

contemporaries, translated all the parvas except Stree and Anusasana

in to Assamese (Barua 54-57). The Assamese Mahabharata is not a

literal translation of the epic. The discourses are either subverted or

altered to enable the local people to relate to the epic effectively. It

represents the life and culture, the flora and fauna, the metaphors and

similes of the contemporary rural life of Assam. The poets, Kamsari

and Lakshminath, use words of diverse origin, which have tremendous

influence on the development of the language. Even contemporary

writers draw inspiration from these retellings. Bhima Charitra is a

popular revisit (Adi Parva), where Bhima is portrayed as a strong

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farmer, helping out the family of the poverty stricken lord Siva, his

wife Parvati and their two sons. The retellings convey the message of

the ultimate triumph of good over evil to the reader. The deification of

Krishna is more pronounced in these texts. The poets reiterate the

tenets of Vaishnavism and promote Bhakti movement through their

works (Lekharu 233).

iv) Ezuthachan (16th century AD), has conveyed the grandeur, sublimity,

message and essence of the epic with all the sub-stories and important

incidents in his Malayalam Poetry. Alliteration and other rhymes are

used profusely for creating the right mood and enhance the emotional

effect. He uses a bird- a parrot, as the narrator. It can also be

considered as a symbolic representation of the poet’s own creativity.

He entreats the bird to retell the eternal story of the epic. The poet

invokes the blessings of God in the beginning of every Parva. He has

desisted from translating even a single passage from the Bhagavad

Gita, and provides a simple summary (Nair P. K. 68). The author

considers the literary nature of this work and omits any reference to

religious discourse.

v) Kottayam Tampuran (17th century AD) belonged to the royal family of

Kerala. He authored four plays based on the epic, such as,

Bakavadham, Kalyana Saugandhikam, Kirmeera Vadham, and

Nivatakavacha Kalakeya Vadham. His plays strictly adhere to the

Kathakali conventions and hence are highly effective. Tampuran has

taken liberties with the original story and introduces certain elements

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into the plot to reflect the nature of the Kathakali performance (Nair

P. K. 88). His contributions in the complicated manipravala style

reveal his mastery over languages.

vi) Mukteswar (16th century AD) the grand son of Eknath composed The

Mahabharata in Marathi. This is considered as a seminal work, but at

present only five parvas of the Marathi version are available. Using the

imaginative and rich style of poetry, the author combines all the rasas

with equal skill. His Pandavas fight even against the Muslim and the

European invaders. His composition reflects the contemporary life of

his times. Arya Bharat by Moropant is another great work in Marathi.

It condenses the Sanskrit epic into seventeen thousand verses and also

adds several innovative stories. It presents a new interpretation to some

of the characters. Moropant has given the Marathi language a new

stature and dignity. He wrote most of his verses in the metre arya

(Deshpande and Rajadhyaksha 21, 36).

vii) Premanand (17th Century) (Gujarati) has written numerous plays and

composed several poems based on The Mahabharata. He is considered

the greatest poet who nurtured the Akhyan form of poetry. He was a

story teller (Kathakar) by profession. The political instability of his

times had a direct impact on his works. People of Gujarat consider his

works sacred scriptures even today. Nalakyana is the best among his

works. He has invented many incidents and by his unusual power of

narration and description invested his works with rare charm. He is

very popular among the masses as he is at his best in the portrayal of

the sentiment of humour (Jhaveri 44).

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Influence of Folk Traditions

While famous poets chose to revisit the epic in the classical tradition, some

poets like Srinathudu attempted to infuse folk tradition in their revisits as the strong

oral tradition of the epic continues its influence on the people. Srinathudu (AD

1365-1445) belonged to the age of transition from simple translations to independent

compositions in the Telugu language. For his outstanding works, he earned the

epithet of Kavya Sarvabhauma. He composed Palanati Bharathamu in the folk

form. He allegorically uses the frame work of The Mahabharata war to depict the

contest for supremacy between Saivaites and Vaishnavaites of those times. The

author effectively utilises the scope of the epic for chronicling the local culture and

history (Rao T. R. 64).

Pukalenti Pulavar (Tamil 16th century AD) wrote Pavalakodi Malai and

Alliarasani Malai, describing the exploits of Arjuna when he visited South India.

These folk songs or ballads are still popular in the villages of Tamil Nadu. The

Marathi kings of Tanjore followed their Nayaka kings in patronising Telugu

literature. Shaji wrote Draupadi Kalyanamu in the folk style of popular Yaksha

ganam. It is a narrative interspersed with song and dialogue. It can be considered an

opera, where lyrics take precedence over rhythm (Varadarajan 198).

Ramapurathu Varier (Malayalam 17th century AD) composed

Nalacharithram. This is a musical narrative specially created for a form of folk

dance called Kaikottikali. Kunchan Nambiar is distinguished for his contribution to

the art form of Thullal. In this solo dance form performed during the day, the dancer

narrates the story with appropriate gestures. Kartika Thirunal, the founder of

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Kottaram Kathakali Yogam, made the art form Kathakali popular in

Padmanabhaswamy temple at Tiruvananthapuram. He also wrote several works for

Kathakali exposition like Subadraharanam, Bakavadham, Pancali Swayamvaram,

and Kalyana Saugandikam (Nair P. K. 104-108).

The works of Sarla Das in Odia, Rama Saraswati in Assamese, and

Mukteswar in Marathi clearly demonstrate the influence of local folk traditions. The

poets introduce local folk metres and musicality in their compositions. They employ

local idioms, and the structure of the local literature. The innovations enrich the

language of the revisits. The influence of local and folk traditions establishes easy

communication and extensive spatial reach of the epic.

