Chapter 4: Types, Traits, and Interactionism Theories of Personality January 31, 2003 Class #2

Chapter 4: Types, Traits, and Chapter 4: Types, Traits, and Interactionism Interactionism

Theories of PersonalityTheories of Personality

January 31, 2003January 31, 2003Class #2Class #2

TypesTypes

Carl Jung (1933)Carl Jung (1933)– Are you introverted or extroverted???Are you introverted or extroverted???

We are a “type”…either one or the other, We are a “type”…either one or the other, distinct and discontinuous distinct and discontinuous

Like male and female…can only be oneLike male and female…can only be one

Any appearance to the contrary is just a Any appearance to the contrary is just a distortion of one’s basic personalitydistortion of one’s basic personality

Traits: Traits: The Dimensional ApproachThe Dimensional Approach

People differ across dimensions which are People differ across dimensions which are continuous continuous People differ in varying amountsPeople differ in varying amountsDifferences among people are quantitative Differences among people are quantitative rather than qualitativerather than qualitativePeople vary from one another in varying People vary from one another in varying amounts concerning their personality amounts concerning their personality characteristics – not talking about different characteristics – not talking about different aspects just different degrees of the same aspects just different degrees of the same aspectaspect

What traits are basic to personality?What traits are basic to personality?

Factor analysisFactor analysis – Rates people on a number of items representing Rates people on a number of items representing

different dimensions (in this different dimensions (in this case, traits)case, traits)– Looks at the correlations among the items (what traits Looks at the correlations among the items (what traits

were high at the same time were high at the same time and what traits were and what traits were high when others were low)high when others were low)

– Creates groups based on this correlationsCreates groups based on this correlations– Used to group a large amount of dataUsed to group a large amount of data

Nomothetic View of TraitsNomothetic View of Traits

A trait has the same meaning for everyoneA trait has the same meaning for everyone

Allows for comparisons among peopleAllows for comparisons among people

Draw on underlying dimensions identified Draw on underlying dimensions identified through factor analysisthrough factor analysis

The Idiographic ApproachThe Idiographic Approach

Belief in the uniqueness of individuals Belief in the uniqueness of individuals

Concerned with the whole personConcerned with the whole person

Often employ case-study methodsOften employ case-study methods

Advocates include: Advocates include: – Allport (1937)Allport (1937)– The humanistic psychologistsThe humanistic psychologists

Maslow, Rogers, etc)Maslow, Rogers, etc)

Gordon AllportGordon Allport (1897-1967)(1897-1967)

Gordon Allport was born in Gordon Allport was born in Indiana Indiana As a child he felt different As a child he felt different from others, both in his from others, both in his childhood play and his childhood play and his interestsinterestsAfter high school he followed After high school he followed his older brother Floyd to his older brother Floyd to Harvard UniversityHarvard UniversityFloyd made a name for Floyd made a name for himself in social psychology, himself in social psychology, but Gordon felt like an but Gordon felt like an outsider in this arena outsider in this arena He was not a psychology He was not a psychology majormajor

Allport’s BackgroundAllport’s Background

He taught sociology in Turkey, then He taught sociology in Turkey, then returned to Harvard to learn how to teach returned to Harvard to learn how to teach PsychologyPsychologyAfter receiving his Ph.D., he traveled to After receiving his Ph.D., he traveled to Berlin, Hamburg, and Cambridge for Berlin, Hamburg, and Cambridge for additional study, spent 4 years teaching at additional study, spent 4 years teaching at Dartmouth, and returned to Harvard for the Dartmouth, and returned to Harvard for the rest of his career rest of his career He is credited with being the first to teach He is credited with being the first to teach a course on Personality Psychologya course on Personality Psychology

Allport’s BackgroundAllport’s Background

Gordon was interested in personality, and at the Gordon was interested in personality, and at the time, personality was not a formal sub-discipline time, personality was not a formal sub-discipline of psychology and it certainly was not as of psychology and it certainly was not as fashionable as social psychologyfashionable as social psychologyHe probably followed his brother through school He probably followed his brother through school in an attempt to find himselfin an attempt to find himselfHe reported feeling different from others, He reported feeling different from others, including his older brotherincluding his older brotherThis feeling, however, might have helped him This feeling, however, might have helped him succeed in his chosen profession succeed in his chosen profession

