Understanding ColorUnderstanding ColorChapter 7 Color Theory: A Brief HistoryChapter 7 Color Theory: A Brief History

Questions and ideas about color Questions and ideas about color have a long history. This search have a long history. This search

has produced an enormous library has produced an enormous library of writing known as of writing known as color theorycolor theory..

The earliest known The earliest known writers on color were writers on color were

the Greek the Greek philosophers who philosophers who

were intrigued by the were intrigued by the elusive nature of elusive nature of

color.color.

In ancient philosophy, all meaning in the larger universe In ancient philosophy, all meaning in the larger universe was related somehow to mathematical order.was related somehow to mathematical order.

This idea that beauty and harmony are the natural result This idea that beauty and harmony are the natural result of mathematical order is a premise that is still very of mathematical order is a premise that is still very

much in place today.much in place today.

Pythagorus (c. 569–Pythagorus (c. 569–490 BC) is credited 490 BC) is credited with originating the with originating the concept of the concept of the “harmony of the “harmony of the spheres.”spheres.”

Raphael, 1509Raphael, 1509

This theory This theory postulated that the postulated that the planets are planets are separated from each separated from each other by intervals other by intervals that correspond to that correspond to the musical scale.the musical scale.

Aristotle (c. 384-322 Aristotle (c. 384-322 BC) was the most BC) was the most influential of the influential of the earliest writers on earliest writers on color and addressed color and addressed the subject both the subject both philosophically and philosophically and scientifically.scientifically.

Aristotle thought that all Aristotle thought that all colors derive from black colors derive from black and white, or darkness and white, or darkness and light, and this idea and light, and this idea was accepted as fact was accepted as fact until the 18th century.until the 18th century.

Raphael, 1509Raphael, 1509

During the During the Renaissance, Renaissance,

writers like Leonard writers like Leonard da Vinci and others da Vinci and others

wrote about wrote about everything from the everything from the

practicalities of practicalities of mixing pigments to mixing pigments to

the philosophical the philosophical and moral and moral

meanings of colors.meanings of colors.

But it was overall But it was overall a rather obscure a rather obscure subject until the subject until the

18th century and 18th century and the studies of the studies of

IsaacIsaac NewtonNewton..

Newton was a Newton was a product of the product of the

Enlightenment Enlightenment during the 18th during the 18th

century. This “Age century. This “Age of Reason” sought of Reason” sought

to give rational to give rational explanations for explanations for

natural phenomena natural phenomena to replace the old to replace the old

mystical beliefs.mystical beliefs.

However, this However, this search for search for absolutes absolutes determined by determined by science was as science was as rigid and rigid and uncompromising in uncompromising in its way as the its way as the demands of demands of absolute faith that absolute faith that preceded it.preceded it.

Only the source of Only the source of authority had authority had changed, from God changed, from God and his earthly and his earthly representatives, the representatives, the clergy, to reason clergy, to reason and its earthly and its earthly representatives, representatives, men.men.

The intellectual world The intellectual world of the 18th century was of the 18th century was

quite fluid. People quite fluid. People didn’t think of didn’t think of

themselves as writers, themselves as writers, biologists, or biologists, or

mathematicians but as mathematicians but as “natural philosophers,” “natural philosophers,”

and wrote about all and wrote about all sorts of scientific and sorts of scientific and philosophical topics.philosophical topics.

Two themes dominated 18th, 19th, and Two themes dominated 18th, 19th, and early 20th century color study:early 20th century color study:Two themes dominated 18th, 19th, and Two themes dominated 18th, 19th, and early 20th century color study:early 20th century color study:

the search for a comprehensive color-order system, including an appropriate format for visualizing it. AND...

the laws of color harmony

the search for a comprehensive color-order system, including an appropriate format for visualizing it. AND...

the laws of color harmony

Two towering and and very different figures Two towering and and very different figures dominate the beginnings of color theory:dominate the beginnings of color theory:

Isaac NewtonIsaac Newton(1642–1727)(1642–1727)

Johann Wolfgang von Goethe (1749–1832)Johann Wolfgang von Goethe (1749–1832)

Newton, working at Cambridge in the late 1690’s, first Newton, working at Cambridge in the late 1690’s, first split sunlight into its component wavelengths by passing split sunlight into its component wavelengths by passing

it through a prism.it through a prism.