An examination of the evolution of the revisits across the Indian

subcontinent points to certain distinct regional preferences. In the northern hilly

regions, the continuing folk tradition emphasises the exploits of the Kauravas and

the Pandavas. Duryodhana is deified and celebrated as a symbol of the warrior clan

(Saklani 293). In the eastern regions, Krishna and Arjuna are the protagonists of

many revisits. Draupadi is deified in Tamil Nadu, where many temples are devoted

to Pandavas and Draupadi. In Kerala and Central India, Bhima is perhaps the most

popular character (Rukmini Folk Traditions 188-192). In the western and river

plains of the north, exploits of Krishna emerge as a dominant theme. It is evident

that the revisits are shaped by the interpenetrating influence of the epic, the local

culture and folk tradition.

The epic remains a constant source of imagination for the compositions and

performances in music and dance. Several musical compositions and operas depict

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the epic heroes in the context of the exploits of gods, especially Rama and Krishna.

The references to epic characters are found in the compositions of Purandaradasa

(Kannada) and Annamaiya (Telugu), for example.

The analyses of the revisits over two millennia reveal the part played by the

epic in developing literature in Indian languages and its impact on our collective

cultural consciousness from time immemorial. The continuing parallel stream of

oral traditions is reflected in the form of folk-songs and folk-theatre. Every

language, in its own way, has incorporated the local idioms of the description and

imagery from the particular region, like the river, the sea, the mountains, the plains

as well as customs to achieve a resonance with the readers. The perpetual changes

effected by the folk songs and theatres to reflect the performance exigencies on a

particular occasion add to the oral tradition. Each piece of literature shares the

common heritage of The Mahabharata at one level, but retains its individuality and

distinctiveness in revisits at the other.

There is a regional distinctiveness in the evolution of languages according to

their geographical location and the dialect from which they evolved. Tamil and

Malayalam form a sub-group. Telugu and Kannada form another. Bengali, Oriya,

Assamese and Mythili form yet another group. Hindi, Rajasthani and Gujarati form

a distinct group (Devy In Another Tongue. 153). Many distinguished writers,

because of their linguistic felicity, have left their imprint in more than one language6

(Devy Heroes 150). As a consequence, new styles like Champu, Akhyan, and

couplets appear in various languages. This reveals the mutual influence between

Sanskrit and other regional languages. These add to the richness and variety of

Indian literature. The developments of languages were seldom temporally aligned.

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Nor were they similar in the use of various genres during their development. Some

had more impetus for poetry, some for prose or drama. All these factors account for

the differences one finds in the translations or retellings of the epic. The explosive

growth of subversions and interpretations reflects the increase in the number of

revisits in a variety of genres over a vast period of time. Every revisit presents a new

perspective on the epic in relation to its cultural context. This offers an interesting

insight into the revisits themselves. At one level these revisits seem to effect a

homogeneous Indian tradition and culture but at another level they retain their

individual differences and preferences.

Reflections on the Culture

A dynamic text like The Mahabharata has been considered a treasure trove

of Indian culture. It highlights simultaneously the ethics and morality of the

individual and of the society. Social welfare and unity of thought and action as well

as the basic tenets of tolerance and cooperation are codified and highlighted. Perhaps

an important and constant refrain is of truth, self control, generosity, and non

violence. Virtues are placed on a higher pedestal than caste and family. Interestingly

however, the core philosophical teaching of The Mahabharata namely Bhagavad

Gita, is a text that has survived the times, and has been interpreted ad infinitum for

resolution of the confused mind torn between conflicting situations. Also it is clear

that The Mahabharata and its teachings have found such varied interpretations as to

support opposing philosophical concepts as non violence and violence and war for a

righteous cause (Nehru 109). Perhaps another doctrine of The Mahabharata is the

clear denunciation of materialism. It is easy to regard the epic as a vivid description

of a civil war in an ancient society. In actual fact, it is a vast and encyclopaedic

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account of the political and social institutions of that time (Nehru 106). It is in

addition a commentary of the intrusion and intermingling of cultures, expressed in

real time and available to us as history morphed into myth. In the Medieval period,

the enslaved and divided society kept their cultural past alive by revisits of the epic.

The focus of the revisits then was on translation and transliteration of the epic into

various regional languages. This period witnessed more episodic revisits in the form

of poetry and drama. Later, as the concepts of freedom and democracy gained

ground, Indian writers found expressions of their ideas through distinct revisits of

the epic. What is common however is that the writers altered/transformed the

representation of the hero by i) foregrounding his family life, and ii) projecting the

individual interests of the protagonist over those of a community/nation.

Religious reform movements such as Buddhism, Jainism and the Bhakti

movement had singular impact on the development of regional languages. The

revisits with religious overtones reaffirm faith and instil the glory of a shared

cultural past and a hope for better future. The reformists like the Jain poet

Sailabhadra Suri give a different slant in their revisits, by which they gloss over

uncomfortable incidents like polyandry. Interestingly, while they articulate the

different silences of the epic, they also introduce their own silences by glossing over

unacceptable traits. They also demythify their characters; they tend to portray

Krishna as a human hero than as divine. In fact, all of them prefer to depict a single

protagonist as representing a community rather than highlighting a group or a clan.

Other writers like Rama Saraswati project the epic heroes as human, placing them in

everyday domestic situations, adding local traditions in their revisits. Thus these

authors adopt strategies similar to those adopted by Bhasa for transforming their

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heroes to project the prevalent values of their times. Revisits project altered values

of the epic, but do not interrogate its special place in the Indian literary tradition as

Dharmasastra.

Revisits in the Pre- and Post Independence Era (AD 1800-- )

The Pre- and Post- Independence era witnessed several reformist as well as

nationalist movements. India had a continuous tradition of trade and commercial ties

with countries in the east and the west. The economic exchanges with the British

eventually led to political colonialism. The socio political events influenced our

writers and their writings. English-educated Indians were drawn towards progressive

ideas and advanced social paradigms. Famous among those were Raja Ram Mohan

Roy, who started the Brahmo Samaj movement to rid the masses of superstitious

beliefs through the western system of education (Raychoudhary S. C. 126). The

movement, which started in Bengal, spread to various parts of our country. It

instilled a sense of nationhood in an otherwise feudalistic society. If the Bhakti

movement of the previous era promoted the individual’s salvation as a defining goal,

the reformist movements of this period attempted to sow the seeds of welfare of the

society as a unit. These political concepts found active supporters, like Swami

Vivekananda who could foresee the potential degradation if one were to accept in

entirety the external models of social growth, especially that of the British. For him,

every individual in the society was potentially divine and social change can be

brought about by educating him/her in our rich cultural past. Progressive literary

movements foregrounded the social paradigms and the spirit of nationhood among

people. It spread the ideas of liberty, fraternity and equality and other advanced

ideas that had taken root elsewhere in the world. It was during this era that

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Sukthankar, Bhandarkar and other eminent scholars took up the monumental task of

compiling and organising the various recensions of The Mahabharata into critical

editions, which serve as reference texts for scholars (Sarkar 342).