Gordon Allport Gordon Allport

In 1920, one year after receiving his In 1920, one year after receiving his bachelor’s degree from Harvard, this bachelor’s degree from Harvard, this curious psychology student met Sigmund curious psychology student met Sigmund Freud for the only time in his life…Freud for the only time in his life…

He set up an appointment to interview He set up an appointment to interview Freud, who was 64 years old at the time…Freud, who was 64 years old at the time…– Later, Allport would describe the event as a Later, Allport would describe the event as a

“traumatic developmental episode in his life”“traumatic developmental episode in his life”

Their meeting…Their meeting…

Allport arrives at Freud’s office and is taken back Allport arrives at Freud’s office and is taken back by the complete silence that Freud opens the by the complete silence that Freud opens the meeting with…meeting with…

In an attempt to lighten the tension, Allport In an attempt to lighten the tension, Allport mentions an incident that had occurred on the mentions an incident that had occurred on the train on the way to Freud’s office:train on the way to Freud’s office:– A four year-old boy displayed a pronounced phobia A four year-old boy displayed a pronounced phobia

towards dirttowards dirt– To the boy, everything was dirty…the seat was To the boy, everything was dirty…the seat was

filthy…“don’t let that dirty man sit next to me”, etc.filthy…“don’t let that dirty man sit next to me”, etc.

Plunging too deep???Plunging too deep???

It clearly appeared to Allport to be caused by the It clearly appeared to Allport to be caused by the boy’s dominant mother who sat next to him and boy’s dominant mother who sat next to him and he related this feeling to Freud…he related this feeling to Freud…– Freud finally breaks his silence by asking Freud finally breaks his silence by asking

Allport, “and was that little boy, you?Allport, “and was that little boy, you?

From this interview Allport leaves feeling that From this interview Allport leaves feeling that psychoanalysts might be better off recognizing psychoanalysts might be better off recognizing obvious motives rather than probing the obvious motives rather than probing the unconscious unconscious

Disagrees with Freud on a Disagrees with Freud on a couple of accounts…couple of accounts…

Allport suggested that normal, mature human Allport suggested that normal, mature human beings were not irreversibly driven by the events beings were not irreversibly driven by the events of childhoodof childhood

Allport presented a positive and hopeful picture Allport presented a positive and hopeful picture of people in conscious control of their own livesof people in conscious control of their own lives

Note:Note:– He genuinely liked people and cared about themHe genuinely liked people and cared about them– By all accounts, these feelings were reciprocated by By all accounts, these feelings were reciprocated by

his studentshis students

Trait TheoryTrait Theory

Takes behavior at “face value”Takes behavior at “face value”– Allport was less concerned with explaining why we Allport was less concerned with explaining why we

differ from one another and more concerned with differ from one another and more concerned with describing how we differ…describing how we differ…

So, the big distinction between Freud and Allport is So, the big distinction between Freud and Allport is explanation vs. descriptionexplanation vs. description– Allport wrote that psychologists should give full Allport wrote that psychologists should give full

recognition to manifest motives before delving into recognition to manifest motives before delving into the unconscious the unconscious

– Allport was not completely opposed to Allport was not completely opposed to psychoanalysis, he just felt it would be better to psychoanalysis, he just felt it would be better to combine his ideas with it…this is important because combine his ideas with it…this is important because not all trait theorists agreed with him on this pointnot all trait theorists agreed with him on this point

People are unique…People are unique…

Allport was convinced, along with Freud, that what Freud Allport was convinced, along with Freud, that what Freud called "the American approach to psychology" was not called "the American approach to psychology" was not only boring, but misleadingonly boring, but misleadingAccording to Allport, compiling ranks of statistics, According to Allport, compiling ranks of statistics, averaged across individuals describes everyone in averaged across individuals describes everyone in general and no one in particulargeneral and no one in particularIt misses the personal meaning of life's events, and the It misses the personal meaning of life's events, and the individual ways of responding to life's events that Allport individual ways of responding to life's events that Allport called traitscalled traitsAllport called this statistical approach to understanding Allport called this statistical approach to understanding human nature the nomothetic method, and contrasted its human nature the nomothetic method, and contrasted its emptiness and aridity to the richness of the idiographic emptiness and aridity to the richness of the idiographic approach -- an approach centered on the meanings and approach -- an approach centered on the meanings and stories of the individualstories of the individual