He observed that as each wavelength enters a He observed that as each wavelength enters a prism it bends or prism it bends or refractsrefracts..

Because the glass of a prism slows each wavelength down at Because the glass of a prism slows each wavelength down at a slightly different rate, each emerges as a separate beam of a slightly different rate, each emerges as a separate beam of

light.light.

Newton was able to recombine the separated Newton was able to recombine the separated beams with a lens and reconstituted white light.beams with a lens and reconstituted white light.

From this he hypothesized the nature of light and From this he hypothesized the nature of light and the origins of perceived color.the origins of perceived color.

He published his He published his results in a treatise results in a treatise called called OpticksOpticks, in , in 1703.1703.

Newton’s Newton’s conclusion that conclusion that light alone light alone generates color generates color remains a basis of remains a basis of modern physics.modern physics.

Newton separated Newton separated the spectral hues the spectral hues into seven colors: into seven colors: red, orange yellow, red, orange yellow, green blue, indigo, green blue, indigo, and violet.and violet.

Most people cannot Most people cannot detect the blue-detect the blue-violet that Newton violet that Newton calls “indigo.”calls “indigo.”

Perhaps he was influenced by 17th century thinking that Perhaps he was influenced by 17th century thinking that gave mystical importance to the number 7, or he may have gave mystical importance to the number 7, or he may have

had unusual visual acuity in the blue-violet range.had unusual visual acuity in the blue-violet range.

Although the spectrum of light is linear...Although the spectrum of light is linear...

...Newton originated the concept of colors a a continuous ...Newton originated the concept of colors a a continuous experience. He diagramed the seven hues as a circle, experience. He diagramed the seven hues as a circle,

linking spectral red and violet.linking spectral red and violet.

This first known illustration of This first known illustration of colors as a closed circle made colors as a closed circle made

of arcs of individual color of arcs of individual color appeared in appeared in OpticksOpticks..

Newton’s contemporaries viewed Newton’s contemporaries viewed OpticksOpticks as a work on as a work on the nature of the nature of colorcolor, not on the nature of , not on the nature of lightlight. The . The

ideas in it generated tremendous controversy all over ideas in it generated tremendous controversy all over Europe.Europe.

At the same time, At the same time, the natural the natural

philosophers were philosophers were considering light, considering light,

more pragmatic more pragmatic people were trying people were trying to discover how to to discover how to

predictably predictably produce colors by produce colors by

mixing paints or mixing paints or dyes.dyes.

Jacques Christophe Jacques Christophe Le Blon (1667–1741) Le Blon (1667–1741) was a French was a French printmaker who printmaker who identified the primary identified the primary nature of red, yellow nature of red, yellow and blue while mixing and blue while mixing pigments for printing.pigments for printing.

Le Blon’s treatise, Le Blon’s treatise, ColorittoColoritto (c. 1730) (c. 1730) offers the first offers the first concept of three concept of three subtractive subtractive primary colors.primary colors.

His work attracted a great His work attracted a great deal of attention and deal of attention and acceptance because it acceptance because it addressed the practical addressed the practical aspects of using color.aspects of using color.

Jacques Christophe Le Blon, Van Dyck Self Portrait. Three-color mezzotint, 61.2 x 36.0 cm., c. 1720s. Yale Center for British Art, Paul Mellon Collection.

The CMYK color The CMYK color space used in space used in printing today is printing today is derived from his derived from his work.work.

Moses Harris Moses Harris (1731–1785) was (1731–1785) was an entomologist and an entomologist and engraver who was engraver who was fascinated by the fascinated by the color of the insects color of the insects he studied.he studied.

He published the He published the first known first known colorcolor circle in 1766.circle in 1766.

