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CHAPTER II

LITERATURE REVIEW, CONCEPTS

AND THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

In this chapter, the study explains about the literature review from thesis and

journal review. Concept of discourse, context, cohesion which is including text,

texture, ties and cohesion itself, the lexical cohesion and the last is the context of

situation. The last is explanation of theoretical framework, where the main theory

comes from Halliday and Hasan (1976) and David Nunan (1993).

2.1 Literature Review

Literature review explained about the review of the literature that used in this

study. There are two literature reviews in this study; those are; thesis review and

journal review.

2.1.1 Thesis Review

In thesis review, there are three theses that were reviewed and two Journals

that related to the topic of the study.

Aksana (2006) in his thesis about lexical cohesion of editor’s massage in Bog-

Bog magazine. His thesis is aimed to analyse and identify the lexical cohesion and

the context of situation which are used in the text. In his study, there are two

problems found first how the lexical cohesion built in editor's massage in Bog-Bog

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Magazine and second is how the context of situation reflects the written text of

editor's massage in Bog-Bog Magazine. The data were taken from an English written

text editor's massage of Bali Cartoon Magazine named 'Bog-Bog Magazine'. His

collected data were analysed descriptively and qualitative^ based on the theory of

cohesion proposed by Halliday and Hasan on their book entitled Cohesion in English

(1976), and the theory of context of situation proposed by Halliday on his book

entitled Language, Context, and Text: Aspect of Language in a Social-Semiotic

Perspective (1985).

Budiasih (2007) about context of situation and lexical cohesion in Legend Story.

In her thesis she investigates the context of situation affecting in the story and finding

out the types of lexical cohesion. The primary data of Budiasih's thesis was taken

from a legend story entitled Giant Kebo Iwa that consists of four paragraphs. It was

selected as the data based on the need of her research. The selected data was whereas

each qualitatively analysed by using descriptive technique. The analysis was based on

the theory proposed by M.A.K. Halliday and Ruqaiya Hasan on their book entitled

Language, Context and Text: Aspect of Language in Social-Semiotic Perspective

(1985), and Cohesion in English (1976).

Widari (2005), who discusses the types of lexical cohesion found in the English

text cassette cover based on the theory of discourse analysis. The aims are to analyse

how many types of lexical cohesion found in the text and what types is most

frequently used. In her thesis the analysed data was taken from an English text found

in a cassette cover, which is a monologue text that tells about the songs content in the

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cassette, how the process of the album made, and also consists of expressions of

thanks from the singer to some dedicated people in her life. Her analysis of the data

already collected by means of library research method which is based on inductive-

deductive method. It means that the data were analysed from the data towards the

theory and from the theory towards the data. Then, the data that has been analysed is

presented descriptively. The main theory used in her study which was based on the

theory of David Nunan (1993), and Halliday and Hasan (1976).

There are similarities of this study with those previous studies. Those studies

discussed about lexical cohesion and used the same theory that proposed by Halliday

and Hasan (1976) and Nunan (1993). Moreover, the differences of this study with

those previous studies are from the data source and the technique of analyzing the

data. On the previous study, the data source was taken from cartoon magazine, legend

story and cassette cover while in this study the data source was taken from Indonesia

Tatler Traveller Magazine.

By reviewing all these above it can support this study in the sense of giving

explanation about the types of lexical cohesion and also give some information about

how to analyse the types of lexical cohesion itself.

2.1.2 Journal Review

Morley (2006) in Lexical Cohesion and Corpus Linguistics: Special issue of

International Journal of Corpus Linguistics (11:3). In his article Lexical Cohesion

and Rhetorical Structure he states that lexical cohesion does not only contributes to

11

the texture of a text, it can help to indicate the rhetorical development of the

discourse. This article looks at this argument -structuring function of lexical cohesion

first by considering single texts using the techniques of Classical Discourse Analysis

and then by using the methodology of corpus linguistics to examine several million

words of text. First, the nature of cohesive links within single article is examined.

Next, the link between headlines and the articles that follow them is studied. Finally,

various concessive mechanisms which structure arguments are examined in detail. It

is argued that an awareness of the mechanisms outlined in this article will help

students to understand better the kind of argumentation presented in the texts. All the

texts studied are from English newspapers.

