Chapter 9

Leader or Follower?

Chapter OverviewChapter Overview

Why Join a Group?

How Do Groups Form?

Kinds of Groups•Primary Groups•Secondary Groups•Collectives•In-Groups and Out-Groups

Leader or Leader or Follower?Follower?

What Goes On in Groups?•Communication Patterns•Social Influence•Social Loafing•Group Polarization

Chapter Overview Chapter Overview cont’d

The Fiasco of GroupthinkGroup Conflict

When Groups Go Wrong

Leader or Leader or Follower?Follower?

cont’d

Are Leaders Made or Born?•The Great Man Theory•Situational Explanations•Contingency Theory•Contemporary Theory•Gender and Leadership•Culture and Leadership

CHAPTER SUMMARYCHAPTER SUMMARY

KINDS OF GROUPS• Primary groups• Secondary groups• Collectives• In-groups• Out-groups

HOW DO GROUPS FORM?

WHY JOIN A GROUP?

WHAT GOES ON IN GROUPS?• Communication• Social influence• Social loafing• Group polarization

CHAPTER SUMMARY CHAPTER SUMMARY CONT’DCONT’D

ARE LEADERS MADE OR BORN?• The great man theory• Situational explanations of leadership• Contingency theory• Contemporary theories• Gender and leadership• Culture and leadershipWHEN GROUPS GO WRONGTHE FIASCO OF GROUPTHINK• Group conflict

CHAPTER SUMMARY CHAPTER SUMMARY CONT’DCONT’D

Kinds of GroupsKinds of Groups

• Primary groups: small, intimate, face-to-face groups.

• Example: a family

•

.

Secondary groups: larger and less intimate than primary groups. They often disband when the reason for their existence disappears.

Example: classes in schools or committees.

Kinds of Groups Kinds of Groups cont’dcont’d

Collectives: very large groups that usually have no leader and no concrete rules.

Example: audiences at official functions.

Kinds of Groups Kinds of Groups cont’dcont’d

In-groups: the group with which we identify.

Example: a college sorority or small military squadron.

Kinds of Groups Kinds of Groups cont’dcont’d

Out-groups: the groups we perceive as being different from (outside of) our own group.Example: an ethnic or racial group different from our group

Kinds of Groups Kinds of Groups cont’dcont’d

In-group/Out-group processesIn-group/Out-group processes:• PrejudicePrejudice: an unfair, often

negative attitude toward another person or group based solely on group membership.

• StereotypingStereotyping: widespread generalizations about people (based on their group membership) which have little if any basis in fact.

• DiscriminationDiscrimination: unfair treatment or negative treatment to groups on the basis of such features as age, sex, or race.

Kinds of Groups Kinds of Groups cont’dcont’d

Frederick Douglas

• Culture also matters when it comes to the value of in-groups and out-groups.

Individualistic cultures--value an individual’s gain over group gains.

• Example: United States

Collectivistic cultures--value group gain over individual gain.

• Example: Many Asian cultures

Kinds of Groups Kinds of Groups cont’dcont’d

How Do Groups Form?How Do Groups Form?• Forming: the initial state of group

development when individuals first come together.

• Storming: the second stage of development where members begin to conflict with each other as they come to know one another’s opinions.

• Norming: the group comes to agreement about the rules under which it will operate.

• Performing: the group eventually comes to agreement (or consensus) and begins to function better.

This cycle repeats itself even

within the same group.

Forming

Performing Norming

Storming

How Do Groups Form? How Do Groups Form? cont’dcont’d

Why Join a Group?Why Join a Group?

• To affiliateaffiliate or be with others.

• To learn information we otherwise wouldn’t know.

• To compare ourselves relative to others (social comparisonsocial comparison).

• For social supportsocial support in times of need.

• To benefit from collective power.

What Goes On in Groups?What Goes On in Groups?

• Communication

• Social Influence

• Social Loafing

• Group Polarization

Communication PatternsCommunication Patterns

• Centralized Networks: One or two individuals control the flow of information

Example: A supervisor of multiple work groups

Communication Patterns Communication Patterns cont’dcont’d

• Decentralized Networks: individuals communicate in relatively freely with one another; no one person is central to the group.

