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CHAPTER-II
INFLECTIONAL PATTERN IN
MODERN STANDARD URDU
Inflection:
The process of adding affixes to the base or root of a
word to determine and limit its grammatical significance.
Inflection is that part of morphology which involves
inflectional affixes. Inflections are bound morphemes. These
are grammatical in nature. It means that they are
grammatically significant morphemes.
This inflectional affixation is not use to produce new
words in Urdu language, they are used only to indicate
aspects of the grammatical function of a word.
Inflection is the reverse of the derivation. The part of
morphology which deals with the process of inflection is
called “Inflectional Morphology”. Inflection morphology is a
major area of morphological studies. Bloomfield referred to
inflection as the outer layer of the morphology of word
forms and derivation as the inner layer. It is the simple
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reason that when we segment a word consisting of both
inflectional and derivational affixes then inflectional come at
the end, and are added when all the derivational and
compositional process are already complete they are always
final in the morpheme groups to which they belong.
Noun-Inflection:
In addition to gender Urdu nouns presents the
distinction of number and case. All the Urdu nouns are
inflected for two numbers i.e. singular and plural and three
cases direct, oblique and vocative.
Number-Inflection:
There are two types of number inflection found in Urdu
language, these are as follows.
(i) Indic
(ii) Perso – Arabic
(i) Indic:
/a/ ending Urdu words in Indic pattern /e/ morph is
Inflected in /a/ ending words of Urdu, by replacing /a/ with
/e/ in direct case, e.g.
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Singular Plural
/ghora/ “horse” /ghore/ “horses”
/ℓarka/ “boy” /ℓarke/ “boys”
In oblique case /õ/shows the plurality by replacing /a/
with /õ/, e.g.
Singular Plural
/ghora/ “horse” /ghorõ/ “horses”
/ℓarka/ “boy” /ℓarkõ/ “boys”
/keℓa/ “banana” /keℓõ/ “bananas”
Words that Ends on consonant:
These words do not inflect for number in direct case, e.g.
Singular Plural
/sa:l/ “year” /sa:l/ “years”
/seb/ “apple” /seb/ “apples”
In oblique case /õ/ and /Yõ/ is only indicate plurality, e.g.
Singular Plural
/aurat/ “woman” /auratõ/ “women”
/mard/ “man” /mardõ/ “men”
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Masculine Words in Urdu that Ends on /i/-
These words do not inflect for number in direct case in
Urdu language, e.g.
Singular Plural
/tabahi/ “destruction” /tabahi/ “destructions”
/gaℓi/ “abuse” /gaℓi/ “abuses”
/maℓi/ “gardener” /maℓi/ “gardeners”
/Yõ/ it is inflected to make plural in /i/ ending
masculine words of Urdu in oblique case, e.g.
Singular Plural
/maℓi/ “gardener” /maℓiyo/ “gardeners”
/tabahi/ “destruction” /tabahiyõ/ “destructions”
Feminine Words in Urdu that Ends on /i/:
Feminine words in Urdu that ends on /i/ have /Ya/ as
a plural inflectional marker in direct case, e.g.
Singular Plural
/kursi/ “chair” /kursiyã/ “chairs”
/sabzi/ “vegetable” /sabziyã/ “vegetables”
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/ℓarki/ “girl” /ℓaŗkiyã/ “girls”
/yõ/ it is inflected in oblique case in all those feminine
words which ends on /i/ to indicate plurality, e.g.
Singular Plural
/kursi/ “chair” /kursiyõ/ “chairs”
/Sabzi/ “Vegetable” /sabziyõ/ “vegetables”
/ℓarki/ “girl” /ℓarkiyõ/ “girls”
Consonant ending feminine words have /e/ as plural
marker in direct case, e.g.
Singular Plural
/aurat/ “woman” /aUrate/ “women”
/ba:t/ “talk” /ba:te/ “talks”
/kita:b/ “book” /kita:be/ “books”
PERSO-ARABIC:
Urdu language has borrowed some of the Perso-Arabic
Process of plural formation in the language and assimilated
in itself.
Suffixing /a:t/
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Suffixation /a:t/ is used in Urdu language for the
formation of plural, e.g.
Singular Plural
/ehsas/ “feeling” /ehsas:at/ “feelings”
/Jawab/ “answer” /Jawaba:t/ “answers”
/xayaℓ/ “thought” /xayaℓa:t/ thoughts
Suffixation of /a/ with certain morpho-phonemic
changes is one of the important way of making plurals in
Urdu language. The use of this process is limited only to
Perso-Arabic words, e.g.
Singular Plural
/4ari:b/ “poor” /4urba/ “poors”
/aℓim/ “Knowlegable” /uℓma/ “knowledgeables”
There are many other Process which have been taken
in Urdu language from Perso-Arabic Sources, the use of
these process is very limited only to Perso-Arabic words,
e.g.
Singular Plural
/hukm/ “Order” /ahka:m/ “orders”
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/ℓafz/ “word” /aℓfa:z/ “words”
/šaxs/ “person” /ašxa:s/ “persons”
/zahir/ “express” /izha:r/ “expresses”
/maqsad/ “purpose” /maqa:sid/ “purposes”
Gender:
A grammatical category which is based on the forms of
nouns, pronouns, adjectives and articles. The traditional
names for grammatical genders are Masculine, Feminine
and Neuter gender, but languages vary in the number of
gender distinctions, different languages have different
genders but Urdu language has two genders: Masculine
(m.) and Feminine (f.). Morphologically gender is presented
by certain suffixes like /a/ is for masculine gender and /i/ is
for feminine gender.
Gender Markers in Urdu:
All Urdu nouns may be divided in to two groups: Those
which are marked for gender is called “marked nouns” and
those which have no special gender suffix are known by the
name “unmarked nouns”.
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Marked-Nouns in Urdu:
Those nouns which ends with the masculine gender
suffixes like /a/ is masculine, e.g.
/bačča/ “male child”
/ℓarka/ “boy”
But on the other hand nouns ending with the feminine
gender suffixes like /i/ is feminine, e.g.
/bačči/ “female child”
/ℓarki/ “girl”
Unmarked-Nouns in Urdu:
Those nouns which do not end in the above mentioned
gender suffixes are called unmarked, e.g.
/ghar/ “house” (mas)
/kursi/ “chair” (fem)
It has been mentioned that gender is presented by
certain suffixes like /a/ is for masculine and /i/ is for
feminine gender. It can be illustrated by the following
example.
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/a/ changes into /i/ for feminine gender, e.g.
