Chapter Five: Chapter Five:

Decision Making in Decision Making in AdministrationAdministration

The Nature of DecisionsDecision making: product of

complex social process generally extending over a long period of timeIncreasing potential gainsMonitoring ongoing decisional processReducing resource expenditure,

uncertainty or risk

Approaches to Decision Making:Concepts and Controversies

Rational approachWorks to achieve conscious goalsEfficiencyCost-benefit analysis/cost-benefit ratiosValue-neutralProcedural criteria

Approaches to Decision Making:Concepts and Controversies

Critiques of rational modelOnly applicable to low-level decisionsMany impediments to rationalityCompetition for resourcesMust deal with different aspects of same

problemNot usually applicable to government

decision-making processes

Incrementalism and Mixed Scanning: Response and Counterresponse

IncrementalismUses limited successive comparisonsSimplified choicesStatus quo as reference for decisionsShort-term effects & crucial consequencesLess formalized cost/benefit

measurementsSatisfice

Incrementalism and Mixed Scanning: Response and Counterresponse

Advantages of incrementalismCan satisfy ambiguous orders and

legislative requirements while buying timeSometimes economic models inappropriateCan use nonquantitative measures

Incrementalism and Mixed Scanning: Response and Counterresponse

Critiques of incrementalismMarginal changes may not meet policy

demands, may overlook larger needs Makes inertia and status quo acceptable

Incrementalism and Mixed Scanning: Response and Counterresponse

Mixed scanningIncorporates elements of rational and

incremental approachesDecisions made by exploring main

alternatives, but details omitted to permit overview

Decisions in the Balance: The Environment of Choice

Decision-maker considerationsKinds/quantity of resources to be usedBenefits vs. probable costsHow are benefits and costs measured?Substantive groundsPolitical groundsOrganizational grounds

Which factor predominates?

Decisions in the Balance: The Environment of Choice

Different grounds predominate for different decision makersSpecialists (area of expertise)Generalists (political factors)

Time factors

Information Quality and Decision Analysis

Quantity and quality of informationDecision analysis techniquesExperimental methodTechnologyHuman judgment and experience

LimitationsImperfect informationCosts of obtainingBiasesDeliberately distorted information

Information Quality and Decision Analysis

Other issues facing decision makersInfluence by previous decisions, current

policyUnanticipated consequencesGroupthinkSunk costs

Bounded rationality framework

The Problem of Goals

Organizational goals: survival, maintenance, substantive, symbolicSymbolic goals attract political supportPublic policy goals may be aims (not

attainable)Criticism can lead to “lowering the bar”

The Problem of GoalsPersonal goals: livelihood,

advancement or self improvement, strong policy attachmentSome focus on personal goals onlyPersonal goals can lead to conflicts

The Problem of Goals

Downs’ bureaucratic mind-sets: ClimbersConserversZealotsAdvocatesStatesmen

Ideal to have goal congruence

Ethical Dimensions of Decision Making

What is ethical behavior?ASPA’s Code of EthicsPublic and ethical obligationsBailey’s moral attitudes and qualitiesInternal vs. external checksRely on bureaucrat’s character/inclinationsPublic morality and public trust

The Ethical Setting: New Emphasis on an Old ChallengeChallenge in defining, establishing

and maintaining high level of ethical behavior in government officials

Ethical behaviorsProfessional conductPersonal honestyConcern for serving publicRespecting law and democratic beliefs

The Ethical Setting: New Emphasis on an Old ChallengeImplementation:

Formal adoption of ethics codeProfessional association codesFinancial disclosure requirementsHonoraria restrictionsProfessional activity restrictionsIn-house ethics training

Moral leadership

Political Rationality: A Contradiction in Terms?

Can politics and rationality coexist?Political rationality

Political costs, benefits, consequencesChoice of criteria significant

Organized Anarchies and UncertaintyOrganized anarchies

Garbage can theoryDecision making characterized by

pervasive ambiguity and unpredictable behavior

Choices often product of chance (not rationality)