Trait theorists do what Freud would not…Trait theorists do what Freud would not…they describe personality in terms of they describe personality in terms of fundamental traits – they look at people’s fundamental traits – they look at people’s characteristic behaviors and characteristic behaviors and conscious conscious motives…motives…– Allport is able to do something that Freud for Allport is able to do something that Freud for

the most part could not…the most part could not…He felt that traits could be measured and studied?He felt that traits could be measured and studied?Where does Freud get his stuff?Where does Freud get his stuff?

– Did he use the scientific method?Did he use the scientific method?


Allport goes through the dictionary and Allport goes through the dictionary and finds about 18,000 separate words that he finds about 18,000 separate words that he feels could be used to describe one’s feels could be used to describe one’s personalitypersonalityAfter eliminating synonyms, he is still left After eliminating synonyms, he is still left with about 4500 descriptorswith about 4500 descriptorsThe problem crucial to all trait theories…The problem crucial to all trait theories…which of these were the most basic which of these were the most basic traits???traits???


3 basic categories of traits:3 basic categories of traits:– Cardinal traitCardinal trait– Central traitsCentral traits– Secondary traitsSecondary traits


Cardinal traitCardinal trait– This is the single characteristic trait that This is the single characteristic trait that

directs most of a person’s activitiesdirects most of a person’s activitiesFor example, a totally selfless person might direct For example, a totally selfless person might direct all their energies toward humanitarian activitiesall their energies toward humanitarian activities


Central traitsCentral traits– These are the major characteristics of the These are the major characteristics of the

individual (5-10 traits)individual (5-10 traits)For example, honesty and sociability may be two For example, honesty and sociability may be two central traits that make up the core an individuals’s central traits that make up the core an individuals’s personalitypersonality


Secondary traitsSecondary traits– These show up in fewer situations and are These show up in fewer situations and are

less influential than central or cardinal traitsless influential than central or cardinal traitsFor example, a preference for modern art or For example, a preference for modern art or clothing style or what’s your favorite ice cream is clothing style or what’s your favorite ice cream is could be secondary traitscould be secondary traits

Situational factors…Situational factors…

Allport also recognized that the situation Allport also recognized that the situation was important but thought that traits were was important but thought that traits were stable over a range of situationsstable over a range of situations– So, his is a strong vote for personality having So, his is a strong vote for personality having

a stronger influence than the situation on a stronger influence than the situation on behaviorbehavior

Raymond Cattell Raymond Cattell (1905-1998)(1905-1998)

Born in EnglandBorn in EnglandHis father was a His father was a mechanical engineer and mechanical engineer and craftsman-designer who craftsman-designer who worked on such projects worked on such projects as developing World War as developing World War I military equipment, the I military equipment, the steam engine, and a new steam engine, and a new internal combustion internal combustion engine engine His mother and father His mother and father both extremely intelligent both extremely intelligent with IQ’s of 150 and 120 with IQ’s of 150 and 120 respectivelyrespectively

Cattell’s BackgroundCattell’s BackgroundCattell describes a happy childhood and youth both at Cattell describes a happy childhood and youth both at home and at school, which upon comparison with other home and at school, which upon comparison with other behavior and personality theorists is an unusual situationbehavior and personality theorists is an unusual situationCattell distinguished himself in high school and earned a Cattell distinguished himself in high school and earned a county scholarship to attend London University where he county scholarship to attend London University where he majored in chemistry majored in chemistry After a period of soul-searching, he concluded that work After a period of soul-searching, he concluded that work in the new social science of psychology would be most in the new social science of psychology would be most relevant in solving the outstanding political and economic relevant in solving the outstanding political and economic problems that he saw around himproblems that he saw around himHe felt that traditional solutions were not working and He felt that traditional solutions were not working and that developing an understanding of human nature was that developing an understanding of human nature was necessary to find new solutions necessary to find new solutions