Masculine Feminine
/bačča/ “male child” /bačči/ “female child”
/ghora/ “horse” /ghori/ “mare”
/bakra/ “he goat” /bakri/ “she goat”
Consonant ending Masculine words changes into /ni/ for
feminine gender, e.g.
Masculine Feminine
/mo:r/ “peacock” /mo:rni/ “pea-hen”
(male bird) (female bird)
/Šer/ “lion” /šerni/ “lioness”
/i/ ending Masculine words changes into /an/ for feminine
gender, e.g.
Masculine Feminine
/dhobi/ “washerman” /dhoban/”washer woman”
/bhišti/ “waterman” /bhištan/ “water woman”
/maℓi/ “gardener”(male) /maℓan/”gardener” (female)
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Urdu masculine nouns of Perso-Arabic Origin take /a/
for feminine gender, e.g.
Masculine Feminine
/hamid/ /hamida/
“name of a male person” “name of a female person”
/vaℓid/ “father” /vaℓida/ “mother”
Case:
A grammatical category of a noun, or similarly infected
word such as a pronoun or adjective, indicating its
relationship to other words in a sentence. This category
applies to nouns and pronouns only. Certain adjectives and
adverbs are also marked by this category for oblique
singular. This category is tightly connected with number
category. The number of cases in different languages varies
from one language to another. For example Urdu has three
cases, these are as follows:
(i) Direct
(ii) Oblique
(iii) Vocative
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Like gender and number Urdu nouns also inflect for
case. Description of case inflection of Urdu nouns is given
below, e.g.:
Direct Oblique Vocative
Singular /bačča/”child” /bačče/”children” /baččo/”children”
Plural /bačče/”children” /baččo/”children” /baččo/”children”
(i) /a/ ending masculine nouns, e.g.:
/a/ ending masculine nouns of Urdu take /õ/ in oblique
case and /o/ in vocative case, e.g.
Direct/Singular Oblique/Plural Vocative
/keℓa/ “banana” /keℓo/ “bananas” /keℓo/ “bananas”
/ℓarka/ “boy” /ℓarkõ/ “boys” /ℓarko/ “boys
Consonant ending masculine nouns:
Consonant ending masculine nouns of Urdu take /õ/ in
oblique case and /o/ in vocative case, e.g.
Direct/Singular Oblique/Plural Vocative
/peheℓwan/
“strong person”
/peheℓwa:nõ/
“strong persons”
/peheℓwa:no/
“strong persons”
/bahadur/ “brave person”
bahadurõ/ “brave persons”
/bahaduro/ “brave persons”
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/i/ ending masculine noun:
/i/ ending masculine nouns of Urdu take /yõ/ in oblique
case and /o/ in vocative case, e.g.
Direct/Singular Oblique/Plural
Vocative
/bhišti/
“waterman”
/bhištiyõ/
“watermen”
/bhištiyo/
“watermen”
/maℓi/
“gardener”
/maℓiyõ/
“gardeners”
/maℓiyo/
“gardeners”
/i/ ending feminine nouns of Urdu take /yõ/ in oblique
case and /yo/ in vocative case, e.g.
Direct/Singular Oblique/Plural Vocative
/maℓi/
“gardener”
/maℓiyo/
“gardeners”
/maℓiyo/
“gardeners”
/ℓ∂rk i/
“girl”
/ℓ∂rk iyo/
“girls”
/ℓ∂rk iyo/
“girls”
Consonant ending feminine nouns:
Consonant ending feminine nouns in Urdu take /o/ in
oblique case and /o/ in vocative case, e.g.
Direct/Singular Oblique/Plural Vocative /sabzi/
“vegetable” /sabziyõ/
“vegetables” /sabziyo/
“vegetables”
/aurat/ “woman"
/aUrtõ/ “women”
/aUrto/ “women”
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PRONOUNS:
A pronoun is used as a substitute for a noun or a noun
phrase. In other words, it has all the characteristics of a
noun: it can function as a subject/object/complement in a
sentence.
A pronoun is used to avoid the repletion of nouns or
noun phrases:
(i) Ahmad went to the market because Ahmad wanted to
buy a book. i.e. Ahmad went to the market because
he wanted to buy a book.
(ii) Walking is a form of exercise. Walking is easier than
swimming. i.e. Walking is a form of exercise. It is
easier than swimming.
Thus, in grammar a part of speech used instead of a
noun is called pronouns. Pronouns are inflected for number,
gender and case like nouns, generally pronons do not inflect
for vocative case. Pronouns have two case forms direct and
oblique, and two numbers singular as well as plural.
Pronouns can be classified into first, second and third
person on the basis of person distinction. But on the other
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hand there is no distinction between masculine and
feminine genders in Urdu pronouns. The same pronoun is
use both for „he‟ and „she‟. Although there is a distinction
between proximate and distant in the third person. In Urdu
there is a distinction between /he/ /she/ and /it/ which is
near or close at hand, and /he/ /she/ and /it/ which is at a
distance or far. Pronouns can be classified into the following
classes.
Kinds of pronouns:
(i) Personal-Pronouns
(ii) Demonstrative-Pronouns
(iii) Reflexive-Pronouns
(iv) Interrogative-Pronouns
(v) Reduplicative-Pronouns
(vi) Relative and Co-relative Pronouns
(vii) Quantitative and Numerative Pronouns
(viii) Indefinite-Pronouns
(ix) Possessive-Pronouns
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(i) Personal Pronouns:
I, we, you, he, she, it, they
These seven pronouns are called personal pronouns.
On the basis of their role in a speech act, these can be
divided into three:
First Person, Second Person, Third Person
The following table shows the Urdu personal pronouns
for number and persons.
Singular Nominative Oblique
1st Person /me/ “I” /mujhe/
2nd Person /tu/ “you” /tujhe/
3rd Person /vo/ “he, she, it”
/ye/ “he, she, it”
/us/
/is/
Plural Nominative Oblique
1st person /ham/ “we” /ham/
2nd person /tum/ “you” /tum/
/a:p/ “you” /a:p/
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3rd person /vo/ “they” /un/
/ye/ “they” /in/
There are three second person pronouns: /tu/ /tum/
and /a:p/ these pronouns have use differently. When we
use /tu/ it is very intimate, /tum/ is non-honorific and /a:p/
is honorific.
Pronouns of Urdu do not distinguish gender. Gender is
shown by other words, such as adjective or verb ka/ki.
(ii) Demonstrative-Pronouns:
This,that, these, those
They are used to point to (demonstrate) people or
things they stand for:
(i) This is our new car.
