CHAPTER-II

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

RIVIEW OF LITERATURE

INTERNATIONAL FINDINGS

Geldreich et al., (1978) collected 613 samples from 32 dead-end water main

flushing sites in the Cincinnati, OH, distribution system. This study found 76 samples

contained coliforms by the MTF procedure, but only 19 by the MF procedure. Data

analysis demonstrated a correlation between excess SPC densities and desensitization

of the MF method when SPC bacteria exceeded 500 cfu/ml.

Evans et al., (1981) have reported significant variations in verification rates,

depending on the procedures use. Verification in m-LAC broth has been shown to

yield a 50% increase in coliform counts, compated with verification in LTB or lactose

broth.

Guillemin et al., (1991). About 7.7% of bore-holes, 13.5% concrete wells and

66% of traditional wells found to be polluted with total coliform, faecal coliform and

faecal streptococci. After step wise logistic regression analysis the link with each

factor persisted independently. The unsanitary conditions of the proximal

environment (P<0.001), hazards in re-priming (P<0.001), leaks in the pump (P<0.05)

and the absence of the efficient system to keep cattle away from the water supply area

(P<0.05) seemed to contribute to the non-potability of water.

Joan and Rose (1998) of the University of South Florida, Drs. Charles P.

Gerba and Patricia Rusin of the University of Arizona, and Dr. Charles N. Haas of

Drexel University collaborated on a comprehensive literature survey and analysis of

risks due to HPC bacteria that was completed in 1998 and, likewise has, concluded a

low risk of disease.

Fewtrell et al., (1998) studied total coliforms, faecal coliforms and faecal

streptococci. The microbial quality of water samples was generally poor with about

50% of the supplies failing to meet the required standards. Bad sanitation and

leaching from waste disposal might be the major cause of contamination.

Pinto et al., (1999) isolated 198 strains. The predominat species were

Enterococcus faecalis (39%) E.faecium(29%) followed by E.durans, E.casseliflavus

gallinaru , E.rffinosus, with a different prevalence of the species depending on the

source. 84% of isolates were true faecal species. Only one isolate was identified as

belonging to the streptococcus genus.

Niewolak and Opieka (2000) comprised the results of a number of

Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Aeromonas hydrophila and Staphylococcus sp. in water

and bottom sediments in the Czarna Hancza River in the region of Suwalki and Wigry

National Park. All these microorganisms were found in smaller quantities in water,

and in larger quantities in the bottom sediments in the Czarna Hancza River. Their

number was generally higher than the number of faecal bacteria of Escherichia coli

group both in water and bottom sediments in this river at site 1 (in Stary Brod above

Suwatki). Their number was close to or lowers than the number of faecal bacteria of

Escherichia coli group at the sites situated above and below the inflow of treated

sewage from the Treatment Sewage Plant in Suwalki.

Inviolata et al., (2000) studied on the changes in water quality with increasing

distance from a farm where sewage effluent is used to irrigate pastures was

investigated in Mtsike river about 40 kilometres south of Harare. The samples were

analysed for both chemical and general variables of water quality. Concentration of

nitrates, phosphates, sodium, chloride and total dissolved solids decreased with

increasing distance from the farm. The implications of the all the measured variables

(except total hardness) there was seasonal changes whereby higher values were

recorded during the wet season than the dry season.

Olajire and Imeokparia (2000) investigated some ions namely sodium,

Calcium, ammonium, Chloride, Nitrate, Cyanide and Phosphate ions on water

samples of river Osu, and ground waters. It has been evident from findings that the

cause and source of water pollution due to agricultural land use, anthropogenic

activities and industrialisation .High ammonia and phosphate ion concentrations due

to forming and high concentration values of EC, total hardness, total dissolved solids

and chloride ion due to Domestic and industrial discharges in to the river.

Barrell et al., (2000) suggested that gastrointestinal disease is more strongly

associated with the presence of enterococci than of E. coli. New diseases such as

cryptosporidiosis have been shown to cause outbreaks of waterborne disease when

levels of conventional microbiological parameters are satisfactory. In response to this,

and because of failure of prosecution in one outbreak, the United Kingdon (UK)

Government has introduced new legislation that requires water providers to perform a

risk assessment on their water treatment facilities and to implement continuous

monitoring for cryptosporidium.

Saify et al. (2000) studied some herbal extracts have been tested for their

antibacterial activity using seven different strains of Gram positive and Gram negative

bacteria to measure the zone of inhibition. Extracts were found devoid of activity

against all the microorganisms. The numbers of organisms used in this experiment

were not enough to prove the antimicrobial potential of these extracts. Moreover, the

extracts showing no zones of inhibition in quantitative test by disc diffusion method

may exhibit the activity in qualitative test by presenting minimum inhibitory

concentration (MIC). The fact may be explained by the more limited diffusion of less

polar active compounds in solid medium.

LeChevallier et al., (2000) showed characteristic changes in bacterial

population through potable water treatment and distribution. Therefore to be

necessary to ensure that water treatment and distribution do not cause a shift in the

composition of the bacterial population that would favour opportunistic pathogens.

Jackson et al., (2000) developed a new Sim Plate heterotrophic plate count

(HPC) method (IDEXX Laboratories, Westbrook, Maine) was compared with the

pour plate method at 35°C for 48 h. Six laboratories tested a total of 632 water

samples. The SimPlate HPC method was found to be equivalent to the pour plate

method by regression analysis (r = 0.95; y= 0.99X + 0.06). The Sim Plate is an

alternative test method for HPC in water. Sim Plate is easy to use and does not require

preparation of media or sterilization. Counting of positive fluorescent wells is an easy

process, does not require a colony counter, and takes less time than counting colonies

on the standard HPC plate.

Bordalo et al., (2001) analyzed for temperature, dissolved oxygen, turbidity,

suspended solids, pH. ammonia, fecal coliforms, biochemical oxygen demand and

chemical oxygen demand as well as conductivity, phosphate, and heavy metals in the

Bangpakong River. The Scottish water quality index (WQI) was adaptive to the

tropical environment. The averaged WQI was low (41%) and quality declined

significantly during the dry season (ANOVA, p<0.001). Although the quality rose

somewhat at middle sites, only 27% of the WQI values during wet season and 2.5%

during dry season were higher than 50%, denoting poor environmental quality. Within

each season, the main sources of variability were the differences between sites along

the gradient (48% during the wet season, 63% during the dry season), whereas

monthly variability represented less than 20% of the variability. The seasonal results

show that the river is suitable only for tolerant fish and wildlife species and is of

doubtful use for potable water supply during the dry season. As quality improves

during the wet period, water can be used for the production of potable water, but only

with advanced treatment, and for indirect and noncontact recreational activities. In the

middle stretches of the river, higher water quality permits multiple uses at moderate

cost.

Nicholas et al., (2001) summarized the history and examines some of the

methods used to assess the microbiological quality of water, highlighting the current

limitations and also possible future developments. Such as sanitary surveys, and there

is a move away from a specified indicator level end product. A single indicator or

even a range of indicators is unlikely to be appropriate for every occasion and

therefore it is useful to tailor indicator choice to local circumstances when translating

international guidelines into national standards. Additionally, with the change in

management paradigm, more indicators of process efficiency are required.

Lillis et al., (2001) examined by a double membrane filtration procedure to

determine the presence of heterotrophic plate count (HPC) bacteria capable of

escaping cells. A reliable recovery method was developed for the detection of

filterable bacteria from groundwater. The density of filterable bacteria in any single

sample never exceeded 10% of the total HPC population. Identification of randomly

selected isolates obtained on the 0.22 micro filters indicated that some of these

filterable bacteria have been implicated as opportunistic pathogens.

WHO: The World Health Organization concludes from the NSF

International/World Health Organization Symposium on HPC Bacteria in Drinking

Water Public Health Implications that was held April 22-24, 2002 in Geneva,

Switzerland that increases of HPC (due to growth) in domestic water devices “do not

indicate the existence of a health risk.” The United States Environmental Protection

Agency explains in the Agency’s descriptions of potential health effects regarding the

National Primary Drinking Water Standards that “HPC has no health effects” A

preponderance of modern scientific studies and facts proven this to be true.

Ho et al., (2003) studied chemical and microbiology qualities of The East

River (Dongjiang) about 80% of drinking water in Hong Kong that is located in the

mainland side of china. Microbiological survey revealed that pathogens such as

Salmonella spp., Vibro sp., giardia lamblia and Crytosporidium parvum appeared

occasionally in water samples. The water supplies department of Hong Kong is

recommended to intensify its water quality monitoring program to cover pathogenic

bacteria and parasites in watercourses and reservoirs.

Altun et al., (2003) Surface water was collected from the Degirmendere and

Galyan rivers and analyzed for temperature, total alkaline (AL), total dissolved solids

(TDS), dissolved oxygen (DO), pH, conductivity (EC), nitrate (NO3), nitrite (NO2),

total hardness (TH), phenolphthalein alkalinities (PAL) and organic matter (PV).