Cattell’s BackgroundCattell’s Background

After working in various applied settings, in After working in various applied settings, in 1937, he accepted an invitation to join E.L. 1937, he accepted an invitation to join E.L. Thorndike's research staff at Columbia Thorndike's research staff at Columbia University University

He taught briefly at Clark University and then at He taught briefly at Clark University and then at the invitation of Gordon Allport, Cattell joined the the invitation of Gordon Allport, Cattell joined the Harvard University faculty in 1941Harvard University faculty in 1941

In 1945, he took a faculty position at the Univ. of In 1945, he took a faculty position at the Univ. of Illinois where he retired in 1973 Illinois where he retired in 1973

Cattell’s Approach Cattell’s Approach

Used a Lexical ApproachUsed a Lexical Approach – Presumably the importance of a trait is related Presumably the importance of a trait is related

to the number of words used to describe it to the number of words used to describe it (???)(???)

– Cattell took 4500 trait words (already reduced Cattell took 4500 trait words (already reduced by Allport) and removed obvious synonyms by Allport) and removed obvious synonyms and then factor analyzed themand then factor analyzed them

Cattell’s ApproachCattell’s Approach

His definition of personality:His definition of personality: – That which a predicts what a person will do at That which a predicts what a person will do at

a certain situationa certain situation

Started the actual measurement of Started the actual measurement of personalitypersonality Developed 16 PFDeveloped 16 PF– The 16 factors are NOT orthogonalThe 16 factors are NOT orthogonal

Orthogonal: a unique category (factor) by itselfOrthogonal: a unique category (factor) by itselfOblique orthogonal: related with other factors Oblique orthogonal: related with other factors


Measured many different aspects of personalityMeasured many different aspects of personalityIdentified 16 “source traits” or basic dimensions Identified 16 “source traits” or basic dimensions of personalityof personalityBased on this model of personality, he created Based on this model of personality, he created “16PF” (see page 64)“16PF” (see page 64)He used self-reports, observer ratings, and He used self-reports, observer ratings, and objective tests to help determine a person’s objective tests to help determine a person’s traitstraitsUsed statistics, formulas, probabilities, etc.Used statistics, formulas, probabilities, etc.He called this his multivariate approachHe called this his multivariate approach


Analyzed the following traits:Analyzed the following traits:

– Manifest (overt)Manifest (overt) = surface factors = surface factors

– Latent (covert)Latent (covert) = source factors = source factors

– Constitutional traits (biological)Constitutional traits (biological)

– Environmental molded traits (social Environmental molded traits (social cultural)cultural)

ErgsErgs

Cattell felt that labels were highly Cattell felt that labels were highly subjective and easily misinterpreted so he subjective and easily misinterpreted so he invented many words…invented many words…– ““Ergs”Ergs”

Anger, curiosity, fear, greed, hunger, sex, Anger, curiosity, fear, greed, hunger, sex, etc.etc.

Each erg is associated with a particular goalEach erg is associated with a particular goal

He felt that the levels of ergs differ from He felt that the levels of ergs differ from person to person due to geneticsperson to person due to genetics

Hans EysenckHans Eysenck (1916-1997)(1916-1997)

Hans Eysenck was born Hans Eysenck was born in Germany on March 4, in Germany on March 4, 1916 1916 His parents were actors His parents were actors who divorced when he who divorced when he was only two, and so was only two, and so Hans was raised by his Hans was raised by his grandmothergrandmotherHe left there when he He left there when he was 18 years old, when was 18 years old, when the Nazis came to powerthe Nazis came to powerAs an active Jewish As an active Jewish sympathizer, his life was sympathizer, his life was in danger in danger

EysenckEysenck

He received his Ph.D. in Psychology from the He received his Ph.D. in Psychology from the University of London in 1940 University of London in 1940 During World War II, he served as a During World War II, he served as a psychologist at an emergency hospital, where he psychologist at an emergency hospital, where he did research on the reliability of psychiatric did research on the reliability of psychiatric diagnosesdiagnosesLater, he taught at the University of LondonLater, he taught at the University of LondonHe has written 75 books and some 700 articles, He has written 75 books and some 700 articles, making him one of the most prolific writers in making him one of the most prolific writers in psychologypsychologyEysenck retired in 1983Eysenck retired in 1983