(ii) That is his new bicycle.
Demonstrative pronouns have number contrast:
This - these
That - those
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The basic function of demonstratives is to indicate the
nearness or distance of the person or object referred to,
from the speaker.
Some of the uses of demonstrative pronouns are:
(a) when pointing:
(i) This is my sister Amna.
That is her new car.
(b) When a specific category is implied
Those who apply late will not be considered.
(c) When there is a reference to a previous
statement or a statement that follows
(i) This is what I told them.
(ii) That is my personal view on the matter.
Difference between it and this
It is a personal pronoun, but this is a demonstrative
pronoun. As a demonstrative pronoun this indicates
nearness and also identifies a peson or thing. The use of it
does not convey these shades of meaning, so this is
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preferred to it for making a formal announcement or
introduction:
(i) This is NDTV giving you the news, ( not, it)
(ii) Dad, this is Akasha, my friend . (not, it)
In an answser, however, “it” is preferred to “this”
when a contracted from is used.
Q. What‟s this?
Ans. It‟s a new car. (not, this)
But when a contracted form is not used, this is okay.
Q. What is this?
Ans. This is a new car.
In Urdu /ye/ “this” and /vo/ “that” are demonstrative
pronouns. The demonstrative-pronoun /ye/ “this” refer to
some one or some thing which is near or close at hand, the
demonstrative pronoun /vo/ “that” refers to some one or
some thing which is not close or far away.
Urdu demonstrative pronouns can be divided into two
categories “proximate” and “remote”. The third person
pronoun vo/ye is used in Urdu as demonstrative pronoun.
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Direct Oblique
Proximate /ye/ “This” /is/ “This”
Remote /vo/ “That” /us/ “That”
/ye/ and /vo/ these demonstrative pronouns are used
in direct case. /is/ and /us/ are commonly used in oblique
case.
Demonstrative pronouns /ye/ and /is/ is used for
proximate things, and for remote things we use /vo/ and
/us/.
(iii) Reflexive-Pronouns:
A reflexive pronoun is formed by attaching self/selves
to the objective form of the pronoun:
myself, ourselves, yourself/selves, himself, herself,
themselves, itself.
(a) A reflexive pronoun is used as a substitute for a
noun in the objective case i.e., as a direct object:
Ahmad saw Ahmad in the mirror.
Ahmad saw himself in the mirror.
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There is no need to repeat Ahmad ……Ahmad again
and again because it will become awkward
construction.
A reflexive pronoun is used when the subject and
the object refer to the same person or thing. This
can be seen from the agreement between the
subject and the reflexive object:
(i) She hurt herself while playing.
(ii) She taught herself the gitar.
(iii) You sent yourself a new year greeting.
In Urdu the possessive adjective /apna/ “one‟s own” is
use for the possessive forms of personal pronouns when the
subject of the sentence shows the possession on the object.
In Urdu language /a:p/ “oneself” is a reflexive pronoun which s
use for both singular and plural, e.g.
/sajid apni kita:b parh raha he/
“Sajid is reading his book”
/me usta:d se miℓuga/
“I will meet to the teacher myself”
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(iv) Interrogative-Pronouns:
who, whose, which, what
The forms of relative pronouns and the interrogative pronouns
are identical, but their functions are different: the former join
clauses, the latter ask questions.
(a) who can come as the subject or as the object in a clause.
Here who refers only to persons, not to things.
(b) Whose is the possessive form of who: it can stand for
both animate and inanimate nouns in interrogative
expressions.
(c) Which is used for both people and things when there is
an implied choice or selection.
(d) What as subject or object is used to refer to things only:
Interrogative may also be define as a verb form or sentence
which is one way of expressing a question.
Urdu has alot of interrogative pronouns like /kab/,
/kaun/, /kaise/, /kaunsa/, /kitna/, /kitni/, /kitne/, /kyo/,
these pronouns come under the category of Interrogative
Pronouns. Some more interrogative pronouns are given
below:
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/kaun/ “who” /kab/ “when” /kaise/ “how”
/kiya/ “what” /kaunsa/“which” /kitna,kitni,kitne/“how much
The last two decline for gender and number. /kitna/
declines for gender whereas /kaunsa/ decline for both
gender and number, e.g.
/Kitna rupiya he/ “how much money”? (mas, singular)
/kitne rupiye he/ “how much money”? (mas, plural)
/kitni mez he/ “how many tables”? (fem, singular)
/kitni meze he/ “how many tables”? (fem, plural)
(v) Reduplicative-Pronouns:-
Reduplication is that process which is commonly found
in Urdu. The Urdu pronouns are also reduplicated in certain
situations. For example the interrogative pronouns are
frequently reduplicated when choise is among many.
/kaun kaun si mezế he/
/kaise kaise insa:n hote he/
/kis kis ne khana kha ℓiya/
/kiya kiya karna Parta he/
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Relative and Corelative Pronouns:
who, whom, which, what, that
A relative pronoun relates sentences with other
sentences. It also joins clauses. So it is a pronoun as well
as a conjunction. Relative pronouns introduce relative
clauses and noun clauses:
(i) I don’t know who is standing at the outside.
(ii) Those who live in glass houses shouldn’t throw stones.
Which is used also as a sentence relative pronoun to
introduce the relative clause in a s sentence:
The eat crab which is unusual.
But on the other hand /jo/ is the relative pronoun in
Urdu. The corelative is some time expressed by /vo/. /jo/
has alternative forms such as /jis/ and /jin/ these forms are
both use for singular and plural, e.g.
Singular Plural
/jis jisne/ /jo jin hone/
/jiske jise/ /jinko jinhe/
/jis se/ /jin se/
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The relative pronouns of Urdu has the following
alternative forms for both singular and plural, e.g.
Singular Plural
/jo jisne/ /jo jinhõ ne/
/jis ko jise/ /jinko jinhế/
/jis se/ /jin se/
/jin me/ /jin me/
(vii) Quantitative and Numerative Pronouns:
In Urdu /jitna, jitne, jitni/ “how much”, “how many”
are used for the Quantitative Pronouns, these forms have
also the corresponding correlative forms like /utna utne,
utni/ “that much”.
The interrogative corresponding Pronouns are:
/kitna, kitne, kitni/ “how much”
Mas/Sing Mas/Plu Fem. Sing/Plu
Quantitative /jitna/ /jitne/ /Jitni/ “how much”
Numerative /itna/ /itne/ /itni/ “this much”
Interrogative /kitna/ /kitne/ /kitni/ “how much”
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(viii) Indefinite-Pronouns:
A pronoun which does not refer to a definite person or
thing, e.g. anybody, anything, something, nobody, etc. In
other words we can say that the Pronouns which do not
show any definiteness may be called as indefinite Pronouns.