Seasonal changes of water quality were analyzed statistically for both Rivers and

evaluated according to the TS 266, EU and WHO standards. The analysis of variance

results showed that Ca, Mg, MAL, NO3, pH, TDS and TH parameters of the

Değirmendere River and Ca, DO, EC, MAL, NO3, pH and TH parameters of the

Galyan River showed seasonal differences (p<0.05). The maximum values of the

water pollution parameters for the two Rivers were below the threshold values

throughout the study period. When both Rivers were compared, the mean values of

the pollution parameters of the Degirmendere River were higher than those of the

Galyan River and very close the limits. The results indicate that both Rivers can be

used for the production of potable water during all seasons but only with an advanced

treatment in the Degirmendere and a moderate treatment in the Galyan River, and for

indirect and non-contact recreational activities.

Sartory (2004) reported the count of general or heterotrophic bacterial

populations in treated drinking water in the UK. The current regulations stipulate only

that there should be 'no abnormal change' in numbers normally associated with a

given supply. The appropriateness of using heterotrophic bacteria counts as an

operational tool or as a health parameter is briefly discussed in the light of the UK

experience.

Iqbal et al., (2004) demonstrate the seasonal variations in physico-chemical

parameters of River Soan water for temperature, light penetration, surface tension,

density, specific gravity, boiling point, turbidity, pH, dissolved oxygen, free CO2,

alkalinity, acidity, carbonates, bicarbonates, total solids, total dissolved solids and

total dissolved volatile solids. Air temperature, clouds and rain were also recorded.

These parameters were compared with water quality standards to indicate probable

pollution in the river Soan. The overall water quality of the study site remained within

the safe limits throughout the study period. It shows that water of Soan is fit to

support biodiversity.

Zamxaka et al., (2004) reported that the highest contamination occurred in

winter 45.74% of microorganisms for Gogogo domestic water sources and 48.1% for

Nokonkobe. One plausible explanation is the predominate number of Enterobacter

spp., which can survive at temperatures of 4- 50C.

Spaandr et al., (2004) examined of 200 strains of aquatic streptococci has

shown that the conversion of citrate provides a good complementary criterion for the

detection of faecal streptococci as prescribed in the “Normblad” N 3043. Especially

when the result on tellurite agar does not present a clear picture, owing to the colour

of the colonies being grey instead of a deep black, the citrate test helps to reach a

decision. And an examination of 55 known enterococcus-strains has shown that the

conversion of sodium citrate gives positive results for:Streptococcus faecalis and its

variants and for some strains of Streptococcus faecium. On the other hand negative

results are found for Streptococcus bovis and Streptococcus durans.

Reasoner (2004) studied the use of agar-agar as a gelling agent, replacing

gelatin, allowed the use of higher incubation temperatures and resulted in the "body

temperature count" (37o C). The change from 37o C incubation to 35+/-0.50 C

accommodated laboratories that did both milk and water analyses. The use of low

nutrient media, lower incubation temperature, and longer incubation times, results in

higher plate count results for most water samples. And range of incubation times (24,

48, 72 h and 5-7 days) provide great flexibility in the application of the HPC analysis

to drinking water.

Martin et al., (2004) elevated populations were present in drinking water.

They reveal on HPC bacteria in drinking water, the lack of clinical evidence that

elevated populations or specific genera within the HPC flora pose an increased health

risk to any segment of the population, and the appropriate uses of HPC data as a tool

to monitor drinking water quality changes following treatment. Microbial infections

associated with biofilms have over the years become difficult to treat using

conventional therapy. This has prompted researchers to identify alternatives and plant

products have gained widespread interest in this regard. Research on natural products

as antimicrobial agents, has almost exclusively focused on the effects of these against

planktonic micro-organisms, however, the biofilm forms that are more resistant to

antimicrobial agents and therefore more difficult to control, remain largely

unexplored.

Cushnie et al., (2005) suggested that it might be possible production of

structural analogues of active flavonoids through genetic manipulation screening of

these analogues might lead to the identification of compounds that are sufficiently

potent to be useful as antifungal, antiviral or antibacterial chemotherapeutics. In

addition to the structural alteration of weak and moderately active antimicrobial

flavonoids, investigation into the mechanisms of action of these compounds is likely

to be a productive area of research.

Zeilhofer et al., (2006) used Redundancy Analysis (RDA) to evaluate impacts

of environmental and socio-economic factors on water quality. A Cuiaba headwater

station only shows slightly elevated total coliform counts and concentrations of

nutrients in the river after it passes regions of extensive cattle farming. After the

confluence with the Manso River, nutrient and COD concentrations increase

significantly, receiving loads from sub-basins under intensive agricultural land use,

with mean annual concentrations up to 1.74 mg/L of total nitrogen (Kjedahl). Sub-

watersheds with intensive fishing culture activities were shown to have significant

impact on nitrogen concentrations, reaching mean concentrations of 2.66 mg/L of

total nitrogen in the affluent. Most serious biological and chemical water pollution

can be observed at stream outlets in the urban agglomeration of Cuiaba Grande.

Affluent pollution is reflected in the water quality of the Cuiaba River.

Zvidzai et al., (2007) stated that traditional methods employing selective,

differential and non selective media were used to isolate and identify different species

of bacteria from rural water reservoirs of Mount Darwin district Zimbabwe. The

colony counts from non selective nutrient agar plates give an indication of the overall

level of bacterial activity from each water sample. Open deep wells shallow wells and

rivers were found to be the most heavily contaminated water sources. Borehole water

sources had very low total microbial loads and men absent in some of the water

samples. The prevalent bacteria found were the gram negative Escherichia coli,

Shigella, salmonella, enterobacter aerogenes. The presence of faecal pathogenic

species in the river water and open wells poses epidemiological cases of diarrhoeal

cases in the district studied.

Shittu et al., (2008) studied well water, stream water and river used for

drinking an swimming purpose in Abeokutta, Nigeria. The results obtained were

compared with WHO and EPA standards for drinking and recreational water. The

samples complied with bacteriological standards a Total Coliform counts generally

exceeded 1,600 MPN/ml, an pathogen count such as Salmonell shigella counts Vibrio

chelerae counts were very high. The presence of pathogens in water for drinking an

swimming purposes is of public health significance considering he possibility of

presence of other bacteria, protozoa an eneric viruses that are implicated in gastro-

intestinal water borne diseases and the low infectious dose for these water borne

pathogens.

A study was carried out on The rivers Oli, Manyera, Poto and

Nuwanzurugi.by Ajibade et al., (2008) Samples were taken twice a year, that is, dry

and wet seasons of each year. Standard methods were used for bacteriological

examination plating. The results revealed high faecal pollution during the wet

seasons. This was confirmed by the presence of the coliforms. Isolates include

Pseudomonas spp. Escherichia coli, Acetobacter spp, Maroxalla spp,Bacillus spp,

and Klebsiella spp. As a result water of the four rivers in the park is not potable

during the wet seasons.

Sandasi 2008 studied the effect of plant extracts on the development of

microbial biofilms of three pathogens (Listeria monocytogenes, Pseudomonas

aeruginosa and Candida albicans) was investigated. The antimicrobial activity was

investigated using the minimum inhibitory concentration assay. The extract that

showed the highest antimicrobial activity against all the test organisms was that of

Curcuma longa with minimum inhibitory concentration values < 1 mg/ml. Other

extracts that showed good activities include Rosmarinus officinalis, Thymus vulgaris,

Echinacea angustifolia, Mentha piperita and Melaleuca alternifolia. Mentha piperita

was the only extract that showed good antibiofilm activity against all three organisms,

while the majority of the extracts enhanced biofilm development of P. aeruginosa and

C. albicans biofilms. Combination extracts showed mainly synergism although some

additive interaction was observed on inhibition of the biofilm. The reduction of

biofilm biomass using plant extracts individually and in combination shows potential

in the development of medicinal products that will prevent microbial adhesion thus

reducing the incidence of infections associated with biofilm formation.

Borchardt et al., (2008) tested the antimicrobial activity of aqueous ethanol

extracts of stems, leaves, flowers and roots from 336 native and naturalized species

(597 extracts) collected in Minnesota and Wisconsin against Staphylococcus aureus,

Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Candida albicans. Extracts from 455

samples exhibited no antimicrobial activity and 142 samples (24%), representing109

different species and 53 plant families exhibited antimicrobial activity.

Joy et al., (2008) reported the antimicrobial activity of aqueous ethanol

extracts of stems, leaves, flowers and roots from 336 native and naturalized species

(597 extracts) collected in Minnesota and Wisconsin was tested against

Staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Candida

albicans. They identified 142 plant extracts from 109 species that have significant

antimicrobial activity. The effectiveness of antimicrobial activity could be viewed as

significant based on either the number of microorganisms inhibited or the intensity of

antimicrobial action based on the size of the zone of inhibition. Twenty-four percent

of all the plants investigated had activity against at least one test microorganism. They

identified native and naturalized plants from the Mississippi River Basin as potential

sources of antioxidant and antimicrobial compounds

Seawa watershed report (2009) concluded surface water quality effects human

and animal health and microbial water quality is especially important. Bacterial water

quality is an indication of the potential presence of various organisms such as

Escherichia coli, Giardia, and Cryptosporidium. Faecal contamination by E. coli is

widely used as an indicator of related pathogenic organisms such as Salmonella,

Shigella, Campylobacter, and Yersinia. Direct contact with contaminated water poses

health risks to swimmers, livestock and anyone who consumes untreated water.