Revisits and the Social Scene7

Initially, the British established their ruling base in the state of Bengal. They

had a strong influence on the social and cultural lives of the people of the region

(Raychoudhary S. C. 210). Toru Dutt has written ballads on The Mahabharata

characters Savitri and Ekalavya in English. She portrays Savitri as an independent

and intelligent woman with modern value systems. Through Ekalavya’s character,

she comments on the need for education and caste inequality. Her revisits are good

examples of a) the influence of western education on the author, b) appropriateness

of theme and genre of the revisit and c) expression of the suppressed anger of a

neglected section seeking an egalitarian society (Naik M. K. 39).

As English education spread across the country, so did the infllence of

European literature on writers of the different parts of the country. They began

expressing the need for social change as is evident from the works of writers of

different languages. In this period, writers from Kerala were experimenting with

new styles with a blend of English poetical patterns, and Sanskrit metric patterns in

their language. The British Romantic Movement held sway over several writers in

this period (Nair P. K. 199). A well known poet, Vallathol wrote Acchanum

Makalum (Malayalam) a short poem on Sakuntala. He innovates a scene where

Sakuntala talks about her new born son, and her lover (Dushyanta) to her father

(Sage Viswamitra), both of whom had abandoned her. Through the revisit, the

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author expresses the spirit of women’s self assertion and liberty (Nair P. K. 210).

The author’s view that the “here and now” is preferable to the “ hereafter or

heaven” reflects the attitude of the society. Ullur Parameswara Iyer, another

contemporary of Vallathol, wrote Karnabhushanam, which is a poignant portrayal

of the relationship between Karna and his father Sun God. In the revisit, the author

highlights Karna’s steadfastness and charity in the face of ostracism of the society

(Nair P. K. 220). Vallathol, Ullur and Asan were contemporary writers who came

from different social strata, but served the cause of social transformation8.

In the poem Manakho (Rajasthani), Giridhari Sinha Padihar depicts

Subhadra confronting her brother Krishna and asking him to pardon and save

Cetan, a minor character who insults a sage and incurs Krishna’s wrath (Maheswari

218). This indicates the need for inclusive principles of society at large.

A Gujarati poet Manishankar Bhatt, in his Vasanta Vijaya, describes the

tragedy that was Pandu’s lot in life. The poet puts forward the idea of self-control as

an essential virtue through his poem. Yayati written by V. S. Khandekar (1958) is a

novel that contrasts the idealism of the hero with that of the crass materialism of the

middleclass. It provides a commentary on modern man’s hedonistic pursuits against

the backdrop of the epic story. The novel revolves around four main characters

Yayati, Devayani, Sharmishtha and Kaca, who represent different faces of love. The

author’s view on love is depicted by the later life of Kaca in the fiction (George 718-

19). These works illustrate the point that social values influence literature

significantly. Through their works the writers express their wish for the betterment

of the common man. The literature of a particular period is conditioned by the

prevalent values and the authors’ engagement with the sympathies of the society as a

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whole. Almost all writers of this period wrote about national independence and

individual freedom. The Independence movement was not merely a struggle for

freedom; it was an emotional experience for all Indians of the period. All linguistic

and regional boundaries were subsumed in one grand national fervour of freedom.

Revisits and the Political Scene

Subramania Bharatiar, the renowned nationalist poet of the twentieth

century, wrote many poems to awaken the spirit of freedom, and to recognise an

Indian identity. His Pancali Sabadam is an allegorical poem with Draupadi as the

protagonist. He saw the unique similarity between her and Mother India (Bharata

Mata), both in their respective grief and their struggle for freedom. In order to

invoke a nationalist sentiment among the people, the poet has improvised a style of

free verse by blending the oral folk tradition with classical poetic tradition. This

composition is famous for its thinly veiled, but powerful dialogues which establish

an immediate rapport with the audience (Nandakumar Bharathi 40-49).

In the Post-Independence era, the socio-political climate was one of idealistic

nationalism. The fledgling democracy, under the guidance of many statesmen—

philosophers like Nehru, was nurtured carefully based on socialistic ideals of

welfare state. After Independence, reconstruction of the nation became the priority

of the leaders. Through five year plans, the green revolution and similar constructive

policies they sought to create a self-reliant and egalitarian society. Movements like

Bhoodhan of Vinobha Bhave, Chipko of Bahuguna sensitised people to their role as

citizens. The country faced invasions from neighbours during this period. Since the

idealistic egalitarian state was the vision of our great leaders, revisits of the epic the

Ramayana were considerably more. Later the emergency period (1975-77), induced

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several changes in the socio-political scene. The ruling class violated individual’s

freedom by acts such as mid-night arrests of opposition leaders, denial of

fundamental freedom, press censorship, and curtailment of individual liberty. At this

time, Jaya Prakash Narayan spearheaded a movement under the banner of Citizens

for Democracy to question the autocratic behaviour of the state. Responding to

these situations, many writers expressed their views on the conflict between

individual aspirations and societal norms and highlighted the need for individual

liberty (Tharoor Millennium, 203). There appeared a perceptible change in the

mood of the society; those who fought united for national freedom, now

wholeheartedly endorsed individual freedom. The litterateurs of this period

intuitively found in The Mahabharata a framing device to capture this momentous

spirit of the people. Consequently there was a surge in the revisits of the epic in

many languages.