(a) Universal pronouns:
each, every, all
Each refers to two or more people or things, whereas
every refers to three or more.
Seema came into the house and gave a chocolate to
everyone (not, each)
All can occur immediately before a noun. Therefore it
is more like a determiner. At times a definite article can
intervene between all and the noun.
(i) All the boys want to play cricket.
(ii) each of you should attend the party.
(iii) every one of them came to my house to attend the
grand function.
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In Urdu these pronouns do not decline for gender and
number. In Urdu language /koi/ is used both as a pronoun
and an adjective. As a pronoun, it means, “some one”, “any
one”. If the sentence is negative, it means “no one”, e.g.
/koi/
/ghar par koi he?/ ”There is anyone in the house?”
Negative sense:
/ghar par koi nahi he/ “No one is at home”
/kai/ “many” /kai ℓarke aye/ “many boys came”
/koi/ “any” /koi gaya/ “anyone has gone”
/kučh/ “some” /kučh ℓarke aye/ “few boys came “
/čand/ “some” /čand ℓarke aye/ “some boys came”
(ix) Possessive-Pronouns:-
my, our, your, his, her, their, is (determiners)
mine, ours, yours, his, hers, theirs, its (predicative use)
They are used to express ownership/possession/
relationship.
Determiners are followed by a noun.
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This is my pen.
The possessive pronoun in its predicative use cannot
be followed by a noun.
We don‟t say:
This is mine pen.
We say:
The pen is mine.
Thus, these pronoun shows the Possession. Urdu
possessive pronouns are as follows:
Mas/Sing Fem/Sing
/mera waℓa/ “my one” /meri waℓi/ “my one”
Urdu has /waℓa/ or /waℓi/. added before personal
pronouns and common nouns.
Adjectives:- Adjective may be define as a part of speech
used to describe or qualify a noun, or in other words an
adjective says something more about a noun. Here
adjectives qualify nouns in Urdu. Urdu Adjectives can be
categorized into two forms inflected and uninfected forms.
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Inflected Forms of Adjectives:
In Urdu, inflected adjectives includes all the adjectives
ending with /a/ for number and gender. However, there are
few exceptions like /umda/ and /barhiya/, adjectives like
/bara/, /čhota/, /aččha/, /ℓamba/, /u:ča/ these inflect for
number and gender, e.g.
Mas/Sing Mas/Plu Fem/Sing Fem/Plu
/bara/ “elder” /bare/“elders” /bari/“elder” /barõ/“elders”
/čhota/“younger” /čhote/“youngers” /čhoti/“younger” /čhoto/ “youngers”
Plural forms are sometimes used in place of subject
then they governed by case also, e.g.
Direct Oblique
Mas/Sing Mas/Plu Mas/Sing Mas/Plu
/bara/”elder /bare/”elders” /bare/”elder”
/barõ/“elders”
Fem/Sing Fem/Plu Fem/Sing Fem/Plu
/bari /”elder” /bari /”elders” /bari//”elder”
bariyõ//”elders”
/baro ne kaha he/ “The elders have said”
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Un-Inflected Forms of Adjectives:
Uninflected forms of adjectives do not inlfect for
gender and number in Urdu. These adjectives ends on
consonants with long vowels. For example /i/, /xu:bsurat
bačči/ “beautiful girl”.
Types of Adjectives
Urdu Adjectives can be classified into four classes on
the basis of their classification.
(i) Qualitative Adjectives/Adjective of Quality:-
An adjective of quality shows some quality of a noun.
Here an adjective qualify the noun and preceeds the head it
may be termed as qualitative adjective, e.g.
/čaℓak ℓarka/ “clever boy”
/čaℓak ℓarki/ “clever girl”
/ima:nda:r ℓarka/ “honest boy”
/ima:nda:r ℓarki/ “honest girl“
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Some more examples are as follows:
Black, white, long, short
Good, bad, hot, cold
They describe the the shape, or size, or colour etc. of
aperson or thing.
(i) Sita is black.
(ii) She is good in nature.
(iii) Today is a hot day.
(ii) Quantitative Adjectives:-
An adjective of quantity shows that how much of a
thing is meant. Quantitative adjective gives the sense of
number, e.g.
/sari duka:n/ “whole shops”
/kai gae/ “many cows”
/čand bačče/ “some children”
/das mezế/ “ten tables”
(iii) Pronominal Forms:-
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Pronominal forms of Urdu come under the category of
adjective as they qualify the Urdu nouns, e.g.
/meri kaupi/ “my copy”
/mere kapre/ “my cloths”
/tumhara ghar/ “your house”
/hamara šehar/ “our city”
/mere čand aččhe kapre/ “my few good cloths”
(iv) The Demonstrative Adjectives:-
The demonstrative adjective of Urdu qualify the noun.
Urdu demonstrative adjectives consisting of /ye/this and
/vo/ that, e.g.
/ye ℓarki/ “This girl”
/vo ℓarka/ “That boy”
/ye mere čand aččhe kapre/ “These my few good cloths”
Some Other Categories of Adjectives:-
There are some other categories of adjectives which
are commonly used in Urdu.
1. Imperfect or present participle form of adjectives.
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2. Perfect or past participle form of adjectives.
3. Universal or agentive participle form of adjectives.
(i) Imperfect or Present Participle Form of
Adjective:
It is formed by adding /ta/ or /tahua/ to the root of
the verb, e.g.
/behta hua pani/ “Flowing water”
(ii) Perfect or Past Participle Form of Adjective:-
Perfect or past participle is formed by adding /a/ or
/ahua/ to the root of the verb, e.g.
/pita hua bačča/ “beaten baby”
(iii) Universal or Agentive Participle Form of
Adjectives:
The Agentive Participle is formed by adding /wala/ to
the infinitive of the verb. It is commonly used in Urdu, e.g.
(i) /ane waℓa mard/ “coming male”
(ii) /ane waℓi aurat / “coming woman”
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(iii) /ane waℓe mard/ “coming males”
Degrees of Adjective:-
Urdu language has borrowed a number of words from
various languages the concept of degrees has also been
borrowed from Perso-Arabic sources, e.g.
/tar/ and /tari:n/ these words gives the sense of
comparative and superlative degrees, and borrowed from
Perso-Arabic sources. In Urdu there are three degrees of
adjectives.