Derwich et al., (2009) studied has been carried out in eight wells located in the

vicinity of Fez stream and Sebou River which waters. The obtained results showed

important concentrations in heavy metals mainly in wells drilled inside the alluvial

aquifers and located more meadows of the Fez stream and Sebou River. The

comparison of the contents of heavy metals between shallow aquifers and surface

waters along Sebou River indicated a very narrow correlation which can be explained

by hydrogeologic interaction between these waters.

Razak et al., (2009) the Volta lake in Ghana, was chosen as a case study to

investigate the variations in the quality of its water at different locations. The results

indicated that turbidity, total iron, faecal coliforms and total coliforms were above the

limits set out by the 2003 Ghana Raw Water Criteria and Guidelines for domestic use.

Thus, the water from Oti River was considered unsuitable for direct human

consumption.

Alxander et al., (2009) determined feaceal indicator concentrations along the

Danube and its major tributaries during two whole-river surveys and 16 permanent

stations allowed for the first time to raw a clear picture of the faecal pollution

patterns. By including a variety of environmental variables in statistical analysis, an

integrative picture of faecal pollution in the Danube River basin could be evolved.

Four hot spots and six stretches of differing feaecal pollution were identified, mainly

linked with input from large municipalities. Significant decline of microbiological

pollution was observed in the upper and lower Danube stretches over the investigation

period. In contrast, a significant increase in the middle part was evident. The planned

implementation of new wastewater treatment plants and advanced wastewater

treatment measures according to the European Union Urban wastewater directive will

have a great potential to reduce microbial feaceal pollution in the Danube and thus

improving water quality.

Huachang Hong et al., (2010) studied The Pearl River Delta (PRD), is one of

the most developed and densely populated regions in china. They collected water

samples from six major water storage reservoirs in the PRD region in both wet and

dry seasons in 2006. Results showed that external environmental factors, such as

precipitation, location, as well as the internal environmental factors, i.e.,

physicochemical properties of the water, were closely related with the distribution of

coliforms. Seasonally, the coliform bacterial concentrations in wet season were one

to two orders of magnitude greater than those in dry season. Spatially, coliforms

bacterial levels in reservoirs near urban and industrial areas were significantly higher

(p<0.05) than those in remote areas. Correlation analyses showed that the levels of

coliforms had close relationships with pH, temperature, suspended solid, organic and

inorganic nutrients in water. Prinicipal components analysis further demonstrated that

total colifroms in the reservoirs were closely related with water physico-chemical

properties, while faecal coliforms were more associated with external input brought in

by seasonal runoff.

Fianko et al., (2009) studied the impact of anthropogenic activities on the

fluctuation of nutrients along the Densu River. High concentrations of nutrients were

observed in the study area but the river was found to be circumneutral and fresh with

pH ranging between 6.54 and 7.84. The levels of NH4 + mean concentration of

1.19 ± 0.02 mg L−1 while that of nitrate with a mean concentration of

2.07 ± 0.01 mg L−1. The levels of PO4 3−– with a mean of 0.84 ± 0.01 mg L−1. The

Densu River Basin was also found to be with organic matter with depleted dissolved

oxygen. The river recorded high BOD values ranging from 6.91 to 18.8 mg L−1. The

highly impaired sites were those located close to the urbanized, agricultural and high-

density residential areas. The relatively high concentration of nitrate and phosphate in

the river indicated that it was quite eutrophic.

Frank Nana (2010) worked on Physico-chemical quality of ground and surface

waters from Bibiani. Determined whether physical, chemical and trace metal

contamination of water sources as a result of mining or geochemical and biochemical

processes within the environment. Levels of trace metals (Arsenic (As), Iron (Fe),

Manganese (Mn), and Copper (Cu)), physical parameters (pH, Total Dissolved Solids

(TDS), Electrical Conductivity (E.C) and Temperature) and chemical parameters

(Alkalinity, Hardness, Phosphate and Cyanide (CN)) in water resources were

determined. Most of them however have levels safe for human consumption.

Department of Applied and Environmental Biology (2010), Rivers State

University of Science and Technology, PMB 5080, Port Harcourt, Nigeria studied

Microbial quality and physicochemical indices of an Imo river, Nigeria, receiving

industrial pollutants were investigated. Results show that mean counts for THB and

THF of the river system were higher in the wet season than in the dry season. While

HUF had similar microbial counts in both seasons. The physico-chemical

characteristics show that the water body was highly turbid with values ranging

between 154.5±14.3 and 58.5±11.2 NTU for the wet and dry seasons respectively.

Other parameters such as TDS, total alkalinity, conductivity, free carbon and sulphate

showed similar patterns of variation with low values for pH.

Ohio Department of natural Resoures 2010 investigation showed

concentrations of the bacterial indicator E. coli often exceeded the OEPA Class A

Sampling results showed that E. coli and faecal coliform concentrations have strong

positive correlations at all sampling sites. When E. coli concentrations are high faecal

coliform concentrations also tend to be high and vice versa. And tended to be higher

during storm flow events than during base flow conditions. Seasonality also plays a

role in determining E. coli and faecal coliform concentrations.

Scott Sutton (2010) described The basic concept to the MPN method is

similar to the fraction negative method of D-value determination. Nutrient broth will

support growth of organisms and turn turbid. The basic pattern of growth vs. no-

growth can provide information as it is a reflection of sampling error. For example, if

one replicate tube of media receives a dilution of the sample that contains a bacterial

cell, the tube will turn turbid. Its neighbour, an "identical" replicate, may not receive

any bacteria in its sample due to pipetting or sampling and would not turn turbid. This

information is particularly useful at low numbers of organisms. However, this

accuracy can be greatly increased by diluting the inoculums and then comparing the

recoveries of all tubes in the dilution series.

Singkran et al., (2010) studied Dissolved oxygen, biochemical oxygen

demand, nitrate-nitrogen, total phosphorus, fecal coliform bacteria, and suspended

solids were used to evaluate water quality in the northeastern rivers of Thailand: Lam

Chi, Lam Pao, Lam Seaw, Loei, and Nam Oon. The mean observed values of the six

water quality parameters in each river over a 5-year period (2003–2007) were used to

compute the present water quality index of each river in the wet and dry seasons.

According to the results, the water quality at many sampling stations was in good

condition. However, the water quality in Lam Chi and the Loei River will tend to

decrease in the next 5-year period unless proper management is undertaken to reduce

the concentrations of certain contaminants such as total phosphorus and fecal coliform

bacteria in the rivers.

The Miami Conservancy District (2011) MCD staff conducted periodic

sampling of surface water at four sites within the Great Miami River Watershed for

bacterial indicators of fecal contamination, at each of the sampling locations to

measure water temperature, pH, specific conductance, dissolved oxygen, turbidity,

chlorophyll, and blue green algae at hourly intervals. The data collected as part of this

sampling project suggest that wet weather or runoff events play a significant role in

contributing to fecal contamination of natural waters in the Great Miami River

Watershed. Elevated concentrations of fecal indicators were more pronounced during

the spring and late fall seasons and often corresponded to large runoff events.

Olatunji et al., (2011) studied physicochemical and bacteriological evaluation

of pollution in the Unity Road stream segment of Asa River in Ilorin, Nigeria. The

water pH was found to range from 6.32 to 6.43 with a mean temperature range of 24.3

to 25.8 °C. Other physicochemical parameters monitored including total suspended

solids, total dissolved solids, biochemical oxygen demand and chemical oxygen

demand values exceeded the recommended level for surface water quality. Results of

bacteriological analyses including total heterotrophic count, total coliform and thermo

tolerant coliform counts revealed a high level of faecal pollution of the river. It was

inferred that the downstream Asa River is polluted and its aquatic biota is

bacteriological contaminated and unsafe for human and animal consumption.

Hagan et al., (2011) worked on Physico-chemical and Trace metal analyses on

water and sediment samples from the Densu River in Ghana to ascertain the water

quality. The pH values ranged from 6.55 to 7.33. The Total Dissolved Solids (TDS)

values ranged from 67.1 to 113.0 mg/L. TheElectrical Conductivity (EC) values

ranged from 150.3 to 223.0 µS/cm and were below the acceptable value of 350 µS/cm

for unpolluted river. The salinity values were generally insignificant. The elemental

analysis was done for Cd, Cu, Fe, Hg, Mn, Ni and Zn. The analysis gave Fe (1.590-

6.090) mg/L, Mn (0.039- 0.661) mg/L and Zn (0.005-0.021) mg/L in the water

samples. Enrichment factor computation for the soil sediments revealed that there

could be moderate anthropogenic contributions.