Hans EysenckHans Eysenck

Eysenck regards personality as being primarily Eysenck regards personality as being primarily an inborn phenomenon-- that means that an inborn phenomenon-- that means that personality, to him, is more like eye color or personality, to him, is more like eye color or height than it is like learned phenomenaheight than it is like learned phenomenaHe proposed that we have two super traits which He proposed that we have two super traits which operated on a type of continuum…operated on a type of continuum…– Unstable (neurotic) vs. stableUnstable (neurotic) vs. stable– Extraverted vs. introvertedExtraverted vs. introvertedHe used factor analysis to determine these He used factor analysis to determine these dimensionsdimensions

Super TraitsSuper Traits

Neuroticism is the name Eysenck gave to a Neuroticism is the name Eysenck gave to a dimension that ranges from normal, fairly calm dimension that ranges from normal, fairly calm and collected people to one’s that tend to be and collected people to one’s that tend to be quite “nervous” quite “nervous” His research showed that nervous people His research showed that nervous people tended to suffer more frequently from a variety of tended to suffer more frequently from a variety of “nervous disorders” we call neuroses, hence the “nervous disorders” we call neuroses, hence the name of the dimensionname of the dimension– But understand that he was not saying that people But understand that he was not saying that people

who score high on the neuroticism scale are who score high on the neuroticism scale are necessarily neurotics -- only that they are more necessarily neurotics -- only that they are more susceptible to neurotic problemssusceptible to neurotic problems

Super TraitsSuper Traits

The extraversion dimension concerns The extraversion dimension concerns tendencies towards sociability, craving tendencies towards sociability, craving excitement, liveliness, activeness, and excitement, liveliness, activeness, and dominancedominance– The emotional stability dimension concerns The emotional stability dimension concerns

the ease and frequency with which the person the ease and frequency with which the person becomes upset and distressedbecomes upset and distressed

– Greater moodiness, anxiety, and depression Greater moodiness, anxiety, and depression reflect greater emotional instabilityreflect greater emotional instability

Extraversion-introversionExtraversion-introversion

Shy, quiet people “versus” out-going, even loud Shy, quiet people “versus” out-going, even loud people. This dimension, too, is found in people. This dimension, too, is found in everyone, but the physiological explanation is a everyone, but the physiological explanation is a bit more complex…bit more complex…– Introverts were over-aroused individuals Introverts were over-aroused individuals

therefore they try to keep stimulation to a therefore they try to keep stimulation to a minimumminimum

– Extroverts were under-aroused individuals, Extroverts were under-aroused individuals, therefore they tried to increase stimulationtherefore they tried to increase stimulation

– He felt that personality was partly due to He felt that personality was partly due to genetic factorsgenetic factors

A Point for Nature…A Point for Nature…

Note: Note:

– Notice how the study of personality Notice how the study of personality reflects the nature-nurture problem…reflects the nature-nurture problem…

Eysenck's theory leans toward the nature end of Eysenck's theory leans toward the nature end of the continuumthe continuum

It is based primarily on physiology and geneticsIt is based primarily on physiology and genetics

He considers personality differences as growing He considers personality differences as growing out of our genetic inheritanceout of our genetic inheritance

He is primarily interested in a person’s He is primarily interested in a person’s temperamenttemperament

The Big FiveThe Big Five

Several researchers have found evidence Several researchers have found evidence for the existence of five basic dimensions for the existence of five basic dimensions of personality through factor analysisof personality through factor analysis

5 factors are independent of one another5 factors are independent of one another

Everyone can be placed along a Everyone can be placed along a continuum for all 5 factors/traitscontinuum for all 5 factors/traits

The Big FiveThe Big Five

ExtraversionExtraversion

AgreeablenessAgreeableness

ConscientiousnessConscientiousness

Emotionality (also referred to as Emotionality (also referred to as Neuroticism)Neuroticism)