Degrees of Comparison:
A significant formal feature of adjectives is that they
can be graded. This is known as degrees of comparison.
There are three degrees of comparison:
Positive Comparative Superlative
tall taller tallest
big bigger biggest
short shorter shortest
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(i) Positive Degree:
It is used when no comparison is involved for example
adjective like, e.g.
/ℓamba/ “tall”
/bahadur/ “brave”
/ami:r/ “rich”
/čaℓak/ “clever”
/jawan/ “young”
/mota/ “thick”
/umda/ “good”
/umda ghar/ “good house”
(ii) Comparative degree:-
When comparing two objects or persons and saying
that one possesses a certain quality in a greater degree
than the other, then we use the comparative form of the
adjective. Simply we can say that it is used when two
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objects or persons are compared, or an adjective in
comparative degree is normally followed by than:
(i) Ram is taller than Rajiv.
(ii) She is older than him.
(iii) This photograph is more beautiful than that one.
But on the other hand in Urdu the morpheme /tar/ is
the addition and it indicates the comparison between two
items, e.g.
/kam + tar/ = /kamtar/ “inferior”
/bad + tar / = /badtar/ “worse”
/xu:b + tar/ = /xu:btar/ “very good”
/mi:na: ra:na: se ℓambi he/ “Meena is taller than Rana”
(iii) Superlative Degree:-
It denotes the highest degree of quality and it is used
when we compare more than two people or things. For
example:
(i) This is the best park of all.
(ii) This is the oldest temple in India.
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(a) in this construction we can‟t use,
all other, any other, anyone else, anybody else,
anything else.
not she is the tallest of any other girls.
(b) of is used with people or things and in and on
with place:
(i) She is the best of the students.
(ii) He is the famous man in the town.
(a) the is obligatory before the superlative form of
the adjective.
(i) June is the hottest month.
(ii) Mathematics is the most difficult subject to learn.
(d) However, most is used in the following without a
definite article. Here it is not a superlative.
(i) Shahid is most unhappy. (meaning, very
unhappy)
(ii) This is a most interesting novel (meaning, very
interesting)
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But on the other hand in Urdu a Suffixation of
morpheme /tari:n/ gives the sense of superlative degree in
Urdu, e.g.
/hasi:n +tari:n/ = /hasi:ntari:n/ “most beautiful”
/beh+tari:n/ = /behtari:n/ “best”
/gi:ta kℓa:s me sabse ℓambi ℓarki he/
“Geeta is the tallest girl in the class”
Verb:- A verb is a word or phrase indicating an action,
event, or state, e.g.
(i) She teaches us mathematics. - action
(ii) The accident happened at night. - event
(iii) She is in poor condition. - state
The verb is the most important part of a sentence. It is
obligatory even in the shortest of sentences.
Verb Structure:- Structurally a verb may have one of the
following Syllabic Structure in Urdu
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Mono-Syllabic
V /a/
Cv /ga/ /la/ /ja/
“to sing” “to bring” “to go”
Vc /uth/ /ur/ /ugh/
“getup” “to fly” “to grow”
Cvc /thu:k/ /de:kh/ /mo:r/
“spitten” “to see” “peacock”
Cvcc /dhund/ /qism/ /gard/
“mist” “kind” “dust”
Bisyllabic:
VCV /aja/ “to come”
CVCV /buℓa/ “to call”
CVCCV /tukra/ “Piece”
CVCVC /ℓ∂tak/ “falling down”
CVCVC /pahũč/ “reach”
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Transitive and Intransitive verbal stem:- Urdu verbs
are of two types. Transitive and Intransitive.
Transitive Verbs: A Transitive verb is that verb which
requires an object to complete it’s sense,e.g.
/ha:mid a:m kha: raha he/ “Hamid is eating mango”
Intransitive Verbs:
An intransitive verb is that verb which does not
require an object to complete its sense, but makes a good
sense by itself, e.g.
/hamid so raha he/ “Hamid is sleeping”
These stem can be further classified under the
category of causative and double causative.
Intransitive Verbal Stem:-
Intransitive Causative Double Causative
/taℓ/ /taℓa/ /taℓwa/
/so/ /suℓa/ /suℓwa/
/mor/ /mora/ /murwa/
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Transitive-Verbal Stem:-
Intransitive Transitive Causative Double
Causative
/čaℓ/ /čaℓ/ /čaℓa/ /čaℓwa/
/dab/ /dab/ /daba/ /dabwa/
Verb Stems from Nouns and Adjectives:
Besides, above mentioned discussions verb stem is
also formed by suffixing /a:na/ and /karna/ to certain noun
and adjective forms, e.g.
/a:na/
/gir+a:na/ = gira:na
/dab+a:na/= dabana
/Karna/
/siℓai + karna/ = siℓlaikarna
/pitai+ karna/ = pitai karna
Verbal Bases:
Urdu verbal bases can be classified into the following
four classes.
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The Root:- Roots are the Primary base from which tense
forms are formed, e.g.
/a:/ “to come”
/ℓa:/ “to bring”
/ga:/ “to sing”
The Imperfect Base:- The imperfect base is formed by
adding /ta,te,ti, and ti/ ending forms are regarded as
imperfect base.
/lata, late, lati, lati/ “to bring”
The Perfect Base:
It is formed by /a, e, i and i / to the root of the verb.
Certain morpho-Phonemic changes are also occurred, e.g.
/ℓ∂r + a/ = ℓ∂ra = quarrel/sing/mas.
/ℓ∂r + e/ = ℓ∂re = quarrel/plu/mas.
/ℓ∂r + i/ = ℓ∂ri = quarrel/sing/fem.
/ℓ∂r + i/ = ℓ∂ri = quarrel/plu/fem.
Infinitive Base:-
It is formed by the addition of / na:, nes, ni/ to the root
of the verb, e.g.
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/a:na:/ “to come”
/rone / “to weep”
/parhni/ “to read”
Inflectional Categories of Urdu Verb:-
Urdu verbs have the categories for Person, number,
gender, tense, mood and aspect.
Suffixation for Number and Gender:-
The Urdu verb form agrees in gender and number with
the subject, e.g.