Later with the economic liberalisation and globalisation, the focus of Indian

democracy shifted from the principles of a socialistic welfare state (Guha 694). The

economic colonisation in the form of multinational companies entering the Indian

market produced its own repercussions on the Indian society. This allowed free

enterprise and insatiable consumerism among certain sections of the society.

Technological advances in certain sectors took the country from being a developing

nation to becoming an economic power. The downside of this development was the

stark disparities in the economic and power structures. This created a sense of

discontent among the disadvantaged sections, which led to further fragmentation of

society (Guha 698). Arguably, writers of every region represented either sectarian

aspirations of the affected people or the interests of a particular region affected by

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economic reforms. They projected their protagonists as representatives of the

neglected or disadvantaged sections of the society rather than that of the entire

society. The Mahabharata has become a site for the writers to problematise a whole

range of issues such as gender bias, social hierarchy, and the rights of tribals based

on eco centricism. In this context the interest of the littérateurs in translations and

cultural studies increased considerably. Many of the revisits of the epic in regional

languages are translated into other Indian languages as well as English. Through

their revisits of The Mahabharata, writers like Shashi Tharoor, Mahasweta Devi,

comment on the prevalent socio-political scene. Tharoor’s The Great Indian Novel

deals with the realities of the socio-political upheavals during the pre and post

Independence era with special reference to the emergency period. He reworks the

main characters of the epic as symbols representing the political personalities of this

period. The author depends on the readers’ familiarity with the epic story and

characters as well as the socio-political intrigues during the birth of the nation and

the history of its construction. This novel is a mock epic, which provides an insight

into the aspirations of a fledgling democracy with respect to the disparities of power

structures in the post independence days9.

Mahasweta Devi’s Draupadi is a short novel in the form of a journalist’s

report. While in the epic lord Krishna comes to the rescue of Draupadi, there is none

to protect Dopti of this novel. The author brings out the violence unleashed on the

tribal community by oppressive government agencies in a democratic set up. While

these two revisits project the socio-political realities of the twentieth century,

Gurucharan Das in his non-fiction work, The Difficulty of Being Good: On the

Subtle Art of Dharma projects the effect of globalisation through the ethical values

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of the epic. Through this revisit, the author presents insightful analyses on moral,

political and economic issues of the contemporary period and creates greater

awareness among people on the effects of globalisation. A study of the revisits

across time reveals a gradual but definite change in the representation of the main

character as a hero in the classical period to a protagonist in the contemporary

period. Tables 9-12 lists the revisit of The Mahabharata during the Pre-and Post-

Independence periods. It is evident that the representation of the qualities of a hero

or a protagonist is dependent on the socio-politico-cultural stimuli of a particular

period in the history of the nation.

Table 9

Revisits of The Mahabharata in the Pre–Independence Period : English

Name of the Work Author Genre Date The Story of Nala Monier Williams Poetry 1860 The Mahabharata Romesh Chandra Dutt Epic Style 1883-96 Essays on The Mahabharata

Aurobindo Prose 1902-48

Sermista Michael Madhusudhan Dutt

Play 1865

Savitri Toru Dutt Ballad 1878 Buttoo Toru Dutt Poetry 1878 The Mahabharata Kesari Mohan Ganguli Epic Style 1890 Savitri Aurobindo Prose 1941-50 The Story of the Great war Annie Besant Prose 1919 Chitra Rabindranath Tagore Play 1920 Karna Kunti Sambad Rabindranath Tagore Play 1920 Gandhari’s Prayer Rabindranath Tagore Play 1921 Keecaka T.P. Kailasam Play 1930 The Fulfillment T.P. Kailasam Play 1930 The Purpose T.P. Kailasam Play 1944 Karna: The Brahmin’s Curse

T.P. Kailasam Play 1946

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Table 10

Revisits of The Mahabharata in the Post-Independence Period : English

Name of the Work Author Genre Date Mahabharata C. Rajagoplalachari Prose 1952 Yayati V. S. Khandekar Novel 1959 Krishnavatara (in 7 vols.) K. M. Munshi Novel 1962-67 The Mahabharata Kamala Subramaniam Novel 1965 TheChildren’sMahabharata Shanta Rameshwara Rao Novel 1968 The Mahabharata J. A. B. van Buitenen Prose 1973-78 Mahabharata R. K. Narayan Novel 1978 Book on Yudhishthira Buddhadev Bose Trans, Sujit

Mukherjee Novel 1986

The Battle of Kurukshetra Maggi Lidchi-Grassi Novel 1987 The Great Indian Novel Sashi Tharoor Novel 1989 The Legs of the Tortoise Maggi Lidchi-Grassi Novel 1990 Yayati Girish Karnad Play 1994 The Mahabharata Samhita Arni Novel 1996 It is all a Game of Dice Parasuram Ramamoorthy Play 1997 Fire and Rain Girish Karnad Play 1998 Chakraviyuha Ratan Thiyam. Trans. Kavita

Nagpal Play 1998

Vyasa and Vigneswara Anand. (Trans. Shaji Mathew) Novel 2000 Andha Yug Dharmavir Bharati. Trans. Alok

Bhalla Play 2001

The Great Golden Sacrifice of The Mahabharata

Maggi Lidchi-Grassi Novel 2002

Vanaprastham Parasuram Ramamoorthy Play 2002 Madhavi Bhism Sahny, Trans. Alok Bhalla Play 2002 Draupadi Mahasweta Devi (Trans. Bengali) Short Story 2005 After Kurukshetra Mahasweta Devi, Trans. Anjum

Katyal Short Plays 2005

Queens of The Mahabharata Kavita Sharma Novel 2006 Five Lords, Yet None A Protector