On the other hand, Mahlberg (2006) also in the same journal, Lexical

Cohesion and Corpus Linguistics: Special issue of International Journal of Corpus

Linguistics (11:3) with his article Lexical Cohesion: Corpus linguistic theory and its

application in English language teaching explain that the cohesion is generally

described with regard to two broad categories; grammatical cohesion and lexical

cohesion. These categories reflect a view on language that treats grammar and lexis

along separate lines. Language teaching textbooks on cohesion often follow this

division. In contrast, a corpus theoretical approach to the description of English

prioritizes lexis and does not assume that lexical and grammatical phenomena can be

clearly distinguished. Consequently, cohesion can be seen in a new light: cohesion is

created by interlocking lexico-grammatical patterns and overlapping lexical items. A

corpus theoretical approach to cohesion has important implications for English

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language teaching. The article looks at difficultes of teaching cohesion, shows links

between communicative approaches to ELT and corpus linguistics, and suggests

practical application of corpus theoretical concepts.

2.2 Concepts

The concepts of this study were based on the theory of cohesiveness proposed

by Halliday and Hasan and also by other theories which are related to this study.

2.2.1 Discourse

Halliday and Hasan (1985:10) state that discourse is a type of structure; the

term is used to refer to the structure of some postulated unit higher than the sentence.

In the other hand, Crystal (1992 :25) explains that discourse is a continuous

stretch of (especially spoken) language larger than a sentence, often constituting a

coherent unit such as sermon, argument, joke, or narrative. The term discourse has

relation to the study of the text. Nunan (1993:6) also said that discourse refers to

language in context. Discourse analysis involves study of language in use.

2.2.2 Context

Context is very important in understanding a text, in order to be able to find

the real message that is wanted to be conveyed by the writer. Halliday (1985:7) state

the term of context refers to the text within a text, text which is put together or

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accompanies other text. It includes other nonverbal going on or the total environment

in which a text unfold.

According to Nunan (1993) context refers to the situation giving rise to the discourse,

and within which the discourse is embedded. He also state two different types of

context. First is the linguistic context - the language that surrounds or accompanies

the piece of discourse under analysis. And second is the non-linguistic or experiential

context within which the discourse takes place.

2.2.3 Context of Situation

Halliday (1985) explain that context of situation serve to interpret the social

context of the text, the environment in which meaning are being exchanged. Context

is very important in understanding a text in order to be able to find the real message

that wants to be conveyed by the writer. In order to be able to understand what people

mean, Halliday classifies the context of situation into three; Field, Tenor and Mode.

2.2.4 Cohesion

Halliday and Hassan (1976) state that cohesion refers to the range of

possibilities that exist for linking something with what has been going on before.

The concept of cohesion is a semantic one; it refers to relations of meaning

that exist within the text and that define it as a text. Cohesion also occurs where the

interpretation of some elements in the discourse is dependent on that of another

(Halliday and Hasan, 1976).

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2.2.5 Lexical Cohesion

Nunan (1993: 28) State that lexical cohesion occurs when two words in a text

are semantically related in some ways - in other words, they are related in terms of

their meaning. It can be identified into two; reiteration and collocation.

1. Reiteration

Is the form of lexical cohesion which involves the repetition of lexical item, the use

of general word to refer back to a lexical item, and number of things in between like

the use of synonym, near-synonym, or superordinate. It Covers repetition, synonym,

superordinate, and general word.

2. Collocation

Is the term that uses all items in the texts that are semantically related, it is related to

the idea or sense of meaning. Collocation can be explained by means of;

complementary, antonym, conveseness, the same ordered séries, unordered lexical

sets, and certain lexical sets.

2.3 Theoretical Framework

This study based on discourse analysis study and the analysis of type's lexical

cohesion that mainly will be based on the theory which are proposed by Halliday and

Hasan (1976) in Cohesion in English and David Nunan (1993) in Introducing

Discourse Analysis. Then, the theory of context of situation proposed by Halliday in

15

his book entitled Language, Context and Text: Aspect of Language in a Social-

Semiotic Perspective is chose for the supporting theory. Those théories are very close

related to this study because this study are aimed to find out the types of lexical

cohesion that frequently occured and to compare the types of lexical cohesion found

in the editor's note of Indonesia Tatler Traveller Magazine. In principle Nunan states

that:

"Lexical cohesion occurs when two words in a text are semantically related in some

ways -in other words, they are related in terms of their meaning".

Furthermore, Halliday and Hasan explain that lexical cohesion is 'phone'

cohesion that is established through the structure of lexis, or vocabulary and hence at

the lexico-grammatical level (1976:274). In their book entitled Cohesion in English

(1976) Halliday and Hasan distinguishes the types of cohesion into two; Lexical

Cohesion and Grammatical Cohesion.

2.3.1 Lexical cohesion

Lexical Cohesion is cohesion that expressed through relation on vocabulary.

"Lexical cohesion occurs when two words in a text are semantically related in some

way - in other words, they are related in terms of their meaning" (Nunan, 1993:28).