/gaya:/ “went” Mas/sing perfect
/gaye/ “went” Mas/plu perfect
/gayi:/ “went” Fem/sing. perfect
/gayi / “went” Fem/Plu perfect
/ga:ta:/ “sings” Mas/sing imperfect
/ga:te/ “sings” Mas/plu imperfect
/ga:ti:/ “sings” Fem/sing. imperfect
/ga:ti/ “sings” Fem/plu imperfect
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Mood:
Gramatical description in verb forms which express a
speaker’s attitudes to what he is saying may be called as
mood. There are four types of mood in Urdu language which
is discussed below:-
(i) Indicative Mood:
In indicated mood the verbal stem is further classified
into three classes. These three classes are as follows:-
/boℓta:/ /boℓte/ /boℓti/ .
Mas/Sing. Mas/Plu. Fem/Sing. Fem/Plu.
/boℓta:/ /boℓte/ /boℓti/ /boℓti/ Imperfect
/boℓa:/ /boℓe/ /boℓi/ /boℓi/ Perfect
/boℓraha:/ /boℓrahe/ /boℓrahi/ /boℓrahi/ Progressive
Infinitive Mood:
The infinitive mood is marked by the infinitive marker
/na/ Infinitive mood shows number, gender, and agreement
with nouns, e.g.
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Singuar Plural
Mas. /pehna/ /pehne/
Fem. /pehni/ /pehni/
(iii) Optative-Mood:
Optative mood shows number and person distinction.
It can be illustrated by the following examples:
Singular Plural
Ist Person /ja:ũ/ “let me go” /ja:e/”let us go”
IIndPerson /ja:/ “go” /ja:o/ “go”
IIIrdPerson /ja:e/ “let him go” /ja:e/ “let them go”
(iv) Imperative-Mood:
In imperative mood the verbal stem agree with the
second Person Pronominal form and marked by honorific
and non-honorific expressions, e.g.
/kha:/ non-honorific “you eat”
/kha:o/ non-honorific “you eat”
/kha:iye/ honorific “You please eat”
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Voice:
Voice refers to the form of the verb that indicates
whether the doer of an action is the subject or object in a
sentence.
Akbar ate an apple (subject)
An apple was eaten by Akbar (object)
Voice change involves three major changes:
i. It changes the functions of the subject and the
object.
ii. It changes the position of subject and object.
iii. It changes the form of the verb.
But it does not change the basic meaning of a
sentence, so it is a kind of transformation that alters the
grammatical functions of the constituents.
Voice is of two kinds:
i. Active voice
ii. Passive voice
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(i) Active Voice:
A verb is in the form of active voice when the
grammatical subject and the doer/ agent are the same
person or thing:
Sita wrote a story.
Here Sita is the grammatical subject of the sentence.
Sita is also the doer because it was she who wrote the
story; so here the subject and the doer are the same.
(ii) Passive Vocice:
A verb is the form of passive voice when the
grammatical subject and the doer are different:
A story was written by Sita.
Here, a story is the grammatical subject of the
sentence but the doer is Sita, because the action (writing)
was performed by Sita, so here the subject the doer/agent
are different.
Since the active object has to become the passive
subject in the passive voice, intransitive verbs are always in
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the active voice. It is only transitive verbs that can be put
into the passive voice.
Auxiliaries in Urdu:
Auxiliaries are used primarily to show whether an
action is complete, habitual or continuous. Auxiliaries are
also used in negation, interrogatives and emphatic
statements. They are used in short answer to avoid the
repetition of words, e.g.
(i) Q. Do you like meat?
Ans. Yes, I do./No, I don‟t.
(ii) Q. Can you do this work?
Ans. Yes, I can./No, I can‟t.
But son the other hand Urdu verbs are conjugated in
some forms by adding the tense marker to the root along
with the auxiliaries. The forms of /ho/ can be shown in
different tenses which are as follows:-
Present /he/ /he/ /ho/ /hũ/ Numb. & gen
Past /tha:/ /the/ /thi/ /thi/ Numb. & gen
Future /hoga:/ /hoge/ /hoge/ hogi/ Numb. & gen.
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Tense:
Tense may be define the use of different verb forms in
relation to time and action. In other words, the grammatical
term that serves as a marker/indicator of the form of a
verb. In Urdu the verb stems do not always inflect for
tense, and it is marked for both auxiliaries as well.
Tense from the Imperfect Participle:-
Imperfect participle is used to denote indefinite tense, e.g.
/me ga:ta: hu/ “I sing”.
Imperfect Participle Plus Present auxiliaries Plus /ta:/ form
is used for Present imperfect, e.g.
/me ga:ta: hũ/ “I sing”.
Imperfect Participle Plus auxiliaries is used for past perfect,
e.g.
/me ga:ta: tha:/ “I used to sing”.
Imperfect verb form /ta:/form +/ho/ form with future tense
is used for Present Imperfect form. e.g.
/vo karta hoga:/ “he would do”.
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Base of the verb + /ta:/ + /ho/ form is used in contingent
imperfect form, e.g.
/koi ja:ta: ho/ “any one goes”.
Tenses from Perfect participle:- Indefinite perfect (Simple
Past):
Indefinite perfect (simple past). Perfect participle it
self is used as the indefinite perfect (Past indefinite or
simple past tense), e.g.
/čaℓa: gaya:/ “has gone”
Verb form + /a:ya: and a:yi/ form is
Used for indefinite Perfect tense (simple Past), e.g.
/roya:/ “wept”/m
/royi/ “wept”/f
/gaya:/ “went”/m
/gayi/ “went”/f
Present Perfect:-
Present perfect is used to refer to an activity or
experience which has occurred in the past and it expresses
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the completion of an action by the time speaking or writing,
e.g.
Ananya has finished her work last week.
In Urdu Verb form + /a:+ he/ form is used for Present
Perfect, e.g.
/a:ya: he / “has come”
Past Perfect:
Past perfect is used to report an action or event that
happened before, e.g.
The train had left when we got to the station.
In Urdu Verb form+/a:ya:+tha:/ is used for Past Perfect,
e.g.
/a:ya: tha: / “had come”
Contingent Perfect:-
Verb form + /a:+hũ/ continuous form is used for contingent
perfect, e.g.
/me čaℓa: hu/ “I have walked”
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Presumptive Perfect: Verb+/a:+ho/ future tense is used for
Presumptive Perfect, e.g.
/vo a:ya: hoga:/ “he would have come”
Past Contingent Perfect:- Verb+/a:+ho+ta:/ is used for Past
Contingent Perfect, e.g.
/Kha:ya: hota:/ “he would have eaten”.
Tenses from the root of the verb:
Imperative: Verb form + /o/ + /iye/ is used for imperative,
e.g.
/baith, betho, bethiye/ “sit down”
Absolute Future (Simple Future):-
It is used to express a future activity or completion of
an action by a given time in future.