Harris believed that Harris believed that red, yellow, and red, yellow, and blue were the most blue were the most different from each different from each other and should be other and should be placed at the placed at the greatest possible greatest possible distances apart on distances apart on the circle.the circle.

To accomplish this, To accomplish this, he discarded he discarded Newton’s indigo and Newton’s indigo and created an created an expanded color expanded color circle based on circle based on equal intervals of equal intervals of color and multiples color and multiples of three.of three.

Goethe later Goethe later adopted Harris’ adopted Harris’ organization of organization of color.color.

Johann Wolfgang Johann Wolfgang von Goethe was von Goethe was fascinated by color.fascinated by color.

Goethe spent a Goethe spent a great deal of energy great deal of energy

trying to prove that trying to prove that Newton’s color Newton’s color

theories were theories were wrong.wrong.

He rejected He rejected Newton’s assertion Newton’s assertion

that color comes that color comes from light and from light and

insisted it was an insisted it was an experienced reality.experienced reality.

Goethe’s Color WheelGoethe’s Color Wheel

He also proposed He also proposed notions about the notions about the

association of color association of color and beauty with and beauty with

morality. He even morality. He even said that there were said that there were

sinful and chaste sinful and chaste colors.colors.

Goethe’s Color WheelGoethe’s Color Wheel

Goethe was first to recognize the importance of the Goethe was first to recognize the importance of the interaction between complementary colors. He called interaction between complementary colors. He called

them “completing colors.”them “completing colors.”

Goethe also reported Goethe also reported extensively on extensively on

simultaneous contrast simultaneous contrast and afterimage.and afterimage.

Otto Philip Runge Otto Philip Runge (1770–1840) shared (1770–1840) shared Goethe’s belief in Goethe’s belief in the importance of the importance of complementary complementary colors.colors.

Runge was a Runge was a painter and painter and developed the first developed the first three dimensional three dimensional model for color, the model for color, the Color Sphere.Color Sphere.

It was published in a book he wrote It was published in a book he wrote called called Farken KugelFarken Kugel..

Goethe’s observations were so wide-ranging and Goethe’s observations were so wide-ranging and fundamental that almost every concept in modern color fundamental that almost every concept in modern color

study can be found in his writing.study can be found in his writing.

Goethe’s most familiar contribution to color study is Goethe’s most familiar contribution to color study is the six-hue color circle.the six-hue color circle.

Even though he first believed that the only primaries Even though he first believed that the only primaries were blue and yellow!!!were blue and yellow!!!

Goethe’s French Goethe’s French contemporary was contemporary was

Michel Eugene Michel Eugene Chevreul (1786–Chevreul (1786–

1889).1889).

Chevreul was Master of the Gobelin Tapestry Works Chevreul was Master of the Gobelin Tapestry Works and was mostly concerned with the practical difficulties and was mostly concerned with the practical difficulties

with producing consistent dyes.with producing consistent dyes.

He accepted the three primary colors theory and also He accepted the three primary colors theory and also observed the phenomenon of simultaneous contrast.observed the phenomenon of simultaneous contrast.

Chevreul at age 100 in his studio-laboratory.

His 1839 His 1839 treatise had a treatise had a profound profound influence on influence on the the Impressionist Impressionist movement in movement in painting.painting.

The battle between Goethe’s six-hue The battle between Goethe’s six-hue spectrum and Newton’s seven-color spectrum and Newton’s seven-color

model was unnecessary because model was unnecessary because both are valid but describe different both are valid but describe different

reality:reality:

Newton was looking at Newton was looking at causescauses..

Goethe was looking at Goethe was looking at effectseffects..

In the past, science students and art In the past, science students and art students were not usually the same students were not usually the same

students, so the difference in the two students, so the difference in the two ideas rarely came into conflict.ideas rarely came into conflict.

Today’s designers and students of design must Today’s designers and students of design must understand both understand both cause and effectcause and effect and be able to and be able to

work within–and between–both realities.work within–and between–both realities.

After Goethe and Chevreul, most of the late 19th and After Goethe and Chevreul, most of the late 19th and early 20th century color theorists worked in rigidly early 20th century color theorists worked in rigidly

formal scientific systems.formal scientific systems.