Ombaka and Gichumbi (2011) carried out Physicochemical and

microbiological analyses on water and sediment samples in early rainy season to early

dry season from Ruguti River in Meru South, The mean of the results obtained were

compared with WHO (2011) standards for drinking water .The physicochemical

parameters such as temperature, electrical conductivity, total dissolved solids, total

alkalinity, total hardness, sulphates, chlorides, fluorides were in compliance with the

standards. Turbidity, nitrite and nitrates levels were above standards. The

concentration of phosphorous was below detection limit of the analytical method

used. The mean values for all trace metals at all the sampling sites of the water

samples were below the standards for drinking water except Fe, Mn and Al. Total

coliform bacteria/100 ml are greater than 2420 while E. coli/100 ml varied from 1203

to 1986. The result of bacteriological analysis indicates that Ruguti River is absolutely

unfit for drinking and unhealthy for bathing.

Oliver et al., (2011) assessed bacteriological load of River Gongola in

Adamawa State. The sampling was done in dry season and in wet season. The pour

plate method was used for determination of total coliform. It revealed high values

(59.7 to 308.3 CFU/100ml of water) in wet season compared to those of dry season

(12.1 to 100.7 CFU/100ml of water). This may be as result of runoff from animal

faeces due to rains. Values in this work were within safe limits for irrigation and

fishing activities but not for direct domestic utilization.

Hoque et al., (2011) observed the ethanol extract of Betel leaf antibacterial

activity against some foodborne pathogens viz. Vibrio cholerae ATCC 6395, E. coli

ATCC 25922, E. coli O157:H7 NCTC 12049, Shigella dysenteriae-1 MJ-84 and

Staphylococcus aureus ATCC 25923. Experimental findings revealed that the ethanol

extract of betel leaves potentially inhibit the growth of these foodbourne pathogens.

Minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) ranged from 0.625% (w/v) to 0.75% (w/v).

The ethanol extract of betel leaf showed the highest MIC values for E. coli ATCC

25922 (0.625 mm), Vibrio cholera ATCC 6395 (0.625 mm), and Staphylococcus

aureus ATCC 25923 (0.625 mm). The ethanol extract of betel leaf might have a

potential application as natural food preservative to improve the microbiological

safety of the foods.

Jaya Rathore (2011) revealed that the chemical parameters – COD(993 mg/L),

suspended solids (800 .mg/L),chloride (1702 mg/L), sulphate (943 mg/L), sodium

(2163 mg/L) and Cr +6 (0.15 mg/L) have exceeded the maximum discharge limits

laid down by Bureau of Indian Standards. A decrease in concentration of various

pollutants downstream Pali during monsoon season was observed due to dilution of

industrial waste waters by the flow of fresh water upstream of Pali city of the Bandi

River.

Daphne et al., (2011) worked on some Singapore rivers near construction

sites. The occurrence of rain may change the river characteristics based on the TSS. It

showed that the TSS records “after rain” fairly increase approximately 1.8 times

higher than TSS records “before rain” at the river streams. The correlation between

TSS and turbidity was established to offer more efficiency in predicting total

suspended solids concentration in a river.

Yadav et al., (2012) estimated Total Escheria coli (EC) in water samples

collected from different sampling areas of entire Kanpur during seasonal variation

(Summer, Rainy and Winter) which revealed the unsanitary condition of water

sources.

Wose Kinge and Moses Mbewe (2012) compared the levels of bacterial

contamination in water obtained from the five river catchments in the North West

Province with water quality guidelines. A total of 54 water samples collected during

winter and summer seasons were cultured on m-FC and m-Endo agar plates using

membrane filtration, and on Plate Count and Eosin Methylene Blue agar plates using

spread-plate techniques. Biochemical characterisation of suspected Escherichia coli

and Klebsiella isolates by Triple Sugar Iron (TSI). Results showed significantly high

levels of contamination when using heterotrophic, total and faecal coliform counts as

an indicator in all catchments in summer and winter seasons. In winter season, E. coli

and Klebsiella were maximal in the Marico and Molopo catchment with 75 and 95%

prevalence, respectively. The rocodile and Elands and Marico and Hex catchments

during summer also showed high levels of E. coli (63%) and Klebsiella (76%)

contamination, respectively. The consumption of such untreated water sources

directly or indirectly, poses a health risk to consumers. Strict measures to ensure the

discharge of properly treated effluent into the rivers should be put in place, to

minimise the spread of potential pathogenic bacteria and the occurrence of water

borne disease outbreaks.

The physico-chemical properties of river Benue water were assessed during wet and

dry seasons, by Anhwange et al., (2012) the result of temperature was found to range

between 26-32oC during the two seasons. Colour, turbidity, TDS, SS and pH were

found to be between 106.10-147 (PtCo colour), 18.18-24.29 (FTU), 17.19-

38.78(mgL-1), 12.55-49.57 (mgL-1), and 6.76-6.81(mgL-1), respectively, during the

wet season. While during dry season, 4.0-402.20 (PtCo colour), 1.60-319.20 (FTU),

10.40, - 42.40(mgL-1), 4.80, -347.60(mgL-1) and 8.27- 8.68(mgL-1) were observed

for colour, turbidity, TDS, SS and pH respectively. The lowest value of hardness

(40.20mgL-1 CaCO3) was recorded during wet season and the highest was

47.20mgL-1 CaCO3. Higher values of hardness 60.20-180.00 mgL-1 CaCO3 were

observed during dry season. DO, BOD and COD were found to range between 4.20-

5.22(mgL-1), 66.40-81.44(mgL-1) and 91.60-128.93(mgL-1) respectively during wet

season, while 4.74-6.00(mgL-1), 49.80-158.40(mgL-1) and , 113.20-316.00(mgL-1)

was recorded during dry season. Similarly, 21.42-35.92(mgL-1), 0.92-1.10(mgL-1)

and 57.60-1680 cfu/100mL was observed as the mean values for nitrates, phosphates

and total coliforms during the wet season and 37.87-46.85(mgL-1), 0.44-2.32(mgL-1)

and 26.00-1584.00 cfu/100mL recorded for nitrates, phosphates and total coliforms in

the dry season. The result of the study revealed that although, the river was polluted at

some points the human activities had not been sternly impacted on the river.

Rahmi et al., (2012) Worked on phytochemical content and to examine

antibacterial activity potency of methanol extract of Rhyzophora mucronata. The

phytochemical screening was assayed by qualitative analysis and the antibacterial

assay determined by disk diffusion method. The antibacterial activity in gram positive

bacteria (Staphylococcus aureus) and gram negative bacteria (Escherichia coli) was

showed by almost all extracts of root, bark, wood, flower and leaf of R. mucronata.

The parts of R. mucronata investigated in this study showed some antibacterial

activity against S. aureus and E. coli. It is interesting to note that just about all parts

showed broad spectrum antibacterial activity.

NATIONAL FINDINGS

Karla et al., (1980) reported that Escherichia coli comprised 13% of the total

coliforms and 73% of the faecal coliforms. Citrobacter fruendii and Klebsiella

pneumoniae, on th e other hand, were the most commonly isolated total coliforms. On

one ocassion, Yersinia enterocolitica was isolated as a “typical gas producing

coliform” (Nilehn, 1969). Faecal coliforms were isolated from two water supplies

which used surface springs as the raw water source. There was a large variety of

species isolated, and a surprising number were opportunistic pathogens. It was fact,

the presence of Staphylococcus aureus in the total plate counts that led to their being

monitored in the subsequent samples. All of the Staphylococcus aureus isolates

exhibited coagulase acitivity, and half of them prouced enterotoxin A.

Rao et al., (1992) monitored the physic chemical and bacterial parameters of

water in the bore wells and dug wells of challapalli, Andhra Pradesh, India and

determined the correlation coefficient amongst them. Naidu et al., (1997) studied the

water quality parameters in the coastal towns of Andhra Pradesh, India to assess their

suitability for domestic and other needs and found pollution by industrial waste water

and sewage.

Rao and Prasad (1997) analyzed the samples of soils and weathered rocks of

Vamsadhara river basin in Andhra Pradesh, India for their water-soluble phosphate

and other chemical parameters. They determined that the water-soluble phosphate in

the fertilizers being used for agriculture. From their studies they concluded that the

geological sources dominate over the fertilizer sources in contributing Po4 in to the

water source.

Katari et al., (1997) investigated coliform count in the drinking water sources

of Bhopal, Madya Pradesh. Maximum probable Number (MPN) in study area

exceeded the WHO limit at at different sampling stations, as these were located in

low-lying areas. Higher values in summer & Monsoon indicated a higher degree of

pollotion.