Verb form + future +/a:/ is used for absolute future
/kheℓega:/ “he will Play”
Present continuous:- Verb form + raha + he Present tense
is used for Present continuous
/vo kha: raha: he/ “he is eating”
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Past Continuous:- Verb form +raha+tha Past form is used
for Past continuous, e.g.
/vo so raha: tha:/ “he was sleeping”
Presumptive Continuous: Verb form + raha + hoga. Future
form is used for Presumptive continuous, e.g.
/vo Kha: raha: hoga:/ “he would be eating”
Tenses from the Infinitive
Infinitive obligative (directive): Infinitive itself function as
the form, used with the second person only, e.g.
/itna: na Kheℓna:/ “don‟t play somuch”
Obligative Forms:
Present Obligative:
Infinitive +he form is used for Present Obligative, e.g.
/a:na: he / “have to come”
/jana: he/ “have to go”
Past Obligative: Infinitive + tha form is used for Past
Obligative, e.g.
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/gana: tha:/ “had to sing”
/Parhni thi/ “had to read”
Contingent Obligative: Infinitive + ho form is used for
contingent obligative, e.g.
/a:na: ho / “may have to come”
/ja:na: ho / “may have to go”
Presumptive Obligative:- Verb form+hoga: is used for
Presumptive Obligative, e.g.
/a:na: hoga:/ “will have to come”
/kha:na: hoga:/ “will have to eat”
Past Contingent Obligative:-
Verb form+ ho+a: form is used Past Contingent
Obligative, e.g.
/a:na: hota:/ “has to come”
/ja:na: hota: / “has to go”
Present Imperfect Obligative:-
Verb form + hota + he. Present Imperfect obligative,
e.g.
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/a:na: hota: he / “one has to come”
/Parhna: hota: he/ “one has to study”
Past Imperfect Obligative:-
Verb form + hota + tha Past form is ued for Past
imperfect obligative, e.g.
/Kha:na: hota: tha: / “one had to eat”
/Parhna: hota: tha:/ “one had to study”
Verbal Forms:
Urdu verbal forms may be divided into three classes:
Simple, Compound and verb Phrase.
The Simple Verb:
Urdu simple verb consist on one main verb which
inflects for time, Person, gender and number,e.g.
Verb + aspect + auxiliary
/ro/ + / ta:/ + /he/ “he weeps”
/Parh/ + /ta:/ + /he/ “he reads”
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The compound:
The compound verbs of Urdu made up of two or more
Verbs of which the last verb is inflected for gender, number
and person, e.g.
Verb1+ Verb2 + Verb3 + auxiliary
/khe:ℓ+ ku:dh + čuka: + he/ “has been played”
The verbal Compounds:
This category covers those verbal compounds in which
there are two or more inflexible verbs. This category may
be further divided into the following.
With Imperfect Participle:- With Imperfect Participle the
verb Phrases are classified in the following category, e.g.
/gate raho/ “keep on singing”
/kehti rehti hũ/ “keep on saying”
With Perfect Participle:
With perfect participle all those examples came in
which perfect Participles are used, e.g.
/čaℓa gaya/ “has gone”
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With Infinitive:
An infinite (“to” + verb) can be used as a subject in
sentence. For example “To do a crime is sin”. An infinitive
without “to” can not be used as subject. We can not say,
“Do a crime is sin”.
Here, in Infinitive we are taking all those examples of
Urdu in which infinitives are used. This infinitive is inflect
for gender and number, e.g.
/vo a:na: čahti he/ “she wants to come”
/mene kita:b parhni čahi/ “I wanted to read the book”
Modal Verbs:
In modal verbs verbs are supportted by modal
verbs,e.g.
/kar sak/ /a, e, i/ “could do”
/kar čuk/ /a, e, i/ “have done”
/si:kh pa/ /ya, ye, yi/ “could learn”
Verb + Intensifiers:
This verb intensifiers covers all those examples which
have verb + intensifiers, e.g.
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/nikaℓ par/ /a,e,i/ “came out”
/čaℓ par/ /a, e, i/ “walk out”
/khoℓ uth/ /a, e, i/ “to open”
/ro dega/ /a,e,i/ “will weep”
Verb + Absolutive:
In verb absolutive all those compound verbs are
together which have verb with absolutive, e.g.
/kar/
/ℓikh kar/ “have written”
/ga:kar/ “have sing”
/phek kar/ “have thrown”
Adverb:
An adverb is that class of words which precedes an
adjective, a verb, or another adverb as qualitative or
modifying form, e.g.
/bahaut/ /hasi:n/ “more beautiful”
Modifier Adjective
/zabardasti/ /pehna/ “to wear by insisting”
Modifier Verb
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/aččhi/ /tarah/ “Very well”
Modifier Adverb
In other words we can define adverbs as “an adverb
adds something more to the meaning of the verb: e.g.
(i) Sita sang sweetly. (modifying a verb).
(ii) She is purposely late. (modifying an adjective)
(iii) He works extremely slowly. (modifying an
adverb).
Kinds of Adverb:
Urdu adverbs may be categorized in to different
categories because of their role. These Urdu adverbs
includes adverb of time, adverb of place, adverb of direction
and manner. In this way they may be classified as follows.
(i) Adverb of time
(ii) Adverb of place
(iii) Adverb of direction
(iv) Adverb of manner
(i) Adverb of Time:
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It describes the time when an event or action occurs.
In Urdu those words which show the time can be categorize
under adverb of time.e.g.
ago, since, back, before, early, soon, already, yet, still,
today, tomorrow,then, lately, recently, once, one of these
days, some day, now, by now, right away, nowadays.
They indicate the time of an action and answer the
question when.
Q. When did you buy this scooter?
Ans. I bought it a week ago.
Examples of Urdu adverbs are as follows:
/ab/ “now”
/Kab/ “when” (connective)
/Jab/ “when” (interrogative)
/tab / “then”
/abhi/ “Just now”
/Kabhi/ “some time”
/Jabhi/ “Just when”
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/tabhi/ “Just then”
(ii)Adverb of Place:
Adverb of place describes the location where an event
or action take place. e.g.
here, there, near, by, up, down, in, out, everywhere,
nowhere, somewhere, anywhere, nowhere else. e.g.
Q. Where is your car?
Ans. Its‟s here.
Q. Where is your father?
Ans. He has gone out.
In Urdu those words which gives the sense of place is
categorized under adverb of place. e.g.
