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Chapter 7:

Cognitive Aspects of

Personality

Friedman, H. S., & Schustack, M. W. (2014). Personality: Classic theories and modern research (5th ed.). Essex: Pearson Education Limited.

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Roots in Gestalt Psychology

Human beings seek meaning in their

environments

We organize the sensations we receive into

meaningful perceptions

Complex stimuli are not reducible to the sum

of their parts

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Gestalt Psychology

A Gestalt perceptual figure

Is the triangle

shown in the image

or constructed in

the mind of the

viewer?

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Kurt Lewin’s Field Theory

Life space

◦ All internal and external forces, and their

relationships to one another

◦ e.g., family, religion, work, etc.

Contemporaneous causation

◦ Behavior is caused at the moment of its occurrence

by all the forces acting at that moment

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Field Dependence

Rod-and-Frame Test

Field dependent Field independent

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Field Dependence

Children’s play preference◦ Field independent children favor solitary play

Socialization patterns◦ Field independent people emphasize autonomy over

conformity

Career choice◦ Field independent people prefer technological

occupations

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Field Dependence

Interpersonal distance◦ Field independent people tend to sit farther away

from a conversational partner

Eye contact◦ Field independent people make less frequent and less

prolonged eye contact with a conversational partner

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Schema Theory

Schema

◦ A cognitive structure that organizes

knowledge and expectations about one’s

environment

◦ Determines how we think and act

Script

◦ Schemas for familiar events

◦ e.g., eating at a restaurant

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Categorization

We tend to organize events, objects, and people

into categories

Positive effects of categorization

◦ Quickly understand complex information

◦ Make likely inferences about new things

Negative effects of categorization

◦ Stereotypes

◦ Overlook individuating characteristics

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Control of Attention

We notice salient environmental features and

combine these with our current goals to decide

where to direct our attention

Individual differences in attention

e.g., attention-deficit disorder

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George Kelly

Personal Construct Theory

◦ People actively endeavor to understand the world and construct their own theories about human behavior

◦ “Every man is, in his own particular way, a scientist” — Kelly

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Kelly: The Role Construct

Repertory Test

Assesses personal construct systems

Think of:

◦ A teacher you liked

◦ Your boss

◦ A successful person you know

Which two are similar? How?

Who is different? How?

Over many triads, the test-taker’s constructs

emerge

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Social Intelligence

Knowledge and skills relevant to interpersonal

situations

◦ Including: empathy, compassion, humor, etc.

◦ Emotional intelligence

◦ Emotion knowledge

Similar to Howard Gardner’s “multiple

intelligences” theory

◦ Interpersonal and intrapersonal intelligence

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Explanatory Style

A characteristic way of interpreting life events

Optimism and Pessimism◦ Optimistic style is generally associated with better outcomes

◦ Implications for achievement

Learned Helplessness (Seligman)◦ Repeated exposure to unavoidable punishment leads to the

acceptance of avoidable punishment

Cognitive intervention can reduce the depressive effect of pessimism

Learned Optimism

◦ New ways of thinking can be trained

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Julian Rotter

Behavior depends upon outcome expectancyand reinforcement value

Outcome expectancy

◦ Person’s expectation that his or her behavior will be reinforced

Reinforcement value

◦ Value of the expected reinforcer to the individual

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Julian Rotter

Behavior potential

◦ Likelihood that a behavior will be performed in a

particular situation

Generalized vs. specific expectancies and

situations

◦ Generalized expectancies apply to categories of

behaviors and situations (e.g. enjoying parties)

◦ Specific expectancies apply to particular instances of

behaviors (e.g. not enjoying family parties)

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Julian Rotter

Six psychological needs

◦ Recognition-status

◦ Dominance

◦ Independence

◦ Protection-dependency

◦ Love and affection

◦ Physical comfort

Secondary reinforcers

◦ Associated with satisfaction of these needs

Behavior potential, outcome expectancy, and

reinforcement potential all come together to form the

psychological situation.

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Julian Rotter

Locus of control

◦ Beliefs about one’s ability to affect outcomes

◦ Stable individual difference

Internal locus of control

◦ Outcomes are the result of one’s own actions

◦ More achievement-oriented

External locus of control

◦ Believe events are beyond their personal control

◦ Includes components of chance and powerful others

◦ More likely to suffer stress and depression

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Albert Bandura

Self-system◦ The set of cognitive processes by which a person

perceives, evaluates, and regulates his or her own

behavior so that it is appropriate to the environment

and effective in achieving the individual’s goals

◦ The active, cognitive nature of the individual during

learning is critical: Rather than just responding to

direct reinforcement after the fact by altering

behavior in the future, the person can think about and

anticipate the effects of the environment.