Sharma and Rajput (1998) reported that the occurrence of Klebsiella was very

frequent throughout the investigation period and ranged from 15 to 190×10²

CFU/1000ml in Lakes, with higher values in winter. Thus, the seasonal distribution of

Klebsiella is quite different from other indicator bacteria studied during the

investigation period. It is important to note that during winter, when all other faecal

pollution indicator bacteria such as total coliforms, faecal coliforms and faecal

streptococci were negligible numbers, the Klebsiella showed its highest density at

both the sites of the lakes. Although no logical reason could be made for this, it is

possible that fishes and perhaps other aquatic animals provide an appropriate substrate

for these enteropathogenic bacteria even in adverse conditions.

Koushik et al., (1999) were collected water samples from three lentic water

bodies (Motijlhil , Surajajkund and Ranital) of Gwalior region and analysed for some

heavy metal like Cu (0.017 to 0.09 mg/1), Zn (0.065 to 0.120 mg/1) Ni(below

detection limit 0.001 mg/1 to 0.004 mg/1) Co (0.003 to 0.009 mg/1) Pb (0.002 to

0.009mg/1) Mn (0.009 to 0.016 mg/1) Cr (0.020 to 0.048 mg/1) Cd (0.009 to 0.019

mg/l) and As(all the value are below the detection limit 0.001 mg/1). Seasonally

lowest and highest value of all the parameters except Arsenic are recorded during

summer and rainy season respectively in all the three water bodies and all the value of

all the heavy metal parameters are found below the limit prescribed by different

agencies.

Ravindra et al., (2002) studied Seasonal variations in physico-chemical

characteristics of River Yamuna in Haryana. Ecological parameters like dissolved

oxygen (DO), pH, nitrate (NO3-), sulphate (SO42-), and phosphate (PO43-), were

analyzed and compared with standard permissible limits to assess the best-designated

use of the river water for various purposes. The river in Delhi upstream was of better

quality whereas Delhi downstream stretch was polluted as indicated by very low DO

and high total dissolved solids (TDS), electric conductivity (EC), and total hardness,

Na+, K+, Cl-, F- and SO42-. The differences in various parameters were statistically

significant (P<0.01) when compared for the Delhi upstream and downstream stretches

of the river, particularly in summer. DO and TDS were found to be two important

parameters, which showed strong correlation with several other parameters and hence

can serve as good indices of river water quality. The river tended to recover from the

pollution stress after flowing through a distance of about 80 km downstream Delhi.

Carl Fliermans (2000) reported Microbial populations in the sediments were

more active than had been expected from the scientific literature, and thus are likely

to play a significant role in groundwater chemistry and geological processes.

Additionally, these investigations have expanded horizons about the habitat of

microorganisms and their ability to adapt to the parameters of the habitat and the

ability of the microbial populations to alter their habitats. As we better understand the

microbial niches around and under us, the sophisticated microorganisms we discover

may help solve contamination problems, as well as provide useful products for

humanity. The Integrated Demonstration Program at SRS (Savannah River Site)

focuses on cleaning up soils and groundwater contaminated with volatile organic

compounds (VOCs). When new VOCs moved into the area, the CO2 concentrations

subsequently increased until after the VOCs have declined again.

Bezuidenhout et al., (2002) demonstrated that the mean total coliform counts

were generally two-fold greater than the mean faecal coliform counts due to typical

seasonal changes. Lowest numbers of colony forming units (CFUs) were detected

during the winter season (May to August) and large numbers of CFUs were detected

in the summer season (November to February). Heterotrophic plate count bacteria

detected during the summer season also showed a peak compared to the winter. The

changes in heterotrophic bacterial counts were more gradual than those of the

indicator microorganisms.

Krapac et al., (2002) found on the basis of the microbiological data that

filtration of bacteria by soils may not be as effective as commonly assumed.The

presence of fecal bacteria in the shallow ground water near the manure deep-pits in

Illinois may pose a significant threat to human health if the ground water is used for

drinking.

Bhadra et al., (2003) reported that the ratio of faecal coliform to faecal

streptococci in river Torsa of Noth Bengal ranged from 1.77 to 3.75. The maximum

and minimum faecal coliforms, faecal streptococci value was obtained in the month of

June and March at different sites of the river. Total coliform and faecal coliform count

was found highest and the least in the month of March and January respectively from

all sampling sites.

Begum et al., (2003) reported that overball bacterial count was highest in

river, followed by well, supply water and tubewell. The critical differences showed

that the variation in bacterial count between any two sources was highly significant.

However, the variation in bacterial load between supply water and tubewell was not

significant. Mishra et al., (2003) observed higher concentration of megnesium causes

laxative effect to human being and excess is fluoride causes severe bone fluorosis.

Biksham, et al., (2003) studied Suspended and bed sediments collected from

the entire region of the Godavari River basin were analyzed for Fe, Mn, Cr, Cu, Ni,

and Zn. There are pronounced temporal and spatial variations in the heavy metal

distributions. The concentrations of heavy metals in the suspended sediments were

significantly higher than the bed sediments. Throughout the basin heavy metals were

enriched in the finer fractions (<2 µm) of the bed sediments. The average heavy metal

composition of the sediments was higher when compared to the average

Indian River sediments. All the metals show high correlation among themselves and

the correlation is more pronounced in suspended sediments than in the bed sediments.

Thomas Clasen et al., (2003) studied thermotolerant coliforms (TTC) from the

stored ousehold water supplies of 100 households in 13 towns and villages in the

kailahun District of Sierra Leone. At the non-improved sources, the arithmetic mean

TTC load was 407/100ml at the point of distribution, rising to mean count of

882/100ml at the household level. Water from the improved sources met WHO

guidelines, with no fecal contamination. 92.9% of stored household samples

contained some level to TTC, 76.5% contained more than the 10 TTC per 100ml

threshold set by the sphere project for emergency conditions.

Ali et al., (2004) demonstrated the monthly variation in physico-chemical

parameters of Indus River at Ghazi Ghat, Muzaffargarh (Pakistan) for a period of ten

months from March to December 2001. Water samples were collected on monthly

basis and have been analyzed for estimation of water temperature, light penetration,

surface tension, density, specific gravity, viscosity, boiling point, turbidity, pH, DO,

free CO2, alkalinity, acidity, electric conductivity, carbonates, bicarbonates, total

solids, total volatile solids, total dissolved solids, total volatile dissolved solid and

metal contents. The significant monthly variations were observed in all parameters

under study. These parameters were compared with standard water quality indicators

to indicate probable pollution in river water. The overall water quality of the study

site remained within the safe limits throughout the study period. The water quality of

two banks was also compared which was found similar.

Begum et al., (2004) repoted that the overall coliform count was high in river

Brahmaputra followed by well, supply water and the tubewell, the critical difference

showed that the variation in coliform count between river Brahmaputra and tubewell

,river and supply water was highly significant.

Ramasubramanian et al., (2005) worked on mangroves of the Godavari

estuary, Andhra Pradesh, India to understand the changes in the extent of mangroves,

namely accreted mangroves, erosion due to wave action and river water flow during

floods, and changes due to forest restoration between 1986 and 2001, through remote

sensing. The geomorphological changes due to river water flow in and around the

mangroves have also been analysed. The changes in the vegetation due to forest

restoration and natural regeneration are appreciable.

Bahador et al., (2005) reported that the microbiological analysis of river water

indicated that population of bacteria in the monsoon was maximum followed by

winter and summer. The faecal coliform bacteria were isolated in three seasons from

most sampling sites of Pavana river, while population of faecal coliforms in monsoon

was more compared to the other seasons.

Sinha et al., (2006) studied Ram Ganga river water at 10 different sites at

Moradabad were collected and analysed at pre-monsoon period and after monsoon.

And found that river water is highly contaminated in pre-monsoon as well as after the

onset of monsoon with reference to almost all the water quality Physico chemical

parameters. The river water is unfit for consumption for living beings. It is alos not

suitable for domestic an industrial purposes. Different kinds of human and cattle

activates and mixing up of effluents are disturbing the aquatic environment of Ram

Ganga river at Moradabad.

Chandra et al., (2006) analyzed The seasonal physico-chemical and microbial

quality of Gola river water after confluence of pulp paper mill waste. The study

revealed that it has enhanced 20-30 times pollution load of BOD, COD, TDS, TSS,

sulphate, chloride, sodium, nitrate, potassium, lignin and phenol after mixing of pulp

paper mill waste with river water in all season. Further, it induced the bacterial growth

by increasing most probable number value of E. coli was 1.57 x 10(4), 1.6 x 10(4),

1.37 x 10(4) and SPC count was 1.68 x 10(4), 1.64 x 10(4), 1.67 x 10(4)/100 ml

during summer, monsoon, winter respectively. The monsoon season showed presence

of FC and TC indicated the thermo-tolerant and disease causing group of bacterial

population in effluent and its sequence was observed as monsoon>summer>winter.

This indicated the growth of many pathogenic and non-pathogenic bacteria for health

hazards.

