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Chapter 8Start-Up Concerns & Financial Projections
-Researching and Preparing Numbers
Learning Objectives
• Learn how to keep score with numbers.
• Determine start-up costs.• Discover ways to boot-
strap your business• Focus on pricing as part
of overall strategy.• Determine seasonality
scenarios.• Develop sales projections
and what-if scenarios.
• Develop projected income statements
• Learn the importance of cash flow.
• Understand that assets – liabilities = net worth.
• Determine profitability through break-even analysis.
• Learn how to use industry financial ratios and benchmarks.
Questions to Ask About the Financial State of Your Business
What will your start-up costs run?Which months will be strong in your particular business?Which will be weak?Can you project cash flow?How fast will your business grow?
Five areas you need to consider as you plunge into the numbers
of financial management:
Start-up CostsPricingSeasonality scenariosSales projectionsWhat-if scenarios with income and costs, cash flow, and financial ratios
Suggestions for Making Your Dollars Work Efficiently
1. Find out who you have to pay right now.
2. Find out who can wait a while.3. Keep asking what you’re getting for
your money.4. Make “conserve cash” your mantra.
How to Save Money1. Ask your customers for cash deposits when they
place orders.2. Use trade, credit, or Dating-A vendor’s extension
of the payment term into the near future.3. Lease your equipment.4. Run a lean operation; do not waste anything.5. Work out of your home as long as you can.6. Get your landlord to make on-site
improvements.7. Try to resell whatever waste or byproducts you
have in your business.
How to Save Money - Continued
8. Make mark downs quickly on dead goods.9. Use as little commercial space as you can.10. If customers do not visit your business
facility, it does not have to be highly visible or attractive.
11. When you have to borrow money, shop around.
12. Make sure your liquid cash is earning interest13. Add employees carefully.
Income Statements and Cash Flow
An income statement tells you when you’re going to make a profit on paper.A cash-flow projection tells:(1) Whether or not you can pay bills; and(2) When you’ll need cash infusions to keep goingBoth of these projections are essential to the survival of your business.
Balance SheetA picture of what your business owns and owes. Three categories make up a balance sheet:
Assets (anything of monetary value your business owns) – Liabilities (money owed to creditors) = Net Worth (owner’s equity)
Break-Even AnalysisIf you know your estimated costs (variable and fixed) and gross sales, you can use a break-even formula that will tell when you will start making money.A break-even analysis is useful at start-up time, when you have completed your income and expense projections, and when you are considering launching a new product or service.
Financial RatiosCalculating a few simple ratios will help you analyze how your venture compares with other businesses in your selected industry. Lenders use ratios as measuring devices to determine the risks associated with lending.To the entrepreneur, ratios are control tools for maintaining financial efficiency.
The Three Components of Total Cost Used in
Determining Pricing
Total CostTotal Cost
Sellingcost
Overhead costCost of
goods sold
Break-Even Chart for Pricing (a)
100
300
500
700
900
Loss
Profit
Break-Even Point
Sales (Price = $12)
Total Cost
10 30 50 70 90
Total Variable
Costs
Total FixedCosts
Production in Units
Cos
ts a
nd R
even
ue (
$)
Break-Even Chart for Pricing (b)
100
300
500
700
900
Sales(Price = $18)
Total Cost
10 30 50 70 90
Break-Even Points
Production in Units
Cos
ts a
nd R
even
ue (
$)Sales
(Price = $12)
Sales (Price = $7)
Formulas for Markup CalculationsCost + Markup = Selling priceCost = Selling price - MarkupMarkup = Selling price - Cost
x 100 = Markup expressed as a percentage of selling price
x 100 = Markup expressed as a percentage of cost
MarkupSelling price
MarkupCost
To convert markup as a percentage of selling price into a percentage of cost, or vice versa, the two formulas below are useful:
Markup as percentage of selling price100% - Markup as percentage of selling price
Markup as percentage of cost100% + Markup as percentage of cost
x 100 = Markup as percentage of cost
x 100 = Markup as percentage of selling price
Types of Pricing Strategies
Penetration pricing strategySkimming pricing strategyFollow-the-leader pricing strategyVariable pricing strategyFlexible pricing strategyPrice lining strategyWhat the traffic will bear
Benefits of Credit to Buyers and SellersBenefits of Credit to Buyers
1. The ability to satisfy immediate needs and pay for them later2. Better records of purchases on credit billing statements3. Better service and greater convenience when exchanging
purchased items4. Establishment of a credit history
Benefits of Credit to Sellers
1. Closer association with customers because of implied trust2. Easier selling through telephone- and mail-order systems3. Smoother sales peaks and valleys, since purchasing power is
always available4. Easy access to a tool with which to stay competitive
Types of Credit
Consumer Credit• Open charge accounts• Installment accounts• Revolving charge accounts
Credit Cards• Bank credit cards• Entertainment credit cards• Retailer credit cards
Trade Credit
Consumer Credit• Open charge accounts• Installment accounts• Revolving charge accounts
Credit Cards• Bank credit cards• Entertainment credit cards• Retailer credit cards
Trade Credit
Commonly Used Trade Credit Terms
Credit Term Explanation
3/10, net 60Three percent discount if payment is made within the first 10 days, net (full amount) due by sixtieth day from invoice date
E.O.M. Billing at the end of the month, covering all creditpurchases during that month
C.O.D. Amount due is to be collected upon delivery of the goods
2/10, net 30,R.O.G.