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Albert Bandura

How can new behaviors be acquired in the

absence of reinforcement?

Observational Learning

◦ Vicarious learning and modeling

Learning Aggressive Behavior

◦ Bobo doll experiments

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Albert Bandura

Factors that influence modeling:

◦ Outcome expectancy

People are more likely to imitate behaviors that

they believe lead to positive outcomes

◦ Characteristics of the model

Age, gender, status, competence, etc.

◦ Characteristics of the behavior

Simple and salient behaviors

◦ Attributes of the observer

Low self-esteem, dependence, cognitive

development

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Albert Bandura

Processes underlying observational learning

◦ Attention

◦ Retention

◦ Motor reproduction

◦ Motivation

Even when a person has observed and acquired a

behavior, it will be performed when it leads to valued

outcomes and not performed if it is expected to lead to

negative outcomes.

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Albert Bandura

Self-efficacy

◦ A belief abut how competently one will be able to

enact a behavior in a particular situation

Self-efficacy determines:

◦ If we even try to act

◦ How long we persist in our behavior

◦ How success or failure affects future behavior

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Albert Bandura

Self-efficacy is based on:

◦ Past success and failures at similar tasks

◦ Vicarious experiences (seeing others)

◦ Verbal persuasion (by others)

◦ Emotional reactions (how we feel about the behavior)

Self-efficacy is specific to the situation/behavior

◦ Unlike self-esteem, which is global

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Albert Bandura

Self-regulation

◦ People’s control over their own achievements

Setting goals for themselves

Evaluating their success

Rewarding themselves

Includes self-efficacy and schemas

Focuses on internal control of behavior

◦ Intrapersonal approach

◦ Close to social psychological approaches

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Humans as Computers

People as information processors

◦ Similar to how computers manipulate information

Shortcomings of artificial intelligence

◦ Turing Test

◦ Personality is difficult to simulate

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Timeline: Cognitive Approach

Developments in Cognitive Aspects

Societal and Scientific Context

Philosophers and theologians view individual deviations as games of the gods or possession by the devil

Ancient times and Middle Ages

Differences in perceptions seen primarily in religious or philosophical terms

Laboratories studying perception and thinking are founded

1800s Increasing emphasis on reason and rationality, philosophers search for the core of human nature

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Timeline: Cognitive Approach

Developments in Cognitive Aspects

Societal and Scientific Context

Gestalt psychology takes hold in Europe

1900-1930

Experimental Psychology in U.S. is increasingly dominated by behaviorism

Field theory ideas of Lewin and schema ideas of Piaget make their way into American psychology

1930s-1940s

In reaction to world war, increased studies of propaganda, attitudes, and prejudice

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Timeline: Cognitive Approach

Developments in Cognitive Aspects

Societal and Scientific Context

Kelly develops personal construct theory; educators study how children learn

1940s-1950s

Cognitive psychology grows and behaviorism wanes; cybernetics, computers, and enhanced communications

Rotter, Bandura, and others adapt behaviorist approaches into the cognitive framework

1960s-1970

Social psychology thrives; time of social and artistic change and turmoil

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Timeline: Cognitive Approach

Developments in Cognitive Aspects

Societal and Scientific Context

Research on explanatory style, optimism and depression; learning disabilities receive much attention

1970s-1980s

Progress in cognitive psychology; new work roles, coupled with new family structures and fewer extended families

Studies of self-efficacy and of human-computer interactions thrive; self-regulation models develop

1990s Better understandings of the individual in the work place

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Timeline: Cognitive Approach

Developments in Cognitive Aspects

Societal and Scientific Context

Greater integration of cognitive conceptions (intelligence, skill, evaluation) into personality theory

2000s Greater focus on the role of motivation, expectations, social factors in achievement

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Cognitive Approach

Analogy

◦ Humans as scientists and information processors

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Cognitive Approach

Advantages

◦ Explains personality through uniquely human

processes of cognition

◦ Captures active nature of human thought

◦ Differences in cognitive skills are viewed as central to

individuality

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Cognitive Approach

Limits

◦ Often ignores unconscious and emotional aspects of

personality

◦ Some theories tend to oversimplify complex thought

processes

◦ May underemphasize situational influences on

behavior

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Cognitive Approach

View of free will

◦ Free will through active human thought processes

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Cognitive Approach

Common assessment techniques

◦ Decision tasks

◦ Biographical analysis

◦ Attributional analyses

◦ Study of cognitive development

◦ Observation

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Cognitive Approach

Implications for therapy

◦ Uses understanding of perception, cognition,

and attribution to change thought processes

◦ Emotion and behavior can be changed by

changing cognitions