Alam et al., (2007) analyzed for various water quality parameters during dry

and monsoon periods. Effects of industrial wastes, municipal sewage, and agricultural

runoff on river water quality have been investigated. The study was conducted within

the Chattak to Sunamganj portion of Surma River, which is significant due to the

presence of two major industries--a paper mill and a cement factory. The river was

found to be highly turbid in the monsoon season. But BOD and fecal coliform

concentration was found higher in the dry season. The water was found slightly

acidic. The mean values of parameters were Conductivity 84-805 micros; DO: dry-

5.52 mg/l, monsoon-5.72 mg/l; BOD: dry-1mg/l, monsoon-0.878 mg/l; Total Solid:

dry-149.4 mg/l, monsoon-145.7 mg/l.

Phyllis et al., (2007) determined the amount of TDS in a water sample is

measured by filtering the sample through a 2.0 μm pore size filter, evaporating the

remaining filtrate and then drying what is left to a constant weight at 180ºC. The

concentration and composition of TDS in natural waters is determined by the geology

of the drainage, atmospheric precipitation and the water balance. Changes in TDS

concentrations in natural waters often result from industrial effluent, changes to the

water balance.

Chatterjee et al., (2007) repoted that total coliforms fluctuated between 265

and 1753 MPN/100ml. the peak value was observed in monsoon months, which might

be due to the flushing of faecal contaminated water from the surrounding drains and

bank sides. The increasing level of MPN of coliforms was observed in summer.

Sharma and Chaturvedi (2007) reported that the seasonal variation of Vibrio was

observed at all sampling stations throughout the study period. The Vibrio species was

found more frequently at higher concentrations in the river water during summers.

Rawat and Jakher (2007) reported that the total bacterial colonies of lake

Kailana varied from 19,261 colonies in December 2000 to 49,542 colonies/100ml

(June, 2001). The maximum colonies being observed during summer and monsoon

season. Rainfall is one of the factor which affects the bacterial densities. Thakur and

Grover (2001) and Sengar and Singh (1986) found maximum viable bacterial count in

rainy season.

Tambekar et al., (2008) Determination of source of fecal pollution in rural

water by the use of antibiotic resistance profiling is promising and the patterns of

MAR in different animal populations vary according to the types and quantities of

agent used. In the present study, a total of 260 water samples from Akola an

Buldhana district were analyze for water quality and detection of thermotolerant

coliform (E.coli), and determined antibiotic resistance analysis from salinity affected

villages of Purna River baisn of Vidarbha and 243 (95%) water samples were found

contaminated by MTFT and 75 (29%) by MFT. The stuy indicated that the animals

were the major source, however Man was also significant contributor of water

contamination. Hence, attributor to poor sanitation, low level of hygienic sanitary

conditions and irregular disinfections by the local people needed to change their

behaviors and adopt better sanitation and hygienic practices and avoids open

defecation to prevalent fecal pollution in water sources.

Sood et al., (2008) studied assessment of bacterial indicators in river Ganga.

River Ganga is the largest river of Indian subcontinent and it originates in the state of

Uttara Khand. Because of its importance in Indian culture and dense population

residing at banks, it faces several forced & unforced human activities. Study

confirmed the presence of bacterial indicators of faecal origin at various altitudes in

every stretch of Gangetic river system. The results of bacteriological analysis of

water revealed that the situation is alarming. The lower regions of Ganga river

system of Uttara khand facing sever anthropological activates, Mostly due to religious

belief were heavily polluted. A huge bacterial gene pool was obtained after study

which was indicative of immense bacterial diversity in the region.

Rajasekaran et al., (2008) carried out to screen and evaluate the antimicrobial

activity of leaf extracts from Aegle marmelos (L.) Corr. Petroleum ether,

Dichloromethane, Chloroform, Ethanol and Aqueous extract of the leaves were tested

against selected Gram positive and Gram negative bacteria. Results depict that

phytochemical extracts of A.marmelos exhibited significant anti-bacterial activity.

However, the inhibitory activity was found to be both organism and solvent

dependent. Ethanol and chloroform leaf extracts of Aegel marmelos were found to be

more active towards the bacterial species tested. The leaf extracts inhibited the growth

of both Gram-positive and Gram negative bacterial species. Furthermore the aqueous

leaf extract was moderately active followed by dichloromethane extract. However,

petroleum ether extract was not effective against any of the organisms tested. Growth

of Lactobacillus bulgaris and Bacillus cereus was not inhibited by any of the tested

leaf extracts of A. marmelos. The study shows that ethanol and chloroform leaf

extracts of A. marmelos can be used as a potential source of antimicrobial agents.

Rahul et al., (2009) evaluated fresh leaves of Piper betle Linn. against both

Gram positive and Gram-negative bacterial strains by disc diffusion method. The

results revealed that all extracts showed effective inhibitory action against S. aureas,

aqueous, ethyl acetate and pet. Ether extracts were very effective as compared to

standard penicillin. Aqueous extract was also found significantly effective against

Bacillus and P.aureginosa as compared to standard penicillin.

Dhirendra et al., (2009) to analyze the water quality of river Ganga in

Haridwar district for irrigation purpose. Water samples were collected from 5

sampling stations. The study area has been divided into three seasons: Winter

(November-February), summer (March to June) and rainy (July to October). Water

quality variables were measured in the river over a period of two years (Nov.2006 to

Oct. 2008). The samples were analyzed for electrical conductivity (Ec), total

dissolved salts (TDS), magnesium content (MC), sodium percent (SP), sodium

adsorption ratio (SAR), residual sodium carbonate (RSC) and permeability index (PI).

Study of all these characteristics indicates that river water in rainy season is not

suitable for irrigation purpose because of high values of total dissolved salts, Ec and

SP.

Ashwani kumar and Anish (2009) studied Water quality of River Ravi, a

tributary of Indus River System was evaluated by Water Quality Index(WQI)

technique. Eight most important parameters such as pH, total dissolved solids (TDS),

total hardness, calcium (Ca), magnesium (Mg), total alkalinity, dissolved oxygen

(DO) and electrical conductivity (EC) were taken for the calculation of WQI. The

WQI values for the River Ravi ranged from 54.8 to 97.88. The values of WQI showed

that the water was free of any impurities at the sampling site except for 2-3 months

where its values were less than 70. Whenever there are human activities e.g., dam

operations, water gets polluted to some extent, so the value of WQI decreases.

Shaikh And Mandre (2009) concluded that certain parameters like , pH

temperature , EC & chloride ( expect sample no. 9 in summer ) under permissible

limit in all ten different water samples. Parameters like TDS , DO , COD , BOD &

hardness was beyond permissible limit in well water samples ( no. 8 , 9 & 10 ) while

in bore wells water samples ( 01-04) , River water samples ( 05 & 06 ) & water

supply for drinking ( no. 07) found under permissible limit i.e. satisfactory ; suitable

for drinking. In the present study concerned to seasonal change in parameter there was

no remarkable change of parameter as per season was found expect electrical

conductivity , temperature & quite chloride.

Saradha et al., (2010) Determined the antibacterial potential of Aegle

marmelos against seven standard pathogenic bacterial strains. To evaluate

antibacterial activity the agar-well diffusion assay was used. All the three extracts

showed the highest and significant antibacterial activity against both Gram negative

and Gram-positive bacteria. Bacillus subtilis was almost resistant to the three extracts

of Aegle marmelos.

Kar et al., (2010) the physical, chemical and microbiological characteristics of

Mahanadi river water in and around Hirakud, Orissa. Four different seasons

(monsoon, postmonsoon, winter and premonsoon) to evaluate the suitability of water

for various uses. The water samples were collected from four different points - the

Hirakud dam reservoir, upstream, middle stream and downstream of the river channel.

The samples were analysed for 18 physico-chemical parameters viz. water

temperature, turbidity, pH, electrical conductivity, total dissolved solids, DO, total

hardness, total alkalinity, chemical oxygen demand, biological oxygen demand,

fluoride, chloride, cyanide, sulphate, arsenic, mercury, faecal and total coliform.

Pearson’s correlation coefficients were calculated to show correlations between

various parameters using MINITAB software v.15.10. The Water quality index was

also calculated using NSF water quality calculator. It was observed that the Mahanadi

river water in this region is of category D, i.e. bad, and therefore it requires urgent

attention.

Venkatesharaju et al.,(2010) Cauvery River is the major river system of south

India was studied for 19 prime physicochemical and 2 bacteriological parameters at

six locations of the Kollegal stretch, for a period of Two years (2006–2008) at

monthly intervals. Over the years of time. The pH, Conductance, Alkalinity and

Hardness levels indicate the moderate quality of water. The values of DO, BOD and

COD levels indicate the absence of major organic pollution sources. Seasonal and

yearly averages of plant nutrients like phosphate, nitrates, potassium and also

sulphates at drain out falls and mixing zones, were not showing any significant

variation in their concentration indicate no sign of problems like eutrophication,

which is generally raise due to agricultural and sewage wastes. Concluded that river

water was not polluted; all results are within permissible limit when compared with

Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS) and National River water quality standards.