Intellect (also referred to as Openness)Intellect (also referred to as Openness)

What researchers say…What researchers say…

From a review of literature the following are From a review of literature the following are some of the important characteristics of the five some of the important characteristics of the five factors:factors:– The factors are dimensions, not types, so people vary The factors are dimensions, not types, so people vary

continuously on them, with most people falling in continuously on them, with most people falling in between the extremesbetween the extremes

– The factors are stable over a 45-year period The factors are stable over a 45-year period beginning in young adulthood beginning in young adulthood

– The factors and their specific facets appear heritable The factors and their specific facets appear heritable – The factors are considered universalThe factors are considered universal– Knowing one's placement on the factors is useful for Knowing one's placement on the factors is useful for

insight and improvement through therapyinsight and improvement through therapy

What Are These Five Factors?What Are These Five Factors?

ExtraversionExtraversion – Bold versus timid Bold versus timid – Outgoing versus introverted Outgoing versus introverted – Talkative versus silentTalkative versus silent

AgreeablenessAgreeableness – Friendliness versus indifference to others Friendliness versus indifference to others – A docile versus hostile nature A docile versus hostile nature – Compliance versus hostile noncomplianceCompliance versus hostile noncompliance

ConscientiousnessConscientiousness – Responsible versus irresponsibleResponsible versus irresponsible– Hardworking versus lazy Hardworking versus lazy – Cautious versus rashCautious versus rash

What Are These Five Factors?What Are These Five Factors?

NeuroticismNeuroticism – Adjustment versus anxiety Adjustment versus anxiety – Level of Emotional stability Level of Emotional stability

– Dependence vs. independenceDependence vs. independence OpennessOpenness

– Reflection of an inquiring intellect Reflection of an inquiring intellect – Flexibility versus conformity Flexibility versus conformity – Rebelliousness versus SubduednessRebelliousness versus Subduedness

Okay, is behavior really trait-like?Okay, is behavior really trait-like?

Are traits stable across a wide range of Are traits stable across a wide range of settings?settings?

Walter Mischel says noWalter Mischel says no– See next slideSee next slide

Mischel (1968)Mischel (1968)

A long-time personologist attacked trait theoryA long-time personologist attacked trait theoryDisputed the “generalized and enduring causal Disputed the “generalized and enduring causal effects on behavior”effects on behavior”Coined the phrase “personality coefficient” to Coined the phrase “personality coefficient” to characterize the modest correlations between characterize the modest correlations between trait self-reports and behavior which he said trait self-reports and behavior which he said typically were between .20 and .30typically were between .20 and .30

Note: Mischel’s biography and more in-depth coverage of his Note: Mischel’s biography and more in-depth coverage of his theories will be covered near the end of the semester (Chapter 16 – theories will be covered near the end of the semester (Chapter 16 – Contemporary Cognitive Views)Contemporary Cognitive Views)

Mischel (1968)Mischel (1968)

For example, the consistency between For example, the consistency between children's honesty in one social situation children's honesty in one social situation (e.g., one's willingness to steal some (e.g., one's willingness to steal some change left on the table of an empty change left on the table of an empty classroom) and their honesty in a different classroom) and their honesty in a different social situation (e.g., willingness to cheat social situation (e.g., willingness to cheat during an exam) amounted to a correlation during an exam) amounted to a correlation of .20of .20

Situationism: Situationism: The person vs. the situation debate rages on…The person vs. the situation debate rages on…

Data of this sort, pointing to the low cross-Data of this sort, pointing to the low cross-situational consistency of personality traits, situational consistency of personality traits, constitute a strong situationist challenge to constitute a strong situationist challenge to the power of person factors in accounting the power of person factors in accounting for human behavior for human behavior

Personality psychologists on Personality psychologists on the defensive…the defensive…

Many personality psychologists were Many personality psychologists were disturbed by these challenges, and some disturbed by these challenges, and some were even enraged because they felt it were even enraged because they felt it was an invalid attack against a whole was an invalid attack against a whole disciplinediscipline

The social psych camp went on an attack The social psych camp went on an attack mode originated in the “heresy” committed mode originated in the “heresy” committed by former personologist Mischelby former personologist Mischel