OstwaldOstwald MunsellMunsell

The stress was on rules, control and order: the goal The stress was on rules, control and order: the goal was to create a comprehensive color-order system was to create a comprehensive color-order system

and to find within it immutable laws of color harmony.and to find within it immutable laws of color harmony.

OstwaldOstwald MunsellMunsell

Albert Munsell Albert Munsell (1858–1918) (1858–1918)

developed his developed his 3-dimensional 3-dimensional color model in color model in

1921.1921.

Published in Published in A Grammar A Grammar of Colorof Color, Munsell , Munsell

proposed a “color tree” proposed a “color tree” with infinite room for with infinite room for

expansion.expansion.

Munsell’s color space is constructed as progressive Munsell’s color space is constructed as progressive intervals of hue that rotate around a vertical axis of value intervals of hue that rotate around a vertical axis of value

from black to white.from black to white.

In Munsell’s theory In Munsell’s theory every possible color every possible color cannot be shown but cannot be shown but each has an each has an assigned place on an assigned place on an alphanumeric scale.alphanumeric scale.

Chroma is Munsell’s Chroma is Munsell’s word for saturation.word for saturation.

The problem with this system is that it does not take into The problem with this system is that it does not take into account the account the tertiariestertiaries. Nowhere on the color tree can you find . Nowhere on the color tree can you find

colors mixed with their complements to reduce saturation.colors mixed with their complements to reduce saturation.

In the Munsell System, reduction of saturation is achieved In the Munsell System, reduction of saturation is achieved by mixing the hues with gray in graduated steps.by mixing the hues with gray in graduated steps.

Color numbering Color numbering systems have great systems have great value when they are value when they are used to communicate used to communicate color information color information between individuals between individuals who have reference who have reference to the same set of to the same set of standards.standards.

But these systems But these systems are meaningless as are meaningless as an aid to an aid to understandingunderstanding color. color.

Munsell was not Munsell was not immune to the immune to the

moralizing moralizing associations of his associations of his

predecessors predecessors asserting that certain asserting that certain

colors implied good colors implied good taste and others poor taste and others poor

taste.taste.

His system is still in His system is still in use today, but use today, but

withoutwithout the original the original commentary.commentary.

A hypothetical A hypothetical color color solidsolid (or color (or color displayed in 3-displayed in 3-

dimensions) is a dimensions) is a frequent theme in frequent theme in

scholarly color-order scholarly color-order systems.systems.

German chemist German chemist Wilhelm Ostwald Wilhelm Ostwald

(1853–1932) brought (1853–1932) brought the conceptual color the conceptual color

solid to full-blown solid to full-blown theory in theory in Color Color

ScienceScience..

The Color Primer The Color Primer with with its eight-hue spectrum its eight-hue spectrum

became mandatory became mandatory for color study in for color study in

German schools and German schools and in many English ones.in many English ones.

It was a strong It was a strong influence on artists of influence on artists of

the Bauhaus the Bauhaus movement.movement.

Wilhelm von Bezold Wilhelm von Bezold (1837–1932) (1837–1932)

contributed scientific contributed scientific fact to the growing fact to the growing

body of color writing.body of color writing.

Bezold is best known for the “Bezold Effect” which Bezold is best known for the “Bezold Effect” which says that forms enclosed by light lines appear lighter says that forms enclosed by light lines appear lighter

and vice versa.and vice versa.

Ludwig Von Ludwig Von Helmholtz (1821–Helmholtz (1821–1894) also 1894) also contributed to color contributed to color studies.studies.

He is known for his mathematics of the eye, theories of vision, ideas on the visual perception of space, and his color vision research.

By the early 20th century, color study had become an enormous and wide-ranging topic, positioned uncomfortably with one foot in the sciences and other in the arts.

It remained for the artists and designers of the Bauhaus to end this ambiguity.

The Bauhaus was a design group founded in 1919 by German architect Walter Gropius (1883–1969).

The Bauhaus group brought

the study of color to a level of attention not

seen since Goethe’s

challenge to Newton.