Rehana and Mujumdar (2011) Analysed climate change impacts on

streamflow of Tunga-Bhadra river in India. Low flows are found to be decreasing and

water temperatures are found to be increasing. As a result, there is a reduction in

dissolved oxygen (DO) levels found in recent years. Water quality responses of six

hypothetical climate change scenarios were simulated by the water quality model,

QUAL2K. A simple linear regression relation between air and water temperature is

used to generate the scenarios for river water temperature. The results suggest that all

the hypothetical climate change scenarios would cause impairment in water quality. It

was found that there is a significant decrease in DO levels due to the impact of

climate change on temperature and flows, even when the discharges were at safe

permissible levels set by pollution control agencies (PCAs).

Mohadikar et al., (2011) Regional Forensic Science Laboratory, Jodhpur,

Rajasthan, India The evaluation of water quality for a specific water body is typically

based on the major uses for that source. The acceptable amount of faecal coliform

bacteria in water used for irrigating vegetable crops is therefore different from the

guideline that is applied to waters used for swimming or drinking. Regions of

extensive agriculture and sewage outfalls have the potential to introduce pathogens

into surface waters which must be removed by water treatment before direct

consumption. The guidelines for water quality stipulated by Alberta Environment

indicate acceptable levels of indicator organisms that can be present to minimize the

possibility of waterborne disease. Livestock (especially beef cattle) can be important

sources of these microorganisms, especially during periods of high runoff.

Agricultural inputs are generally considered to be non-point sources because of their

wide geographic distribution and are difficult to control. Point sources such as sewage

outfalls are much easier to regulate and treat.

Ganga water is believed to be self puricatory in nature which is the reason

behind the uniqueness of it. Pradeep kumar et al., (2011) demonstratied the self

puricatory action of Ganga water against a clinical pathogen such as Streptococcus

with Millipore water as the standard. Millipore water is considered to be the most

pure water available for research purpose around the world. Ganga water is active

against various clinical pathogens due to its unique organic and inorganic

constituents. 8 year old Ganga water sample produced 14 mm zone of inhibition

against Streptococcus and 10 year old ganga sample produced 16 mm zone of

inhibition. The antimicrobial activity which is naturally present for Ganga water is not

observed in any other perennial river anywhere in the world.

Rai et al., (2011) studied the physico chemical parameters such as pH,

Electrical conductivity (EC), Alkalinity, Total Solids (TS), Hardness, Chloride,

Dissolved Oxygen (DO), Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD) & Most Probable

Number (MPN) were evaluated at selected sites of River Ganga. The river is

subjected to severe domestic and sewage pollution at two selected sites of Patna. At

sampling site I and II physico-chemical parameters were not found to be within the

safe limits of drinking water as World Health Organization W.H.O (1984). But at

sampling site II chloride were found within the safe limits. At sites I & II water

sample was not found good quality showing that the River Ganga has moderately

polluted. The present studies indicate that increase water pollution levels in the River

Ganga present near urban environment due to discharge of various types of waste

water or sewage effluents.

Rhama et al., (2011) isolated the flavinoid from fresh flowers of Tagetes

erecta L. by extraction and fractionation with different solvents. It was then subjected

to disc diffusion assay to assess its antibacterial potentials against Alcaligens faecalis,

Bacillus cereus, Campylobacter coli, Escherchia coli, Klebsiella pneumoniae,

Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Proteus vulgaris, Streptococcus mutans and Streptococcus

pyogenes .The flavonoid possesses antibacterial activity against all the tested strains

and showed maximum zone of inhibition.

Ismail et al. (2011) studied the antimicrobial properties of the methanol,

chloroform and polybutylene succinate (PBS) extracts of leaves and rhizome from

Imperata cylindrica against five clinical isolates of bacteria, namely Escherichia coli,

Bacillus subtilis, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Staphylococcus aureus and Candida

albicans. In disc diffusion test the three types of extracts showed varied levels of

antimicrobial activity against the tested isolates, with inhibition zones ranging from

6.33 ± 0.58 to 11.67 ± 8.14 mm diameters. The highest activity was exerted by the

methanol leaves extract on P. aeruginosa (11.67 ± 8.14mm) at 50 mg/ml and the least

activity was exerted by both the leaves and rhizome extracts of the plant at 1mg/ml on

B. subtilis, P. aeruginosa, S. aureus and E.coli (6.33 ± 0.58mm) respectively. A

minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) value of 25mg/ml was obtained for the

methanol, chloroform, PBS leaves or rhizome extracts on B. subtilis, P. aeruginosa, S.

aureus and E. coli.

Saroj Kothari et al., (2011) investigated the in vitro antimicrobial activity of

serial petroleum ether, chloroform and methanol extracts from leaves of Aegle

marmelos against bacterial and fungal species. All the extracts exhibited broad

spectrum antimicrobial activity with zones of inhibition ranging from 10 to 22 mm

against bacteria: Staphylococcus aureus, β Streptococcus haemolyticus group A,

Proteus mirabilis, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Escherichia

coli, Salmonella typhi, fungi: Candida albicans, Candida tropicalis and Aspergillus

flavus. Assessment of antibacterial efficacy of different extracts revealed that

Staphylococcus aureus, β Streptococcus haemolyticus groupA, Pseudomonas

aeruginosa and Escherichia coli showed high susceptibility to petroleum ether

extract. Proteus mirabilis, Klebsiella pneumoniae showed high susceptibility to

chloroform extract and Salmonella typhi showed high susceptibility to methanol

extract. Petroleum ether extract exhibited the highest antifungal efficacy against all

tested fungal species. The ability of the leaf extracts of Aegle marmelos to inhibit

growth of bacteria and fungi is an indication of its broad spectrum antimicrobial

activity.

Chakraborty et al., (2011)extracted four different extracts (water,methanol,

ethyl acetate and petroleum ether) of Piper betel leaves and tested against four

different pathogenic bacteria namely Streptococcus pyogenes, Staphylococcus aureus,

Proteus vulgaris and Escherichia coli. Further few known and unknown metabolites

were isolated from these extracts. Structural elucidations of new metabolites were

done by different analytical techniques like NMR, Mass and IR spectroscopy. Later

on, antioxidative and anti‐haemolytic activities were determined. Anti‐oxidative

studies were done by TBARS and DPPH method. Anti‐haemolytic activity was

determined using erythrocytes model and the extent of lipid peroxidation of the same

was also determined.

Sugumaran et al., (2011) extracted essential oil from vellaikodi variety of

Piper betle L leaves (Piperaceae) by hydro-distillation method in a clevenger type

apparatus. The essential oil thus obtained was analyzed by gas chromatography and

gas chromatography – mass spectroscopy. Sixty five components were identified in

the oil. The 5-(2-propenyl)-1,3-benzodioxole(25.67%) was determined as the first

major constituent in the oil, The second was eugenol,(18.27%)and third 2-methoxy-4-

(2-propenyl) acetate-phenol (8.00) were predominant components in this oil. The

antimicrobial screening of the isolated essential oil was performed against dental

pathogens such as Staphylococcus aureus, Streptococcus mutans, Lactobacillus

acidophilus, Candida albicans and Saccharomyces cerevisiae. The pronounced

antimicrobial potential of Piper betle oil against tested pathogens concludes that it

may serve as a source of antimicrobial agent for dental caries in commercial tooth

paste.

Annalakshmi & Amsath (2012) conducted Physico-chemical studies in river

Arasalar situated in Kumbakonam, Tamilnadu,India. The study was conducted from

January to December 2010. The parameters analyzed are water Temperature, pH,

dissolved oxygen, Calcium, Magnesium, Chloride Sodium, potassium, Ammonia,

Nitrite, Nitrate, Phosphate, Sulphate, Silicate and Iron. The results indicated that most

of the Physico-chemical quality parameters of River Arasalar were within the WHO

limits for drinking water and, therefore, may be suitable for domestic purpose.

However, nutrients levels were high during the study period and did not give any

clear seasonal variation. The results revealed that the values of Nitrite and Phosphate

do not compile with WHO standards. Water quality assessment of delta regions of

Arasalar River revealed strictly contamination from anthropogenic activities.

Tarun Agarwal et al., (2012) did a comparative study of antimicrobial

properties of four varieties of Piper betel; namely Desawari, Desi, Bangladeshi and

Jaleswar, cultivated in India. Cold Aqueous, Methanolic, Ethanolic, and Ethyl Acetate

extracts of dried leaves of all the four varieties of Piper betel at a final concentration

of 500 mg/ml were tested against pathogenic microorganisms such as Pseudomonas

aeruginosa, Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli using agar well diffusion

method. Leaves of Piper betel especially of variety Bangladeshi and Jaleswar, can be

a very good source for herbal drugs especially in Ethanol, Ethyl Acetate and Methanol

as solvents.

Prabhahar et al.,(2012) analysed the physico-chemical characteristics in Palar

River water at Vaniyambadi segment to assess the water quality. The physico-

chemical parameters like Temperature, pH, Electrical conductivity (EC), Total

hardness (TH), Total alkalinity (TH), Chlorides (Cl), Dissolved oxygen (DO),

Biological oxygen demand (BOD), Chemical Oxygen demand (COD) Turbidity,

Total solids (TS), Total dissolved solids (TDS), Total suspended solids (TSS),

Phosphates (PO4) , Nitrates (NO

3) and Sulphates (SO

4) were considered. The overall

analysis, it was observed that the fluctuations in the Physico-chemical parameters of

water samples. The Palar River daily has been facing the problems of municipal

sewage, industrial wastes and anthropogenic activities.