Saoli Mitra, Trans. Rita Dutta, Ipshita Chanda and Maushmi Bowmick

Play 2006

Timeless Tales Saoli Mitra, Trans. R. Dutta, I. Chanda and M. Bowmick

Play 2006

The Mahabharata: An Enquiry into Human Condition

Chaturvedi Badrinath Novel 2006

The Women of The Mahabharata

Chaturvedi Badrinath Novel 2008

The Difficuty of Being Good Gurucharan Das Novel 2009 From the Inner Palace Kumudhini (Trans. Ahana

Lakshmi) Essays 2009

Slayer of Kamsa Ashok K. Banker Novel 2010 Jaya Dev Dutt Patnaik Novel 2010

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Table 11

Revisits of The Mahabharata in the Pre- and Post Independence Period: Malayalam, Tamil, Telugu and Kannada

Name of the Work Author Genre Hero Malayalam Achanum Maghalum Vallathol Poetry Sakuntala Karnabhooshanam Ullor Parameswara Poetry Karna Mahabharata Kodungallur K. Thampuran Poetry Entire Epic Telugu Mahabharatamu Sripada Krishnamurthy

Sastry Epic Style Entire Epic

Mahabharata Navaneethamu

Akondi Vyasamurthy Epic Style Entire Epic

Devavrata Charitra Madapalli Venkata Ramanacharyalu

Poetry Bhishma

Nala Charitra Vavilikolunu Subba Rao Poetry Episode, Nala Subhadra Vijayamu Vavilikolunu Subba Rao Poetry Episode, Subhadra Sakuntala Charitramu Vavilikolunu Subba Rao Poetry Episode,Sakuntala Subhadra Parinayamu Sarvaraya Kavi Poetry Episode, Arjuna Pandava Jananamu Pandava Pravasamu Pandava Rajasuyamu Pandava Udyogamu Pandava Vijayamu PandavaAswamedhamu

Tirupathi Venkata Kavulu (Divakarla Tirupati Sastry (1872–1919) and Chellapilla Venkata Sastry)

Drama Six Plays based on the Epic

Tamil Pancali Sabhadam Subramania Bharathiar Poetry Draupadi Cakuntalai Natakam Caminatha Carma Drama Episode, Sakuntala Tamayanthi Pranatharthi Hara Sivanar Drama Episode, Nala Keechaka Vatham C.P. Padmnabha Iyer Drama Episode Keecaka Sampoorna Mahabharatam

M B Siva Shanmukam Pillai

Drama Entire epic

Keecakan CR Namaccivaya Mudaliar Drama Episode, Keecaka Sattiyavan-Savithri Sankaralinga Kavirayar Drama Episode, Savitri Apimanyu V. Saminatha Sarma Drama Episode, Abhimanyu Salya Caritram T.T. Sankaradas Swamigal Drama Episode, Karna Satyavan-Savitri T.T. Sankaradas Swamigal Drama Episode, Savitri Pandava Bhoomi Vali Poetry Entire Epic (3 Vols.) Upapandava S. Ramakrishnan Novel Entire Epic Kurukshetram KR Srinivasa Raghavan Novel Krishna

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Table 12

Revisits of The Mahabharata in the Pre- and Post Independence Era : Hindi, Gujarati, Marathi, Bengali and Odia

Name of the Work Author Genre Hero Hindi Rashmirathi Ramdhari Singh Dinkar Poetry Karna Kurukshetra Ramdhari Singh Dinkar Poetry The Great War Nahusha, Maithili Charan Gupta Poetry Nahusha Uttara se Abhimanyu ki Vidha

Maithili Charan Gupta Poetry Abhimanyu

Jayadrata Vada Maithili Charan Gupta Poetry Arjuna Draupadi Dukula, Maithili Charan Gupta Poetry Draupadi Sakuntala ko Durvasa ka Sapa

Maithili Charan Gupta Poetry Sakuntala

Keecaka ki Neechata Maithili Charan Gupta Poetry Keecaka Kunti aur Karna Maithili Charan Gupta Poetry Kunti Hidimba Maithili Charan Gupta Poetry Hidimba Sairandri Maithili Charan Gupta Poetry Draupadi Vanavibhava Maithili Charan Gupta Poetry Yudhishthira Vakasamhara Maithili Charan Gupta Poetry Bhima Jayabharata Maithili Charan Gupta Poetry Wholie Epic Maithili Panca Kanya Ravindra Poetry Draupadi Nepali Bhima Vijay Anand Poetry Bhima Mahabharata Bhavani Dutta Pande Prose Parts of Epic Nala Damayanthi ko katha

Kedarnath Kathivada Poetry Episode

Mahabharata Kedarnath Kathivada Poetry 16 cantos of epic Baghavad Gita Kedarnath Kathivada Poetry Krishna Sabha & Virata Parva Hemant Kathivada Poetry Epic Episodes Samkshepta Bharata Chakrapani Chalise Poetry Epic in brief Rajastani Manakho Giridhari Sinha Padihar Poetry Subhadra Karuna Bhavini Ramanath Kavaiya Poetry Draupadi Marathi Soubhadra Kirloskar Drama Abhimanyu

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Table 12 (Continued)

Name of the Work Author Genre Type, Hero, Source

Gujarati Kurukshetra Nanalal Poetry About the War Mahabharatano Patro Nrisimha Prasad Kalidas

Bhatt Prose Character

Interpretation Bheeshma Pratigna Harilal Upadhyay Epic Style Entire Epic Vasanta Vijaya Mani Sankar Ratanji Bhatt Poetry Pandu Atijnana Mani Sankar Ratanji Bhatt Poetry Sahadeva Devayani Mani Sankar Ratanji Bhatt Poetry Devayani Mahabharata Fakir Mohana Senapati Poetry Four Parvas Mahayatra Radhanath Poetry Svargaarohana

Parva

Revisits and Translation

Translation as a literary activity was initiated even in the Medieval period,

which was co-temporal with the growth of many regional languages. There has been

a continuing tradition of translation of epics into various Indian languages even in

the contemporary period. The importance of translations can be understood in the

context of the freedom movement. While revisits of the epic offered an excellent site

for many writers to express their ideas, translations played an important role in

bringing together the people of the sub-continent. During colonial rule, western

scholars took keen interest in translating Indian epics and classics into English as

well as compiling dictionaries in various Indian languages. This can be viewed in

multiple ways. For the colonisers, it was an attempt to understand our culture and

reinterpret the same in order to homogenise and control the country. For the

colonised, these translations helped in a most unprecedented manner as vehicles of

communication among themselves. In this context, Monier Williams’ effort in

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preparing the Sanskrit–English dictionary is worth mentioning. He also wrote the

Story of Nala in English during this period. Romesh Chunder Dutt and Kesari

Mohan Ganguli composed the entire Mahabharata in English verse. The epic has

been translated in many languages all over the world. The translation in English by

J. A. B. Van Buitenen, published by Chicago Press in 1973, is the most referred-to

book by scholars.