Based on Halliday and Hasan (1976), lexical cohésion can be identified into two, as

follows:

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2.3.1.1 Reiteration

Is the form of lexical cohesion which involves the repetition of lexical item,

the use of general word to refer back to a lexical item, and number of things in

between like the use of synonym, near-synonym, or superordinate. It covers

repetition, synonym, superordinate, and generai word.

a. Repetition is more frequently used in certain discourse types than the others.

Repetition means that the lexical items already present in the previous sentence and

are repeated in the following sentences on the text. It reflects the continuity of

thoughts and subject matter.

Example:

Algy meet a bear. The bear was bulgy. (Halliday, 1985:310)

The word bear in the second occurrence harks back to the first.

What we lack in a newspaper is what we should get. In a word, a 'popular' newspaper

may be the winning ticket. (Nunan, 1990:29)

The word newspaper in the second occurrence harks back to the first.

b. Synonym or near - synonym is the second part of reiteration, where the occurrence of

this two lexical item on the text having the same or nearly the same meaning. This

does not mean that there is a total overlap meaning, simply that so far as one kind of

meaning goes, and they mean the same.

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Example:

Accordingly ...I took leave, and turned to the ascent of the peak. The climb is perfect

easy... (Halliday and Hasan, 1976:278).

c. Superordinate is used to refer to a word which has general properties, not the specific

one.

Example:

Pneumonia has arrived with the cold and wet conditions.

The illness is striking everyone from infants to the elderly. (Nunan, 1990:28)

The word illness is the superordinate of the word pneumonia.

d. General word which correspond to major classes of lexical item are very commonly

used with cohesive force.

Example:

There's a boy climbing the tree.

The idiot's going to fall if he doesn't take care. (Halliday and Hasan, 1976:279-280)

The word boy is a gênerai word for idiot.

2.3.1.2 Collocation

Is the term that uses all items in the texts that are semantically related, it is

related to the idea or sense of meaning. Collocation can be explained by means of;

complementary, antonym, conveseness, the same ordered series, unordered lexical

sets, and certain lexical sets.

The types of collocation can be seen as follows:

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a. Complementary is related by a particular type of oppositeness. It is used to achieve

strong cohesion in a text, where the presence of one sense component excludes

another and there is no gradation between the terms.

Example:

1. Work in a hotel is an interesting job for man or woman. (General English,

1997:40)

2. Many boys and girls own an aquarium with pretty Goldfish inside it. (General

English, 1997:67)

In sentence (1), the items man and woman are complement to each other and the

occurrences of those two items are classified as complementary. Similar to the

sentence (1), boys and girls in example (2) is also complement to each other.

b. Antonym can be described as the oppositeness of experiential meaning and it

involves grabble opposite between the items.

Example:

When we are angry we dose the mouth firmly. Sometimes we open the mouth when

we feel surprised or afraid. (General English, 1997:67)

The word close and open can be classified as antonym, because they have an opposite

meaning.

c. Converseness describes a contrast of lexical item. It is contrastive lexical relation as

there is a measure of logical reciprocity between lexical items with the presupposed

one. Converseness is predominantly associated with reciprocal social roles, kinship

relation, spatial, or temporal relations, and a number of verbs.

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Example:

Allan Wood court stood beside your father when he lay dead. He stood beside your

dead mother. Today, I give you to him a father's love. (Dickens, 1992:102)

The contrastive of lexical items mentioned is a kinship relation between the word

father and mother and there is a reciprocal meaning between the items. This relation

can be classified as converseness.

d. The same ordered séries is a set of lexical item which are found among words that

dénote unité or periods of time.

Example:

The visitors arrived at the house on a Saturday. On the Sunday morning they walked

to the little church in the park. (Dickens, 1992:41)

The item Saturday and Sunday are creating cohesive effects in the text. Their

occurrence is considered as the same ordered séries and they are included as related

items. Here Saturday and Sunday refer to the names of days in a week,

e. Unordered lexical sets have three différent types which can sub classified

into: part-to-part relation, part-to-whole relation, and co-hyponym.

1. Part-to-part relation refers to a recognizable relation where one lexical item, as part

of a thing occurs mutually with another.

Example:

He lay there, completely still, dressed in shirt and trousers. His hair and beard were

long and ragged. His eyes were open. (Dickens, 1996:17)

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The item hair and beard is form of part-to-part relation, and their occurrence creates

cohesiveness. Those items can be classified to such relation and they are included in a

group of the same thing that is part of head.

2. Part-to-whole relation is the relation between one lexical item, as a part of a thing,

which occurs mutually with another.