Two percent discount if payment is made within 10 days;net due by thirtieth day however, both discount periodand 30 days start from the date of receipt of the goods
2/10, net 30,E.O.M.
Two percent discount if payment is made within 10 days;net due by the 30th day however, both periods startfrom the end of the month in which the sale was made
Earnings before taxes
Corporate taxes
Operating Activities
Sales revenue
Cost of producing or acquiring product or service (cost of goods sold)
Gross profit
Marketing and selling expenses and general and administrative expenses (operating expenses)
Financing Activities
Operating income
Interest expense on debt(financing costs)
The Income Statement: An Overview
Earnings before interest and taxes (operating income)
Earnings before taxesNet income available
to owners
=
= ==
Taxes
The Balance Sheet: An Overview
Assets Debt (Liabilities) and Equity (Net Worth)
+
Total Assets
Current AssetsCash
Accounts receivable
Inventories
Prepaid expenses
Fixed AssetsMachinery and equipment
Buildings
Land
+Other AssetsInvestments
Patents
Debt CapitalCurrent Debt
Accounts payableOther payables Accrued expensesShort-term notes
Long-Term DebtLong-term notesMortgages
+Owner’s Equity CapitalOwner’s net worth orPartnership equity orCommon stock equity
Total Debt and Equity
==
The Fit of the Income Statement and the Balance Sheet
Reports the profits from January 1, 2006 through December 31, 2006
Reports the profits from January 1, 2006 through December 31, 2006
Income Statement for 2006Income Statement for 2006
Balance Sheet December 31, 2005
Balance Sheet December 31, 2005
Reports the financial position as of December 31, 2005
Reports the financial position as of December 31, 2005
Balance Sheet December 31, 2006
Balance Sheet December 31, 2006
Reports the financial position as of December 31, 2006
Reports the financial position as of December 31, 2006
Time
A Firm’s Cash Flows
After-tax cash flowsfrom operations
Investments innet operating
working capital
Investmentsin fixed
assets andother assets
Firm’scashflow
=
The Purpose of Pro Forma
Financial Statements
1. How profitable can the firm be expected to be, given the projected sales levels and the expected sales expense relationships?
2. What will determine the amount and type of financing (debt or equity) to be used?
3. Will the firm have adequate cash flows? If so, how will they be used; if not, where will the additional cash come from?
The purpose of pro forma financial statements isto answer three questions:
Sales-Assets-Financing Relationships
Increases in sales
Increases in asset
requirements
Increases in asset
requirements
Increases in financing
requirements
Practical Forecasting1. Don’t stretch to reach your numbers; be factual and
conservative.2. Remember: Only the most astonishing changes in a
business or a market can justify a sudden, rocket-like performance.
3. Build projections quantitatively from clear assumptions.
4. Document the reasoning behind each projection in a written list of assumptions.
5. Use industry-specific data to guide your projections of sales and expenses.
6. Remember: Projections are immediately suspect if sales or profit margins are significantly higher or lower than the industry average.
7. Check pro forma statements against actual results at least once a month.
Chapter 9Shaking the Money Tree –
Locating Hard CashLearning Objectives
• Discover your risk tolerance.
• Determine your credit situation.
• Explore credit card usage and risks for your business.
• Understand inherent risks in borrowing from friends and family.
• Scour the lending arena for money to fund your new business.
• Introduce strategies for approaching bankers.
• Become familiar with state and local lending programs as well as those operated by the Small Business Administration and Small Business Development Centers.
• Explore vendor financing.• Locate angels.• Explore the venture
capital market.