Revisits and Genre

The Pre- and Post- Independence period witnessed revisits in almost all the

genres of literature. Across all languages, authors adopted many new styles in

poetry, drama and novel. It is relevant to discuss a few significant revisits here.

Aurobindo’s poem Savitri is considered a modern day epic. In this work, he points

out that human spirit is powerful and it alone can counter the evil and master it. He

depicts a beautiful Savitri as adhering to duty, devotion and truth to overcome

hurdles, even that of death. The poet uses the symbolic revisit of The Mahabharata

to expound his faith that the human soul too can emerge victorious through divine

grace and overcome its limitations through spiritual power.

Tagore’s plays reveal a blend of native themes and the English language. His

three plays based on the epic are Chitra, Gandhari’s Prayer and Karna-Kunti

Sambad. These constitute important milestones in Indian Writing in English. Chitra

is a retelling of an episode from the epic. The princess of Manipur, Chitra makes

Arjuna realise that love transcends physical beauty, and that it recognises strength of

character. Tagore has conveyed an important message of women’s power through

this play. Tagore embodied in his character Chitra the idea of evolution of love from

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the physical plane to the spiritual. The other play Gandhari’s Prayer is the study of

the relationship between a mother and her son. Here we find Gandhari, the mother

of Duryodhana, unwilling to compromise on the wicked behaviour of her son.

Tagore has portrayed Gandhari as a strong character full of conviction in her actions.

In the play Karna and Kunti he has depicted Kunti as a great mother. Karna is

portrayed as a philonthrophist. One finds the role of mother and son in both the

plays but with stark differences in the portrayal of their relationships. Tagore

expresses the need for a change in perception of roles (Iyengar I. W. E. 136).

T. P Kailasam, a renowned Kannada playwright, wrote four plays in English

based on the epic. In the play Karna: The Brahmin’s Curse, the author raises many

moral and ethical questions. The author graphically depicts the emotional outbursts

of the protagonist. He reveals how Karna is checkmated by destiny at every turn of

his life. He stands for the binaries, good/evil, valour/vindictiveness, and

magnanimity/meanness. The author introduces an innovative shift when he sums up

the Bhagvad Gita in a few lines just before Arjuna kills Karna. His play Keecaka

portrays an anti-hero, who however, stands for loyalty and love and not for power

and lust as depicted in the epic. Fulfilment is a longer play of the author. The verses

are terse and quite expressive. It is about Ekalavya, a brilliant pupil of Dronacharya

who learnt archery from the image of his preceptor. In this play, when Ekalavya is

about to join the Kauravas, Krishna tries to dissuade him in vain. This leads to a

debate between Ekalavya and Krishna on the priorities in one’s life. This reminds us

of the message of Bhagavad Gita. They argue on man’s duties, the binaries of good

and evil, courage and cowardice. In this play Krishna is represented as both divine

and human. As a prequel to this play, Kailasam wrote another play, The Purpose,

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where he portrays Ekalavya as a strong and intelligent protagonist, who is bound by

his promise to his preceptor (Iyengar I. W. E. 237-8).

Kirloskar wrote Saubadra (Marathi), in which Abhimanyu is the protagonist.

It is a famous dramatic revisit of the time; a well-constructed play, with a realistic

representation of characters. The songs, which form an integral part of the play are

popular among theatre enthusiasts (Deshpande and Rajadhyaksha 67).

In this period, many dramatic revisits in Tamil emerged, which continue to

be popular. Traupati Kalyanam, Aravan Katapali Natakam, Alli Arasanimalai,

Kirutsnan Tootu, Keecaka Samharam, Sakuntala Vilasam were dramatised by

eminent playwrights like Munuswami Mudaliar, Ramachandra Kavirayar,

P.Sambhanda Mudaliar and others. (Perumal 10-18).

In Gujarati, Nrisimhaprasad Kalidas Bhatt alias Nanabhai wrote

Mahabharata-nan Patro in beautiful prose form (Jhaveri 150). This is an

interpretation of some of the greatest characters of the epic. They are written in a

variety of styles, such as narration, dialogues and monologues.

During this period the ornate style subsumed the theme. Many famous

writers contributed to the blossoming of Hindi. Among them Maithili Saran Gupta is

considered a pioneer. He has written many narrative poems like Mahakavyas,

Khandakavyas, lyrics, plays and translations. Two distinct features emerge from the

themes of his poetry. They are the glorification of the past and love for the mother

land. In the year 1909 he wrote many word-pictures or picture-poems. His

Jayadratha-vadha (1910) is based on an episode of The Mahabharata. It comprises

seven cantos. The first canto portrays Arjuna’s son Abhimanyu as a great hero and

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describes his young wife Uttara and the finer sentiments of love between them. This

is one of the most popular poems of the author as it gives a vivid delineation of

characters in a mellifluous and yet forceful language. The Harigitika metre in which

it is set also adds to its popularity. Gupta published his last work, Jaya Bharata

(Khariboli, a dialect of Hindi) in 1952. This revisit is the story of the Kuru clan from

the elevation of King Nahusa to that of the death of Pandavas. The poem is divided

into forty-seven sections. It is composed in different metres each named after the

main event, person or place described therein. Gupta has painstakingly employed

various poetical tools effectively in this masterpiece (Sehgal 44-61).