Prasannabalaji et al., (2012) Evaluated the in vitro antibacterial activity of

various solvent extracts of South Indian traditional medicinal plants Ocimum

sanctum, Ocimum gratissimum, Aegle marmelos, and Adhatoda vasica leaves against

clinical pathogens of human origin. The result demonstrated methanol leaf extract

has potent antibacterial activity and the studied plants may be new source for novel

antibacterial compound discovery for treating drugs resistant human pathogens.

Bharathi et al., (2012) Studied The methanolic and ethyl acetate extracts of

Tridax procumbens. The antibacterial activity of methanolic and ethyl acetate leaf

extracts of Tridax procumbens Linn (L.) were examined against Escherichia

coli,,Klebsiella pneumoniae, Salmonella typhi, Bacillus cereus and Staphylococcus

aureus. Antibacterial activity was investigated by disc and agar well diffusion

method. The ethyl acetate extracts of the Tridax procumbens showed effective

inhibition against the Staphylococcus aureus than compared to other organism.

Therefore the leaves of Tridax procumbens can be considered to be the promising

source of antimicrobial compounds.

Kiranmai and Ibrahim (2012) investigated the antibacterial effect of different

extracts of leaves and flowers of Tagetes erecta Linn. After performing preliminary

phytochemical screening and thin layer chromatography, antibacterial study was

evaluated according to the agar diffusion method by using gram positive B.cereus, S.

aureus and gram negative E.coli, P. aeruginosa. This study was shown that pet ether

extract of leaves and ethylacetate extract of flower of Tagetes erecta significantly

inhibit the growth of bacteria dose dependently.

Srinivasa Rao et al., (2012) studied Ground water is the only source of potable

water for majority of people in the study area. This ground water in almost all the

villages consists of excess of fluoride. Hence the present study was undertaken to

characterize the physicochemical nature (parameters) of Ground water in Nujendla

area in Guntur District by taking water samples from thirteen different stations.

Evaluation of physicochemical parameters was carried out. To assess the quality of

groundwater, each parameter was compared with the standard desirable limit of that

parameter in drinking water as prescribed by different agencies. A systematic

calculation was made to determine the correlation coefficient ‘r’ amongst the

parameters and the significant values of the observed correlation coefficient between

the parameters was worked out. Suitable suggestions were made to improve the

quality of groundwater of Nujendla areas.

Jagadeesh et al., (2012) studied the quality of surface and groundwater quality

in Hipparagi irrigation command area, Karnataka, India and compared to BIS

standards. The water in the study area is slightly acidic to slightly alkaline in nature

EC exceeded the acceptable limits in bore well and open well samples. Most of the

bore well and open well and river samples exceeded acceptable limits of BIS for TDS.

Sulphates of bore well samples (63%) and open samples (33%) showed higher than

acceptable limits of BIS. Phosphates showed within the acceptable limits in bore well

and open well samples, but river water showed higher than acceptable limits and it

indicate that surface water is polluted by phosphates by washing and other domestic

activities. For both Ca and Mg, 74% of bore well samples and river water in the study

area exceeded the acceptable limits. COD values were high in open well samples

compared to bore well and river water samples. Groundwater samples were polluted

compared to river in the study area it needs immediate attention for implementation of

remedial measures.

Thirumala (2012) worked on Some Physicochemical characteristics of a fresh

water wetland .The analysis was carried out for a period of two years. Physical

parameters such as colour, odour, temperature, electrical conductivity (EC) total

suspended solids (TSS) total solids (TS), turbidity and chemical parameters such as

pH, Alkalinity, hardness, dissolved oxygen (DO), Biochemical oxygen demand

(BOD), chemical oxygen demand(COD), chloride, salinity, fluoride, phosphate, &

nitrate were examined. Result of the study indicated that water in Tungabhadra River

is highly contaminated and not safe for drinking. Uncontrolled use of poly fibers

industries effluents and scrupulous dumping of domestic wastes of Harihara city and

surrounding villages are the major causes of deterioration of water. Poor quality of

drinking water was recorded as the major risk factors for the large- scale water borne

diseases in the area.

Ashiq et al., (2012) assess the microbiological quality of Kallada river water.

Standard procedures were adopted for the study. The parameter studied were total

Plate count, total number of Coliforms, Total number of E.coli and total number of

faecal streptococci. The study showed that the river water is unfit for drinking or

house hold purposes. It is more contaminated with pathogenic bacteria probably due

to intense anthropogenic activities and can cause incidence of waterborne disease if

used improperly. Hence preventive measures are to be adopted and awareness

programmes are to be organized by governmental and nongovernmental

organisations. A number of recommendations are suggested for the above purpose.

Indu and Simerjit (2012) analyzed the water quality of river Yamuna in Delhi.

Water samples were collected from 4 sampling stations. The study area has been

divided into three seasons: Winter (November-February), summer (March to June)

and rainy (July to October). Water quality variables were measured in the river over a

period of two years (Nov, 2009 to Oct, 2011). The samples were analyzed for

electrical conductivity (EC), pH and total dissolved salts (TDS). Study of all these

characteristics indicates that river water in rainy season is not suitable for irrigation

purpose because of high values of total dissolved salts.

Rajiv et al., (2012) studied river water from different parts of western Tamil

Nadu, India samples were collected in the period between January – March 2012 and

various physico-chemical and microbial analyses were performed based on standard

methods. The comparative results showed the pH (7.5 to 10.0), DO (8-16 mg/ml),

BOD (2.5 -7.5 mg/L), COD (14.5 -15 mg/L), total hardness (100-520 mg/L), calcium

(80-200 mg/L), magnesium (20-320 mg/L), number of bacterial colonies(100-120

CFU) and number of fungal colonies(30-45 CFU). And stated that low pH values

obtained in the river water samples, which may consequently affect the bacterial

counts. Wild and domestic animals seeking drinking water can also contaminate the

water through direct defecation and urination.

Mahesh Kumar and Raju (2012A) presented the forecasted monthly values of

water quality parameters viz., pH, Water Temperature and Dissolved Oxygen of River

Godavari at Rajahmundry water quality monitoring station, Andhra Pradesh, India.

Time series methods of forecasting were used for the predictions of parameter values.

The predicted values are compared with actual measured observations using statistical

performance tests. Time series forecasting of future water quality conditions is an

important measure to take up necessary measures to preserve the water quality of

Rivers.

Mahesh Kumar and Raju (2012B) studied pH, Dissolved Oxygen, Electrical

Conductivity, Total Dissolved solids, Total Alkalinity, Total Hardness, Calcium and

Magnesium to evaluate WQI of River Godavari at Rajahmundry water quality

monitoring station. The seasonal variations of WQI during the study period (2009-

2012) and future period (2012-2015) are discussed. The water quality of River

Godavari at Rajahmundry station varied from excellent to good. High values of WQI

for the future three years (June 2012 to May 2015) indicate that the water quality of

River Godavari is good.

Rahman et al., (2012) assessed the degree of pollution of Turag river water by

determining various physico-chemical parameters. Water samples were collected six

times per year during wet and dry season at the following three locations: Tongi

Railway Bridge, Bishwa Ijtema field and Ashulia. Most of the measured

physicochemical parameters exceeded permissible limit of drinking water. Due to the

increased values of the parameters pH, DO, BOD, COD and free CO2 water from

these locations was not suitable for human consumption without appropriate

treatment. Compared to other two stations, the pollution level of Tongi Railway

Bridge is significantly higher because, it passes through industrialized and more

unplanned residential area.

Yadav et al., (2012) estimated Total Escheria coli (EC) in water samples

collected from different sampling areas (Higher Income Group, Minimum Income

Group, Lower Income Group, Juggi Jhopari and Industrial Area) of entire Kanpur

during seasonal variation (Summer, Rainy and Winter) which revealed the unsanitary

condition of water sources. Result showed that Maximum EC were in JJ area water

samples and were minimum from contamination in HIG area. However, MIG, LIG

and IA areas behaved intermediary.

Rahmi et al., (2012) examined antibacterial activity potency of methanol

extract of Rhyzophora mucronata against gram positive bacteria (Staphylococcus

aureus) and gram negative bacteria (Escherichia coli). Antibacterial activity was

showed by almost all extracts

Parkavi et al., (2012) extracted the active constituents present in the plant

Imperata cylindrica by cold maceration method and to find the folklore claim of

antibacterial action. The antibacterial activity was performed under sterile condition

by using cup and plate method. Three extracts were prepared for this study such as

ether extract, ethanolic extract and aqueous extract. The antibacterial test was tested

against Staphylococcus aureus and E. coli. The zone of inhibition (diameter) was

measured and results showed that aqueous extract had very potent antibacterial

activity comparatively with other extracts.