Key Factors of Your Credit Score
1. Paying all your bills on time. (35%)2. Amount of money you owe and the
amount of available credit. (30%)3. Length of credit history (15%)4. Mix of credit (10%)5. New credit applications (10%)
To Receive a Copy of Your Credit Report and Scores,
Contact:Equifax
http://www.equifax.comExperian
http://www.experian.comTrans Union Corporation http://www.transunion.com
Additional Thoughts to Consider as You Explore the Bottom Line For
Starting and Building Your Business:Income stream: What can you count on from your Business?Profit from sale of business: What is the potential profit if the business is sold?Profit life cycle: How long will it take for your business to move from start-up to a profit position?The rule: Your business should provide you with two sources of financial return: an income stream and growing equity.
Shaking the Most Fruitful Branches of the Money
TreeSelfSBABanksFamilyFederal Govt. programsFriends“Fools”
Vendor financingVenture capitalMicrolendersAngelsIPO’sState and local Govt. programs
A Few Things You Can Do to Alleviate Some of the Difficulties When Borrowing From Friends,
Family, and “Fools”
Put everything in writing.Make it a business loan, not a personal loan.A provision in the loan should be included for repayment in case of emergencies.Discuss thoroughly with your lenders the company’s goals.Discuss your fears for potential problems and encourage your lenders to discuss their issues as well.
The Five C’s of Credit:
Capacity
Collateral
Conditions
Character
Capital
SBA Program SnapshotsProgram: Basic 7(a) Loan GuarantyFunction: Serves as the SBA’s primary business loan program.Program: Certified Development Company (CDC), a 504 Loan ProgramFunction: Provides long-term, fixed-rate financing to small businesses to acquire real estate or machinery or equipment.Program: Microloan, a 7(m) Loan ProgramFunction: Provides short-term loans of up to $35,000 to small businesses.Program: Loan PrequalificationFunction: Allows business applicants to have their loan applications for $250,000 or less analyzed.
Prepare to Meet Your Lenders
List potential lenders and investors.List reasons why lenders should want to invest in your business.Think about the legal form of your business.Test your tactics by talking to a few friends.Time to go out and meet with lenders and shake another branch of the money tree.
Financial Information Required for a Bank Loan
Three years of the firm’s historical statements, if available, including balance sheets, income statements, and statements of cash flowThe firm’s pro forma financial statements, in which the timing and amounts of the debt repayment are included as part of the forecastsPersonal financial statements, showing the borrower’s personal net worth and estimated annual income
Other Sources of Financing
Community-based financial institutionsLarge corporationsVenture capital firmsStock sales
Chapter 10Legal Issues
Staying Out of Court
Learning Objectives
• Understand the importance and necessity of professional legal advice.
• Decide which legal form is best for your business.
• Explore the good, the bad, and the ugly of partnerships.
• Review the advantages of forming a limited liability company.
• Recognize the importance of documenting, organizing and saving everything.
• Understand legal escape routes.
• Protect your business with a buy-sell agreement.
• Review patent protection.• Understand copyright laws.• Take action to protect your
trademark or service mark.• Review rules for advertising
within safe, legal limits.• Explore family business
issues.
A Good Small Business Attorney Can Help
Create the right business structure for a partnership or a corporation.Review advertising and marketing materials to ensure no state or federal laws are violated.Organize your human resources department to keep you outside the courtroom.Research and protect you in regards to product liability.Review all contracts and agreements before you sign.Protect you through proper use and development of trademarks, copyrights, and patents.Handle collection and possible bankruptcy problems.Help you plan your exit strategy.Write partnership agreements and buy-sell agreements.
Alternative Legal Forms of Business
A sole proprietorship.A partnership.A limited liability company (LLC)Subchapter S corporation
Which Form of Business is Best For You?
International exposureTax implicationsLiability issuesLitigiousness of customers, employees, and businesses in your statePlans for business growthFamily structure and involvement in the businessRelationship with potential partnersCapital requirementsExit strategy
Forms of Business Organization
ProprietorshipsPartnerships
GeneralLimited
CorporationsC corporationsS (or Subchapter S) corporations
Limited Liability Companies (LLCs)
ProprietorshipsProprietorship:business venture owned by an individual who is personally liable for the venture’s liabilities
Unlimited liability:personal obligation to pay a venture’s liabilities not covered by the venture’s assets
PartnershipsPartnership:business venture owned by two or more individuals who are jointly and personally liable for the venture’s liabilities
Joint Liability:legal action treats all partners equally as a group
Partnerships (continued)Joint and Several Liability:allows subsets of partners to be the object of legal action related to the partnership
Limited Partnership:limits limited partner liabilities in a partnership to the amount of their equity capital contribution to the partnership
Questions for Partner Discussion
Management and controlDispute resolutionFinancial contributionsTime contributionsDemise of the partnershipNew partnersParticipation of family members as employees and their input into the businessEthics
CorporationsCorporation:a legal entity that separates personal assets of the owners (shareholders) from the firm’s assets
Limited Liability:creditors can seize the corporation’s assets but have no recourse against the shareholders’ personal assets
Corporate Charter:legal document that establishes the corporation
S Corporation:provides limited liability for shareholders plus corporate income is taxed like personal income to the shareholders
Consider the Following Reasons for Incorporation:
1. You limit your liability2. To change your tax picture3. To Upgrade your image4. To have the opportunity to
channel some heavy expenses5. To guarantee continuity6. To offer internal incentives
Limited Liability Companies (LLCs)
Limited Liability Company (LLC):a business organization owned by “members” (shareholders) with limited liability
Major Incentive for Organizing as an LLC
earnings can be taxed at the personal income tax rates of the members
Subchapter S Corporation
Definition: Legal entity that may
provide positive tax treatment for
small business.