These Bauhaus master students of color and color theory approached color from new directions with intelligence, wit, and energy...

Lyonel Feininger

Paul Klee

Wassily Kandinsky

Johannes Itten

Josef Albers

Oskar Schlemmer

These artists and writers made the definitive break between the study of color as science and the study of

color as art and aesthetics.

Johannes Itten(1888–1967)

followed Goethe in exploring color as a

series of contrast systems and opposing

forces.

He theorized seven contrasts of color based on perceptions alone:

Contrast of:Contrast of:

saturation

hue

value

warm & cool contrast

complementary contrast

simultaneous contrast

extension (area)

saturation

hue

value

warm & cool contrast

complementary contrast

simultaneous contrast

extension (area)

Itten codified color harmonies as a series of chords based on the complementary relationship and diagramed them

as geometric forms.

Itten’s approach, although

mathematically based, is much less rigid than many that preceded it.

Itten’s focus was as much on individual

perception as on mathematical relationships.

His major work is entitled, The Art of Color

Color-order systems were the first concern of theorists because a formal system establishes a structured field in

which to search for laws of color harmony.

The primary focus of that search was on the relationship between hues. Value and saturation took a back seat to hue.

Among all the major figures in color study, there was agreement that balance between complementary colors

was the first principle of color harmony.

The ancient ideal of mathematical balance was so much a part of the search for laws of harmony that hues were frequently associated with numbers or geometric forms.

Arthur Schopenhauer (1788–1860) theorized

that equal light-reflectance in spectrum

colors is inherently harmonious.

Schopenhauer’s Circle of Color Harmony is made up of unequal arcs. Each complementary pair is meant to be equal in light-reflectance to each of the other two pairs.

Every color is assigned a number representing its light-reflectance (or value) in relation to the others.

The total of all the numbers added together is 36, or 360 degrees, a full circle.

Schopenhauer’s theory can be deceptive;a large area of violet does not necessarily reflect

the same amount of light as a smaller area of yellow.

But we do sense value differences between pure colors.

Schopenhauer’s theory can be illustrated as striped tee shirts. In order for each shirt to be harmonious, the

complementary pairs must have different ratios: 1 to 1, 1 to 2, and 1 to 3.

In Itten’s quest for color harmony, he

superimposed geometric forms

(squares, rectangles, triangles, and

hexagons) over the artists’ spectrum to

demonstrate what he called “harmonious

chords.”

Each color chord illustrates

complementary colors in some measurable

proportion.

The geometric points are called the “notes” and no “chord” strays

from the complementary

relationship.

The person who made the final break with the color-order tradition was Josef Albers (1888–1976), a colleague of Itten’s who also taught at the Bauhaus school.

Albers fled Nazi Germany in the early 1930’s with his wife,

the weaver Anni Albers.

They taught first at the Black Mountain School in North Carolina and later at Yale.

Albers became the most influential name in color theory in the United States.

However, his 1963 book Interaction of Colors contained nothing like the usual charts or systems.

Albers taught that true understanding of color comes from an intuitive approach to studio exercises.

He stressed the instability and relativity of perceived colors and the power of visual training.

At the same time, he taught that even within this unstable field, there are effects that can be predicted and controlled.

In Interaction of Colors, Albers casually discounts the generations of theory that preceded him.

“This book...reverses this order and places practice before theory, which is, after all, the conclusion of practice,” he wrote.

Albers was not the first to recognize that the visual experience, more than conscious choice, determines how we perceive colors, but he was the first to assert the primacy of the visual experience over structure or intellectual considerations.

For Albers, the visual experience,

not theory, was paramount.

The late 20th century saw the focus of color study move from philosophical inquiry to a greater interest in

psychological and motivational effects of colors.

There is an entire industry, for example, that is devoted to determining current and future consumer preferences

in colors and color combinations.

At the same time, color theorists continue to search for absolutes.

There is an enduring assumption–or perhaps, a hope–that those elusive,

timeless, and absolute laws for pleasing combinations of colors really do exist and simply await discovery.