The rebuttal…The rebuttal…

Personality psychologists claimed that Social Personality psychologists claimed that Social psychologists can easily create situations in psychologists can easily create situations in which personality influences are minimized which personality influences are minimized – Doesn’t give a true picture of what happens in the real Doesn’t give a true picture of what happens in the real

worldworld

The personality dispositions that a person values The personality dispositions that a person values very highly or those that are integral to his or her very highly or those that are integral to his or her goals in life will influence his or her behavior goals in life will influence his or her behavior more markedly than other dispositionsmore markedly than other dispositions– The situation won’t affect behavior if its dealing with The situation won’t affect behavior if its dealing with

an important disposition an important disposition

Mischel’s idea led to interactionism…Mischel’s idea led to interactionism…

Its not the person or the situation but rather the Its not the person or the situation but rather the person and the situation…???person and the situation…???They interact to produce the behavior…???They interact to produce the behavior…???Variations in situations affect some people in Variations in situations affect some people in one way and affect others in a different wayone way and affect others in a different way– For example, last week’s video camera may For example, last week’s video camera may

have caused the extroverts in this class to have caused the extroverts in this class to want to give longer introductions whereas the want to give longer introductions whereas the introverts may have wanted to dig a hole and introverts may have wanted to dig a hole and hidehide

Lets go a little deeper…Lets go a little deeper…

What is a situation?What is a situation?

Do situations change people?Do situations change people?

Or do people change or even make a Or do people change or even make a situation? situation? – Hastorf and Cantril (1954) Hastorf and Cantril (1954)

Hastorf and Cantril (1954) Hastorf and Cantril (1954)

Princeton vs. Dartmouth football gamePrinceton vs. Dartmouth football game– Very rough game – a Dartmouth player was Very rough game – a Dartmouth player was

taken off on stretcher with broken leg and a taken off on stretcher with broken leg and a Princeton player broke his nose – many Princeton player broke his nose – many penalties throughout the gamepenalties throughout the game

– A week later undergraduates were shown a A week later undergraduates were shown a film of the game and described it in two very film of the game and described it in two very different waysdifferent ways

– Princeton students “saw” the Dartmouth team Princeton students “saw” the Dartmouth team make twice as many penalties as the make twice as many penalties as the Princeton students “saw” them make Princeton students “saw” them make

Hastorf and Cantril (1954)Hastorf and Cantril (1954)

The researchers said there is “no such The researchers said there is “no such thing as a game existing out there in its thing as a game existing out there in its own right”own right”

The person sees the game he or she The person sees the game he or she wants to see wants to see

So, does the person makes the game?So, does the person makes the game?

– How about in real life?How about in real life?

How do you respond to sales calls?How do you respond to sales calls?

Are you making the situation here?Are you making the situation here?

Interactionism in Behavior ProblemsInteractionism in Behavior Problems

Diathesis-stress modelDiathesis-stress model– A person has a predisposition to develop an A person has a predisposition to develop an

illness but it may remain dormant unless illness but it may remain dormant unless triggered by something (stressors)triggered by something (stressors)

Social causation is an example of thisSocial causation is an example of this

Living in a poor environment might lead the Living in a poor environment might lead the vulnerable person into deep depressionvulnerable person into deep depression

Psychology of a stranger???Psychology of a stranger???

Criticisms of Trait TheoriesCriticisms of Trait Theories – Tells us only things someone might want Tells us only things someone might want

to know if they knew nothing else about a to know if they knew nothing else about a personperson

Labels them…but that’s about itLabels them…but that’s about it– Circular explanationsCircular explanations

Not really explaining whyNot really explaining why– A person’s behavior may not be stable A person’s behavior may not be stable

across situationsacross situationsVery debatable criticism Very debatable criticism

Final words…Final words…

Are we strong or are we weak?Are we strong or are we weak?– Well, this was a start in our search to Well, this was a start in our search to

determine if its personality that matters mostdetermine if its personality that matters most– We’ll be addressing this the rest of the We’ll be addressing this the rest of the

semestersemester

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Chapter 4: Types, Traits, and Interactionism Theories of Personality January 31, 2003 Class #2