Example:

Each of the différent parts of our body, our eyes, our ears, our nose, our arms, many

différent thing to do. (General English, 1997:60)

The example above shows the occurrence of part-to-whole relation created by the

items body, eyes, ears, nose, and arms. The items eyes, ears, nose and arms refer to

the item body, since ail of those items are part of body or they are inclusive to body.

3. Co-hyponym is a relationship existing between set of lexical items which are

included as a hyponym under the term of superordinate.

Example:

The moon and the star were out when the driver suddenly stood up, waved his whip

and cried. (Dickens, 1992:19)

The presence of the moon and the star in the above example is collocation one to

another and it can be classified as co-hyponym, since they are included in the same

superordinate term, namely the object of the sky.

f. Certain lexical sets are the types of collocation cohesion which cover the semantic

relation within the lexical item. The cohesive effect that is built deriving from the

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occurrence of such lexical pair on text simultaneously. It means that the relation is not

easy to classify in systematic terms.

Example:

The journey, through darkness and snow, seemed to Esther like a dreadful dream. The

coach drove quickly through the dark street. The often stooped at police stations

where Mr. Bucket asked questions. (Dickens, 1992:92)

In the above example, we can see the cohesive effect of the text formed by the items

journey, coach, streets, and police stations, in which they are considered as certain

lexical sets, since they have similar pattern of collocation and have semantic relation

to one and another.

2.3.2 Grammatical Cohesion

Grammatical cohesion is kind of cohesion that expresses through relation on

grammar. According to Halliday and Hasan (1976), the types of grammatical

cohesion divided into four items, those are: reference, substitution, ellipsis, and

conjunction.

1. Reference

Reference is a communicative relationship between words and sentences in a text

and as a cohesive element has semantic basis. As semantic property, reference not

necessarily has been encoded in the text.

Reference is divided into four kinds of situational reference. They are exophoric,

endophoric reference, anaphoric reference, and cataphoric referency.

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1. Exophoric Reference

Exophoric reference is reference that must be interpreted to the context of situation

and it does not name anything. It means that exophoric reference contributes to the

creation of the text only; it does not contribute directly to cohesion within the text.

2. Endophoric Reference

Endophoric reference is reference that must be made the text and refers to a thing as

identified in the surrounding text. There are two types of endophoric reference, they

are anaphoric and cataphoric reference.

3. Anaphoric Reference

Anaphoric reference is reference to preceding text.

4. Cataphoric Reference

Cataphoric reference is reference that involves information referring to the following

text.

Halliday and Hasan (1976) also identify three sub-types of referential

cohesion; they are personal, demonstrative and comparative reference.

1. Personal Reference

Personal reference is reference that expressed through pronouns and determiners. It

serves to identify individuals and objects that are named at some other point in the

text.

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2. Demonstrative Reference

Demonstrative reference is reference that expressed through determiners and adverb.

These items can represent a single word or phrase, or much longer chunk of text -

ranging across several paragraphs or even several pages.

3. Comparative Reference

Comparative reference is reference that expressed through adjectives and adverbs and

serves to compare items within a text in terms of identity or similarity.

2. Substitution

Substitution is a relation within a text. A substitution is a short of counter,

which is used in the place of répétition of a particular item or simply refers to the

replacement of one item by another. There are three types of substitution, they are:

1. Nominal Substitution

The nominal substitution is reflected by one and ones. The substitution

one/ones is the maker of a grammatical relation; it présupposes a particular noun that

has function as Head in the nominal group.

2. Verbal Substitution

The verbal substitution in English is do (with the usual morphological scatter

do, does, did, doing, and done).

3. Causal Substitution

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Causal substitution is a kind of substitution in which the one that is

presupposed is not an élément within the clause but an entire clause and the

contrasting élément is provided outside the clause.

3. Ellipsis

Ellipsis is a form of substitution whereby omissions can be made in a sentence

or passage regarding a noun or a verb as well as a clause considered as same as

substitution, namely nominal ellipsis, verbal ellipsis and clausal ellipsis.

1. Nominal Ellipsis

Nominal ellipsis occurs when an élément in a particular nominal group is left

unexpressed.

2. Verbal Ellipsis

The verbal ellipsis is ellipsis within the verbal group. The elliptical verbal group

présupposes one or more words from a previous verbal group.

3. Clausal Ellipsis

Clausal ellipsis is ellipsis within the structure of the clause. In clausal ellipsis there

could be the omission of complément, adjunct or other element in one clause.

4. Conjunction

Conjunction differs from reference, Substitution, and ellipsis in that it is not a

device for reminding the reader or previously mentioned entities, actions and states of

25

affairs. There are four types of conjunction; adversative, additive, temporal and

causal.