Ram Dhari Singh Dinkar (Hindi) is honoured as the Rashtra Kavi. His poem,

Kurukshetra is based on the Shanti Parva of the epic. Through this work he

emphasises the view that there can be lasting peace only if human nature changes. In

his poem Rashmirathi, he projects Karna as the victim of circumstances. The

dialogue between Kunti and Karna is of great interest as it projects Karna in a

positive light (Jindal 323). Like the Medieval period, which saw a growth of ornate

poetry in Hindi, the Pre-Indendence period is remarkable for its revisits of The

Mahabharata in poetic form.

In the colonial era, the British and other colonisers evinced interest in Indian

literatures, especially in the Bhagavad Gita and plays like Sakuntalam. Since then

many writers from all over he world as well as India have either translated or

commented upon the Bhagavad Gita. Annie Besant, the leader of ‘home rule

movement’ and a theosophist, in her revisit, The Story of the Great War, has written

about the evils of war. A statesman-scholar, C. Rajagopalachari (Rajaji) translated

the epic in Tamil (Vyasar Virundu ) as fiction in order to educate children of our

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heritage. He later translated this work into English, titled Mahabharata. K. M.

Munshi, in his Preface to this book remarks that, “the book is a romance, telling the

story of heroic men and women and also contains the moral code of life. I hope that

the people of the modern world will find these books useful to understand the

harmonies underlying true culture” (Rajagopalachari 2)

R. K. Narayan wrote a bare outline of the main story of The Mahabharata.

He opines in the introduction to the book that he prefers the story and hence in the

retelling just states the main story. The author points out that the highlight of the

epic is that the author, Vyasa lives with his characters.

The Children's Mahabharata by Shanta Rameswar Rao was published in the

year 1973. Jayaprakash Narayan in his foreword to this book exhorts the parents to

place this book in the hands of children and kindle their interest in our culture. It is

written in a simple flowing style so as to make the reading interesting and easy for

the children. Samhita Arni, a young girl wrote The Mahabharata: A Child's View for

children with illustrations. This reveals the younger generations continuing

engagement with The Mahabharata.

Conclusion

This survey reveals a steady stream of revisits of The Mahabharata since

Bhasa’s times. The revisits are distinguishable by their genre and language. In the

Classical period, Sanskrit drama emerged as the popular genre of revisits.

Dramatists and poets of great renown like Bhasa, Kalidasa, Bharavi, Magha and

Bhattanarayana chose to articulate the silences of the epic. While they retain the

essential nature of the heroes, they offer different representations by adopting

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several strategies: i) introducing new characters and situations, ii) shifting the focus

from the main incidents of the epic and iii) glossing over unacceptable traits and

highlighting noble ones. In their portrayal of epic heroes they innovate without

disturbing the epic equilibrium.

In the Medieval period, during the Mughal reign, Sanskrit lost its prime

position as court language. Nevertheless it was a great influence, mainly because of

its rich literary tradition, and was a key driver to the growth of literature in regional

languages. In the process, regional dialects grew in stature from the mere spoken to

fullfledged literary languages. The Mahabharata was a natural choice for translation

and transcreation in various languages because of the complex situational richness of

the epic. Eminent writers, individually or as groups, recreated the epic in their

languages, and in the process asserted the literary status of their language. In their

endeavour, they innovate new styles to suit their language and cultural context.

Writers like Ezuthachan adopted new metrical forms and styles, which are designed

in a way that common people can appreciate and enjoy these works. The nobles

patronised revisits in order to counter the influence of other religions and also to

preserve the epic and its ideals for posterity.

The synergy among various languages provides the stimuli for new forms of

expression in poetry. Innovative metrical forms like Akhyan and Phagu in Gujarati,

Abhang in Marathi, Raso, and Doha in North Indian dialects facilitate the wide reach

of the epic. Sanskrit literary forms like Champu and Khanda Kavya are adopted in

regional languages. The linguistic skills and aesthetic sensibilities of the authors are

evident through their revisits, as they negotiate between two language forms, one

already established and the other evolving rapidly.

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The diachronic spread of the epics in this period informs the development of

languages and the emergence of different genres. At the spatial level, the regional

culture and folk tradition influence the epic revisits. The authors focus on

individuals instead of a group. In keeping with the spirit of the times, the authors

invest additional attributes, such as sensitivity to their chosen protagonist and project

him/her as the saviour of the community. Episodes involving Arjuna, Bhima, Karna

and Draupadi are repeatedly chosen for dramatic representation. The episode of

Nala-Damayanti is mostly in the form of poetry, as the dominant sentiment of the

erotic is expressed well in this genre.

One discerns a definite pattern in the choice of episodes, protagonists and

type of genres in the revisits from Classical period to the Medieval Period. There are

recognisable deviations in the revisits enabling different representation of epic

heroes. Irrespective of the genres, the authors of the Classical and Medieval periods

adopt Bhasa’s strategies in their revisits to effect changes in characterisation. They

humanise the epic heroes from their semi-divine status and make them popular

among the people. Foreign invasion leading to imposition of alien religion and

culture, and the resistance of the enslaved nation, inspired authors to explore the

glorious past for answers through their revisits of the epic.

The literary tradition saw remarkable changes during the Pre- and Post

Independence era. Due to colonial influence, the intellectuals had access to western

literature and philosophy, which set new paradigms for literary exploration10.

Influenced by the Romantic Movement of English literature, some of the poets like

Vallathol (Malayalam) and Bharathiar (Tamil) fashioned their poetry by judicious

aligning of indigenous folk forms with that of the English verse forms. In the

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Medieval period, the revisits of the epic helped the development of regional

languages. During the period leading up to the Independence of the country, writers

employed revisits of the epic to instil a sense of pride in our cultural past and kindle

patriotic fervour. English served the purpose of communication between various

regions of the nation. In the initial stages of a free democratic country, the writers

projected the theme of social reformation and reconstruction of the nation. They

projected the neglected and marginalised voices and asserted the efficacy of all-

inclusive development of the people. In the post emergency period, the writers

portray the angst of the individual and his conflict with his immediate family and his

environment through their revisits. Anticipating a detailed analysis in the next

chapter, it can be said that there is a gradual shift in the concept of hero, in response

to the socio-politico-cultural stimuli of the periods. The focus of literary activity

shifted from the sacred and elitist to the secular and democratic. Revisits of the epic

echo these changes.