Example: the rumor mill

Centralized NetworksCentralized Networks• If the central person is not competent, the

group is not competent• Best for simple group decision-making• These groups usually perform efficiently• Satisfaction of individual members is not

particularly high

Communication Patterns Communication Patterns cont’dcont’d

Decentralized NetworksDecentralized Networks• Best for complicated decision-making (“two

heads are sometimes better than one”)• Group functioning is often disjointed; no one

person has all the information• If everyone can communicate, it can

become distorted or noisy• Individual members may feel they have

more freedom to communicate

Communication Patterns Communication Patterns cont’dcont’d

Group SizeGroup Size• A group with many members has the

potential to generate many ideas• The number of ideas generated is not

directly proportional to the group size• Interactions in large groups are more likely

to be formal (i.e., more rules)• In large groups, a few members are likely

to dominate

Communication Patterns Communication Patterns cont’dcont’d

Electronic CommunicationElectronic Communication• …includes e-mail, cell phones, voice mail, text

and instant messaging.• The impact of nonverbal cues is diminished:

miscommunication is more likely• Status inequities (high and low) are reduced• Group members are more likely to communicate

than in face-to-face interactions• It is more efficient because it is more task-

oriented

Communication Patterns Communication Patterns cont’dcont’d

Social InfluenceSocial Influence

• …involves efforts on the part of one person to alter the behavior or attitudes of one or more other people

There are three types of social influence:

• Conformity• Compliance• Obedience

ConformityConformityis a change in behavior due to

the real or imagined influence of other people.

• Small groups (about four people) are most likely to exhibit conformity.

• When there are no allies, a nonconformist will not hold his or her ground.

• Some cultures encourage conformity (e.g. collective societies); in American society we encourage nonconformity and individualism.

Social Influence Social Influence cont’dcont’d

The Asch Conformity Experiment

Standard A B C

ComplianceCompliancea change in behavior in response to a

direct request from another person to do so.

• An example: when someone asks you for a loan. There is subtle pressure to comply, especially if you borrowed from the individual in the past.

• Some people comply publicly, but disagree in private with the request.

Social Influence Social Influence cont’dcont’d

Methods Designed to Induce ComplianceMethods Designed to Induce Compliance• The norm of reciprocity--an unwritten rule whereby

when someone does you a favor, you are obligated to return a favor

• Ingratiation--managing the impressions you leave on others so that they will like you more and comply with your requests (e.g., flattery)

• The door-in-the-face-effect happens when someone issues a large, unreasonable request, and then when you refuse, asks for a smaller and more likely-to-be granted request

Social Influence Social Influence cont’dcont’d

ObedienceObedienceoccurs following a direct order or

command.• In a classic experiment on obedience,

65% of Americans obeyed a command to shock another person (Milgram, 1974). One way to reduce obedience is to place the “victim” closer to the person issued the order to do harm.

Social Influence Social Influence cont’dcont’d

A Shock Generator

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 XXX-Extreme Shock

ObedienceObedience• One way to reduce obedience is to

place the “victim” closer to the person issued the order to do harm.

Social Influence Social Influence cont’dcont’d

Social LoafingSocial Loafing

…means that individuals contribute less to a group effort than they would contribute as a

single individual. Ways to reduce social loafing:• inform people that their individual performance will

be evaluated• reinforce to the group that the task is important• make the task challenging so people enjoy it• assure the group that failure IS possible but NOT

acceptable• The Nominal Group TechniqueThe Nominal Group Technique – a systematic

(round-robin polling) approach to soliciting individual input into a group project.

Group PolarizationGroup Polarization• Psychologists once believed

that groups made riskier decisions than individuals. Individuals probably feel more responsible for failure than members of a group.

THE BOSS

EMPLOYEE 1 EMPLOYEE 2 EMPLOYEE 3

?

• A newer idea is that groups make EITHER riskier or more conservative decisions than individuals.

• This is known as the group polarization effect.

Are Leaders Made or Born?Are Leaders Made or Born?

• The Great Man Theory: leaders are born with (or acquire) a set of traits common to all leaders. There is little empirical support for this theory.