Bases for Comparing Various Business
Organizational Forms
Number of Owners & Ease of StartupInvestor LiabilityEquity Capital SourcesFirm Life & Liquidity of OwnershipTaxation
Number of Owners & Ease of Startup
Proprietorshipone; low time & legal costs
Partnership (general)two or more; moderate time & legal costs
Limited Partnershipone or more general & one or more limited partners; moderate time & legal costs
Number of Owners & Ease of Startup (continued)
Corporation (C)one or more, with no limit; high time & legal costs
S (Subchapter S) Corporationless than 75 owners; high time & legal costs
Limited Liability Company (LLC)one or more, with no limit; high time & legal costs
Investor LiabilityProprietorshipunlimited
Partnership (general)unlimited (joint & several liability)
Limited Partnershiplimited partners’ liability limited to their
investments
Investor Liability (continued)
Corporation (C)limited to shareholders’ investments
S (Subchapter S) Corporationlimited to shareholders’ investments
Limited Liability Company (LLC)limited to owners’ investments
Equity Capital SourcesProprietorshipowner
Partnership (general)partners, families, & friends
Limited Partnershipgeneral and limited partners
Equity Capital Sources (continued)
Corporation (C)venture investors & common shareholders
S (Subchapter S) Corporationventure investors & Subchapter S
investors
Limited Liability Company (LLC)venture investors & equity offerings to
owners
Firm Life & Liquidity of Ownership
Partnershiplife determined by owner; often difficult to transfer ownership
Partnership (general) life determined by partners; often difficult to transfer ownership
Limited Partnershiplife determined by general partner; often difficult to transfer ownership
Firm Life & Liquidity of Ownership (continued)
Corporation (C) unlimited life; usually easy to transfer ownership
S (Subchapter S) Corporationunlimited life; often difficult to transfer ownership
Limited Liability Company (LLC)life set by owners; often difficult to transfer ownership
TaxationProprietorshippersonal tax rate
Partnership (general)personal tax rates
Limited Partnershippersonal tax rates
Taxation (continued)Corporation (C)corporate taxation; dividends subject to personal tax rates
S (Subchapter S) Corporationincome flows to shareholders; taxed at personal tax rates
Limited Liability Company (LLC)income flows to owners; taxed at personal tax rates
Taxes and the Form of Organization
Sole Proprietorship: Business income reported on owners’ individual federal income tax returnsPartnership: Income allocated to partners, who individually report it on their personal tax returnsC Corporation: Income is reported by the business, which pays any taxes owed on its profits
Intellectual Property
Your Most valuable Asset
Patents
Ten Things You Should Know to Protect Your
Inventions
1. What is patent?2. What is the text
for getting a patent?
3. What is a patentability search?
4. What is a patent notice?
5. When must I apply for a patent?
6. What is a worldwide patent?
7. Does a patent guarantee my right to sell my product?
8. What is an infringement study?
9. Are patents worth the costs?
10.Where can I get more information on patents?
Copyrights
Ten Things You Should Know to Protect Your Artwork, Ads,
Writings, and Software1. What is a copyright?2. What protection
does a copyright give?
3. Are Websites Copyrightable?
4. How long does a copyright last?
5. If I use only 10 percent, can I use copyrighted works?
6. Must copyrights be registered?
7. Do I need a copyright notice?
8. Do I own copyrights I pay others to create?
9. Do foreign countries protect copyrights?
10.Where can I get more information on copyrights?
Trademarks
Ten Things You Should Know to Protect Your Product and
Business Names1. What is a trademark?2. How should a mark
be used?3. What is a trade
name?4. Does my
incorporation or fictitious business name statement give me the right to use my name?
5. Must trademarks be registered?
6. What is a trademark search?
7. Is my product’s shape or packaging protectable?
8. Can I register my trade dress?
9. What about protection in foreign countries?
10.Where may I get information on protecting product and business names?