Another fallout of the colonial influence is the emergence of novel as a

popular genre. It is evident from the phenomenal increase in the revisits in this

genre, especially in English. In addition, translation of the revisits into English from

the vernacular is substantial. It is noteworthy that the revisits of The Ramayana were

dominant upto 1970s. This was the period of consolidation of the hard earned

freedom of our country. However political opportunism, combined with economic

liberalisation and globalisation, brought with it an upsurge of new ideas. Revisits of

The Mahabharata offered a suitable medium for expressing these ideas, as the epic

offers multiple entry points and different perspectives. They enabled the

dissemination of cultural values, and the evolution of regional languages. If in the

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Pre-Independence era the revisits helped in integrating people as one nation, in the

Post-Independence era, they helped in the reconstruction of the nation on idealistic

principles. In contemporary times, the epics are used as framing devices to project

and protect the rights and aspirations of the individual as well as the oppressed

sections of society. The role and character of the epic hero, controlled by

deterministic conventions in the earlier period have been transformed to

protagonists, who are secular and democratic with relative values in the

contemporary period. The kaleidoscopic variety of revisits at this present juncture in

various languages reiterates the relevance of The Mahabharata.

The revisits of Classical and Medieval periods affirm the values in the epic.

They nevertheless highlight a need for inclusive social transformation. The revisits

of the epic especially in the twentieth century, reveals the influence of various

reformist movements in social and political spheres. The contemporary revisits

question the practices and values of the epic to sensitise readers about the suppressed

voices in society. In the next chapter, a detailed analysis of a selection of

contemporary revisits of The Mahabharata, is carried out to enable a comparative

study of the ancient and the emerging perspectives of the revisits of the epic.

Notes

1. A comprehensive three part anthology by Sahitya Akademi consisting of

an extensive survey of ancient, Medieval and contemporary Indian literatures

provides an overview. The survey of different literatures contained in these

anthologies indicates the categorisation of periods. However a distinct classification

of Indian literature is yet to emerge (Murthy v-vi)

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2. Royals patronised other art forms like sculpture, painting and music since like

literature, they too leave an indelible impression on the society. These art forms preserve

the epic stories for posterity.

3. Champu is a style in Sanskrit literature that evolved during the Classical period.

It was influenced by the religious literatures of Jains and Buddhists. This form uses

prose and verse alternately. The ornate description subordinates the narrative and so this

form mainly reveals the poets’ literary skills. With the spread of the epics in the

Medieval period, a number of poets experimented with this form. Bhoja’s Ramayana

Champu is a famous example.

4. Agaval is a form of poetry similar to Champu and was popular in Tamil even

during the ancient Sangam period, which is approximately the beginning of the Classical

period.

5. Stylistic Innovations :

i. Prabhandam is a long poem in which the prose is in Sanskrit and verses

are in regional dialects. Structurally this is similar to Champu, except for the

use of two languages. Initially Jain poets adopted this form. It became popular

in Gujarat and Malwa regions. Later, it spread to other regional languages

(Jhaveri 243).

ii. Rasa or Raso is a form used for didactic purposes and has a distinct

metrical style. These compositions are performance oriented. Melody and

rhythm are essential for this form. This is popular among Gujarati and

Rajasthani writers (Jhaveri 242).

iii. Akhyana is a popular form of poetry, innovated by the poet Bhalan

(Gujarati). The distinct metrical forms of the genre lend themselves to oral

exposition of epic stories (Jhaveri 245)

iv. Phagu is in the form of couplets. Each couplet ends with a refrain from

famous Sanskrit classics of Kalidasa, Magha and Rajashekhara. Melody is

important for this form (Jhaveri 242).

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v. Manipravala is a prose form of literature that blends Sanskrit with a

regional language. This style is popular among the literary works of Tamil,

Telugu and Malayalam (Chaitanya Malayalam Literature 76 ).

vi. Kilippattu is a poetic form that blends the intrinsic musicality of the folk

songs, and words from Sanskrit and Malayalam. Ezhuthachan innovated this

homogeneous literary form of narrative poetry (Nair P. K. 67).

6. During the Medieval period a number of poets were well versed in more than

one language. Since Sanskrit was the official language during the Classical period, the

writers of the period adopted it for their literary output. But they also wrote in other

languages, usually that of the region where they hailed from. For example, Rajasekhera

(11th Century BC) wrote plays in both Sanskrit and the dialect of Maharashtri, a

precursor to modern day Marathi. Jayadeva (12th century AD) was well versed in

Bangla as well as Sanskrit. Hemachandra (13th Century AD) wrote in Gujarati and

Sanskrit. Namadeva, a famous Bhakti movement poet could express himself in Hindi,

Punjabi and Marathi (Devy Heroes 150).

7. There are references drawn from the history of literature of various languages

published by Sahitya Akademi. Though the scholar has studied these works in

translation, the critical remarks are made with the socio-political context of that

particular period in mind.

8. Vallathol, Asan and Ullurar were contemporaries poets, belonging to different

communities but came together as fellow freedom fighters. Though their contribution to

Malayalam literature was very individualistic, they drew their inspiration from the epic.

9. The choice of the text is based on the distinct and different perspectives they

offer on the epic. Tharoor’s novel and others mentioned do not necessarily offer this

view.

10. In the colonial period native writers continued their work in their regional

languages as well as in English. They absorbed the literary trends and philosophies of

the West - ideas of freedom and fraternity, Marxism and philosophy of an egalitarian

society to name a few. By revisiting the epics through innovative styles, they sensitised

the common citizens and helped in their participation in the freedom movement.