• Situational Explanations of Leadership: a leader is simply in the right place at the right time, such as at the head of the table.

• Contingency theory: combines both approaches...

Contingency TheoryContingency Theory• Common Traits of leaders: person-centered

(or people-oriented) VERSUS task-centered (or oriented toward getting the job done)

• Situations vary in the level of control the leader has as well as other factors, such as whether subordinates respect the leader

• Both traits and situations interact to determine whether the leader and group will perform well.

• People-oriented leaders are better in medium control situations.

• Task-oriented leaders are better in situations of high or low control.

Are Leaders Made or Born? Are Leaders Made or Born? cont’dcont’d

The Effects of Leader Style and Situational Control as They Affect Group Performance (According to Contingency Theory):

Contemporary TheoriesContemporary Theories

• Many leaders have high levels of emotional emotional intelligenceintelligence-the ability to regulate one’s own emotions as well as be empathetic toward others.

• Charismatic leadersCharismatic leaders inspire social change, are visionary, and appeal to their follows’ self-concepts and values.

• Transformational leadersTransformational leaders stimulate interest among followers to view their own work from a new perspective. They generating awareness of the mission/vision of the group, moving individuals beyond their own needs.

Gender and LeadershipGender and Leadership

• Women tend to be more democratic; are more likely to consult with subordinates.

• Men and women are equally effective as leaders, but adopt different styles

• As leaders, women are generally evaluated less positively than men

• Women leaders may be more conflicted than men about career versus family life

Culture and LeadershipCulture and Leadership

• Styles of interaction between leaders and subordinates differ across cultures.

Power distance is the idea that people in groups accept the concept that people in a group rightfully have different levels of power and authority.

• …an important element of interaction in various cultures.

President George W. Bush and Prime Minister Koizumi -- Japan

• High power-distance cultures emphasize leader-driven decision making (e.g.Asian countries).

• Low power-distance cultures: (e.g. U.S.) subordinates expect and promote more participatory styles of leadership.

When Groups Go WrongWhen Groups Go Wrong

The Fiasco of GroupthinkThe Fiasco of GroupthinkGroupthinkGroupthink is the tendency for groups to reach

consensus prematurely because of the desire for harmony.

Symptoms of groupthink:• The group develops an illusion of vulnerability.• Mindguards “guard” the few ideas generated.• There appears to be little disagreement as

members censor their concerns.• Group members derogate the out-group.• Members become rather self-righteous.

Consequences of groupthink

• few ideas are generated• the group fails to discuss

the problems related to their proposed solution

• no contingency plans are developed in the event a problem develops

First teacher in space. A shuttle explosion ended her life. Psychologists suspect groupthink caused the explosion.

The Fiasco of Groupthink The Fiasco of Groupthink cont’dcont’d

Preventing groupthink• promote open inquiry and skepticism• form subgroups and request each to

develop several ideas• the leader should refrain from expressing

an opinion• call in outside experts to provide needed

feedback• hold a “second chance” meeting in case

doubts arise after the decision is made

The Fiasco of Groupthink The Fiasco of Groupthink cont’dcont’d

Group ConflictGroup Conflict• …can occur within a group or between

groups.• …is good in that it can result in positive

change.• …can be used to provide a growth

experience.• Conflicts can often spiral out of control.• Threats, stereotypes, prejudices, etc., also

contribute to escalation of conflict.

Culture and Conflict• Collectivistic societies: face-saving is very

important; disputants try to maintain each others’ self-respect, dignity.

• Individualistic societies: disputants are concerned with preserving their own self-image.

Styles of managing conflict also differ:

Members of individualistic societies try to overpower opponents; members of collective societies try to avoid conflict altogether.

Group Conflict Group Conflict cont’dcont’d

• GRIT (Graduated and Reciprocated Initiative in Tension-Reduction) is a method whereby each side gradually concedes something to the other side. Concessions are usually made public.

• Mediation is when a neutral person helps disputants resolve or manage their conflict.

• Arbitration is where a neutral person decides how the conflict will be resolved. Arbitrators generally try to mediate first.

Group Conflict Group Conflict cont’dcont’d

Conflict can be managed if each person knows what the other person really wants--communication is very important!