/yahã/ “here”
/kahã/ “where” (interrogative)
/wahã/ “there”
/jaha/ “where” (connective)
/yahã betho/ “sit here”
/kahã se a rahe ho/ “where are you coming from”
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/wahã jao/ “go there”
/jahã čaho betho/ “ sit any where you want”
(iii)Adverb of Direction:
It describes the direction of the event. In Urdu adverb
of direction gives the sense of direction.e.g.
/idhar/ “this side”
/udhar/ “that side”
/jidhar/ “Which side” (connective)
/kidhar/ “which side” (interrogative)
/idhar baitho/ “sit here”
/kidhar se a rahe ho/ “where are you coming from?”
/Jidhar čaho jao/ “go anywhere you want”?
udhar Jao/ “go there”
(iv) Adverb of Manner:
It describes how an event or action occurs; In Urdu
adverb of manner expresses the sense of manner and it is
categorized under the class of adverb of manner. In other
words, we can say that an adverb of manner express of an
action and answer the question how?
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Q. How is she making food?
Ans. She is making carefully.
Q. How is she working?
Ans. She is working slowly.
Examples of Urdu are as follows:
/kistarah/ “how” (interrogative)
/ustarah/ “that way”
/jistarah/ “any how” (connective)
/istarah/ “thus or in this way”
/kistarah karu/ “how to do”
/ustarah karo/ “do like that”
/istarah nakaro/ “don‟t do like this”
/jistarah čaho karo/ “do it as you want”
Post- Positions:
In this class all those words includes which occur after
noun and pronouns and also sometimes after adverb.
A list of some frequent Post-positions of Urdu is given
below:e.g.
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/ka, ke, ki/ “of”
/ko/ “to”
/me/ “in”
/se/ “from, with”
/par/ “on, upon, over”
/sa:th/ “with”
/pa:s/ “near”
/tak/ “till”
/ℓiye/ “for”
/niče/ “below”
Types of Post- Positions:
Urdu Post Position may be classified into the different
classes according to its occurence.
(i)Genitive Case Markers
In Urdu /ka, ke, ki/ are genitive case markers these
post postions agrees with gender and number of Urdu
nouns.e.g.
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/uska ghar/ “his house”
/uski dawa/ “his medicine”
/uske ℓarke/ “his sons”
Urdu has also borrowed perso-arabic izafat, apart from
these post positions.e.g.
/haya:t-e-mi:r/ “life of mir”
/diℓ-e-nada/ “beloved”
/ha:ℓ-e-diℓ/ “condition of heart”
(ii)Locative Case Marker:
The Urdu Post-Positions: /par/, /se/, /ne/ may be
grouped in locative case marker because they denote the
location of place, time, and direction. e.g.
/guℓdasta mez par he/ “The flower pot is on the table”
/mehma:n ghar me he/ “The guests are in the house”
/meri ℓarki ℓakhnau me rehti he/ “My daughter lives in
Lucknow”
/kita:b kursi pe he/ “The book is on the chair”
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(iii)Agentive Case Marker:
In Urdu, post position /ne/ is used as agentive case
marker. /ne/ follows the subject and preceeds the object
and it is used in sentences with past tense.e.g.
/ℓarke ne dekha:/ “The boy saw”
/ℓarke ne ℓarki se kaha/ “The boy told to the girl”
/ℓarko ne kirikit kheℓa/ “The boys played cricket”
/bačče ne keℓa khaya/ “The baby ate the banana”
(iv) Dative Case Marker:
In Urdu, post-position /ko/ is used for dative case
marker, it denotes the recipient of the action.e.g.
/bačče ko seb de do/ “give the apple to the baby”
/a:p ko kahã jana he/ “where you want to go”
/kis ko du/ “whom should I give”
Conjuctions:
A Conjunction is a word which is used to join words
phrases or clauses to maintain the balance of the sentence.
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In Urdu, conjunction play a significant role to join two words
or clauses.
Classification of Conjunctions:-
Conjunctions of Urdu can be classified into three
different classes.
(i) Mono–Morphemic Conjunctions:
Those morphemes which are composed of only one
morpheme is called mono-morphemic conjunctions.
In Urdu /aur,ki,ya/ came under mono–morphemic
conjunctions.
A list of Urdu mono-morphemic conjunctions are given
below:
/ya/ “or”
/ke/ “that”
/aur/ “and”
/go/ “though”
/goya/ “as if”
/varna/ “other wise”
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/agar/ “if”
/ta:ke/ “so that”
/ta:ham/ “yet”
/aℓbatta/ “however”
(ii) Poly-Morphemic Conjunctions:
Polymorphemic conjunctions are composed of two or
more than two morphmes. A list of polymorphic conunctions
are give below:
/kyũke / “because”
/isℓiye/ “therefore”
/agarče/ “although”
/take/ “so that”
/taham/ “if”
(iii) Phrasal-Conjunctions:
Phrasal conjunctions consisting of two parts and each
part disconnected by intervening words. The examples of
phrasal conjunctions are as follows:
/agar/”if:, /to/ “then, if”
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/agar tum aoge to me tumhare sa:th čaℓuga/
“If you will come then I will go with you”.
/agar tum khaoge to me bhi kha:uga/
“If you will eat then I will eat also”.
/čahe - ℓekin/
/bariš a:e čahe oℓe ℓekin me čhaℓuga/
“whether it is rain or stones but I will go”.
/čahe tum jao ya na jao ℓekin me jauga/
“If you go or not but I will go”
INTERJECTION:
An interjection is a word which expresses some sudden
feelings of the heart. Urdu interjection is that class of word
which express some feelings or emotions. Mostly they occur
in complete sentence. However, they can be joined with
other words also. Interjection which occurs frequently in
Urdu, examples are as follows:
/aččha/ “good, well”
/a:h/ “oh!”
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/vaqai/ “really”
/bahut xu:b/ “very good”
According to the different senses these interjections
can further be classified in to different categories, these
categories are given below:
(i) Interjection of Amusement, Approval and Praise:
/bahut Xu:b/ “very good/verywell”
/xu:b/ “well”
/mašaallah/ “expression of appreciation”
/vah/ “appreciation”
/šabaš/ “well done”
(ii) Interjection of Disapproval:
/ℓahaUℓ viℓa quvvat/ “expression of disapproval”
/tauba tauba/ “expression of disapproval”
(iii) Interjection of Surprise:-
/aččha/ “good”
/vaqai/ “really”
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(iv) Interjection of Grief:
/a:h/ “oh!”
/ha:e/ “oh!”