1. Adversative

Adversative refers to the relation which belongs to different sentences that are

grouped together.

2. Additive

Additive appears when two sentences structurally grouped together.

3. Temporal

Temporal refers to the dimension that is presented in the communication process.

4. Causal

Causal tends to be specific such as result, reason and purpose. They are distinguished

to each other; except for they are used as prepositional phrases.

2.3.3 Context of Situation

Bronislaw Malinowsky is a linguist who proposed firstly the concept of

context of situation (in Halliday and Hasan 1985). He states that the utterance

becomes only intelligible when it is placed within its context of situation. In this case,

context refers to the total environment of the text including the verbal environment

and the situation in which the text was uttered.

In order to be able to understand what people mean, Halliday classifies the

context of situation as foliows:

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2.3.3.1 Field

Halliday state that the field of discourse refers to what is happening. The field

refers to the nature of social action that is taking place, what is the participants are

engaged in, and which the language figures as some essential component. Halliday

and Hasan (1985:45) also explain that the field of discourse is the 'play' - the kind of

activity, as recognised in the culture, within which the language is playing some parts

[predicts experiential meaning].

The field largely détermines the content what is being said. It refers to what

the participants in the context of the situation are actually engaged in doing.

The notion of field includes the items as follows:

1. Arena/activities: refers to particularly to the location of the interlocutors.

2. Participants: refers to the inhérent features of the participants.

3. Semantic domain: refers to the broad domain, the gênerai subject matter of the

content of the spécifie language event.

2.3.3.2 Tenor

The tenor of discourse refers to who is taking part. The ténor also refers to the

nature of the participant, their status and rôles, including kinds of relationship

obtained among the participants whether that is permanent or temporary relationships

of one kind or another. Based on Halliday and Hasan (1985:46) the ténor of discourse

is the 'players' - the actors or rather the interacting rôles, that are involved in the

création of the text [predicts interpersonal meanings].

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The tenor of discourse of the interpersonal system account several features

such as :

1. The speech roles (modes) of either statement/question or demand.

2. The person involved of speaker and addressing.

3. The polarity of either positive and negative.

2.3.3.3 Mode

Halliday and Hasan (1985:46) state that mode of discourse is the 'parts' - the

particular functions that are assigned to language in this situation, and the rethorical

channel that is therefore allotted to it [predicts textual meanings]. The mode of

discourse refers to what part the language is playing. The mode also refers to what the

participants are expecting the language to do for them in that situation. It also

mentions the symbolic organization of the text, the status and its function in the

context, including the channel that spoken or written and what is achieved by the text

in terms of such catégories as persuasive, expository, didactic, and others.

The mode features several aspects of :

1. Theme comprising of person theme or object theme.

2. The use of cohesion of reference (to situation-exophoric and to text-anaphoric),

conjunction (adversative or neutral).

3. Ellipsis (dialogue).

4. The lexical cohesion : reiteration and collocation.

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2.3.3.4 Text

Based on Halliday and Hasan (1976:1) a text is unit of language in use. It is

no grammatical unit like a clause or sentence; and it is not defined by its size. A text

is sometimes envisaged to be some kind of super-sentence, grammatical unit that is

larger than a sentence but is related a sentence in the same way that a sentence is

related to a clause, a clause to a group and so on (Halliday and Hasan 1976: 1-2).

Text is a piece of naturally occurring spoken, written, or signed discourse identified

for purposes analysis. It is often a language unit with a definable communicative

function, such as conversation, a poster (Nunan 1993: 6).

2.3.3.5 Texture

The concept of texture is entirely appropriate to express the property of 'being

a text'. A text has texture, and this is what distinguishes it from something that is not

a text. It derives this texture from the fact that it's function as a unity with respect to

its environment (Halliday and Hasan 1976:2). Texture is important in distinguishing a

text from something that is not a text. Any passage that is consists of more than

sentences is perceived as a text. It means that there will be certain linguistic features

present in that passage which contributes to its total unity and gives its texture.

2.3.3.6 Ties

A tie is a term for one occurrence of part of cohesively related to items. It

refers to a single instance of cohesion. We cannot have a tie without two members,

29

and the members cannot appear in a tie unless there is a relationship between them,

such semantic relations from the basis for cohesion between the messages of a text.

There are certain kinds of meaning relation that may obtain between the two members

(Halliday and Hasan 1985: 73).

The concept of tie makes it possible to analyze a text in term of its cohesive

properties, and give a systematic account of its patterns of texture. Ties are a term

used to a single instance of cohesion pointed to the occurrence of a pair of cohesively

related items (Halliday 1976: 4).