Chapter 4 SOCIO-CULTURAL, ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL ...shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/19315/15/15_chapter4.pdf · SOCIO - CULTURAL IMPACTS OF HILL TOURISM IN KERALA The

Chapter 4

SOCIO-CULTURAL, ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL

IMPACT OF HILL TOURISM IN KERALA

Hills of Kerala are rich in natural resources that include water, timber,

minerals, and biodiversity and equally important is the rich cultural heritage of

the local community. As the desired destination of many tourists, migrants and

pilgrims, hills of Kerala offer a place of rest, solitude, adventure, recreation and

scenic beauty. For centuries, the relative remoteness and isolation of hills has

resulted in less human impact and higher resource sustainability than in many

lowland regions. With the combined advances in extractive resource

technology and increase in leisure time, however, the impacts of human

activity in hills have increased significantly since the invention of good

transport vehicles. Once sheltered areas, are now, open to the tourism industry

and an external population that can rapidly deplete or alter the resource base.

The extraction of hill resources has advanced with little or no reinvestment into

either the ecology or the local communities that are the traditional stewards of

the ecosystems. Many of the primary issues in sustainability – including

biodiversity, traditional production systems, and social change are either

directly or indirectly associated with the increased use of hills as tourist

destinations. While controlled tourism can bring benefits to the local

community, in normal practice, usually the bulk of economic benefits go

elsewhere, leaving local people with depleted resources and inflated local

prices.

A sustained tourism industry is predicated on a number of factors; in

particular, consideration should be given to the impact that tourism has on the

community as a whole and the individuals who make up that community. The

impacts of tourism require some monitoring in order to protect the well-being

of the community, and to ensure the long term viability of the tourism product.

The community, as hosts to the tourists, is vital in the visitor experience and

Hill Tourism in Kerala

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may affect tourism development by its willingness, or otherwise. Tourism

impacts come in many shapes and forms. These are often discussed in terms of

the socio-cultural, economic and physical environment of the destination areas.

Socio-cultural relates to the issues of culture, lifestyle and human interaction;

economic aspects concern issues of employment, foreign exchange,

improvement in infrastructure, overall growth of the region; the physical

environment concerns issues of landscape and land-use in both built-up and

natural settings.

Because of the rich wildlife diversity and scenic beauty, the hills of

Kerala have in the past four decades attracted domestic and foreign tourists

from various countries. The growth of tourism in the region also resulted in the

establishment of tourist facilities in the area. Tourism in the hill destinations of

Kerala is characterized by both consumptive and non-consumptive wildlife

uses. As a result, significant tourist activities in the region include elephant

safari, walking trails, motoring through woods and several other photographic

tourist activities.

The present chapter investigates the socio-cultural, economic and

environmental impacts of hill tourism in Kerala. The assessment has been

done by taking the perception of host communities in the selected hill

destinations in Kerala based on some well refined variables (given in Chapter

1). For ease of analysis the chapter has been divided into three sections – A, B

and C. Section A is given for assessing the socio-cultural impact, Section B is

devoted to assess the economic impact and Section C is given for assessing the

environmental impact.

Section A

SOCIO - CULTURAL IMPACTS OF HILL TOURISM IN KERALA

The Socio-cultural aspects are one of the chief consumables of tourism,

and experiencing unusual cultures can be educational for the visitor and highly


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profitable for the community. But the influxes of tourists bring diverse values

to the community and influence behaviours and family life. Interactions

between residents and tourists can have an impact on creative expression either

by providing new opportunities or by stifling individuality with new

restrictions. Tourism is necessarily an invasive process that thrusts traditional

communities into the modern world, threatening their distinct lifestyles and

cultural products. Tourism employment brings new streams of income into a

community but also inhibits individuals from performing traditional tasks,

making families dependent on cash income from tourism and therefore less

likely to participate in time-honoured work and social activities. It is possible

to emphasize the recovery and conservation of cultural values that, but for the

attractiveness which it offers to the visitors, would be forgotten. Many of the

local customs have been revitalized like part of the plans for the tourist supply.

In many places traditional customs have been found to be appearing again and

assuming the charm that they had once lost viz folklore, crafts, festivals,

gastronomy, etc. Further, one of the most important positive factors in the

social aspect is the improvement in the facilities and services viz, sanitary

attention, means of transport, parks etc. Tourism can improve the quality of life

in an area by increasing the number of attractions, recreational opportunities,

and services. Tourism offers the resident opportunities to meet interesting

people, make friendships, learn about the world, and expose themselves to new

perspectives. Experiencing different cultural practices enriches experiences,

broadens horizons, and increases insight and appreciation for different

approaches to living.

But in spite of the undeniable socio–cultural impulse that these positive

aspects represent, it has got some negative impact also. The most remarkable

negative aspect is the social differences between the host community and the

tourists which create in the local populations certain resentment towards the

tourists and which appear in the form of social tension. Again, another

negative impact of tourism can be the social evils like the increase of


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prostitution, drug abuse, criminal acts which might not have arisen without the

appearance of tourists. Tourism also can cause a des-culturization of the

destiny. The host community may consider the culture of the tourists as

superior. Sometimes the indigenous cultures may try to adapt to the customs of

the visitors and they will possible end up destroying the very elements that hold

attractiveness for the tourist. Thus, hill tourism has both positive and negative

socio-cultural impacts. The perception of the host community about the

positive and negative impacts of hill tourism is assessed as under:

Table 4.1: Tourism Promotes Social Interaction

Perception Destination Total Ponmudi Thekkady Munnar Neliampathy Wayanad

Agree 44 (88) 49(98) 50(100) 50(100) 48(96) 241(96.4)

Disagree 6(12) - - - - 6(2.4)

No opinion - 1(2) - - 2(4) 3(1.2)

Total 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 250(100) Source: Primary data. Figures in parenthesis are percentages to respective totals. χ2 (df =8) = 29.848; p value = .000*. *Significant at 5 per cent level.

Tourism promotes social interaction between different communities –

host and tourist, which will ultimately help to improve the social status of the

region and also to get educated about the differences in the views and to

improve the attitude towards each other. It also helps sharing of culture

between host and tourists. While analysing this aspect, majority of the

respondents (96.4%) agrees that the tourism promotes social interaction but 2.4

percent disagrees with the majority view and 1.2 percent does not respond

(Table 4.1). The destination wise analysis also shows no wide variation. But

the chi-square finds a significant variation in the opinion among the

respondents at 5 per cent level (p<0.05).

4.1 Positive Impacts of Hill Tourism on the Socio-Cultural Aspects

(a) Tourism Promotes Social Interaction


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(b) Tourism Promotes Cultural Exchange and Education

Tourism promotes cultural exchange between the host community and

the tourists which contributes to mutual understanding between societies and

people. The understanding of other cultures can prevent prejudice and hatred.

Cultural exchange also enriches our own lives by inspiring new forms of

artistic expression and providing fresh insights that broaden our horizons.

While assessing this aspect most of the respondents (88%) agree that tourism

promotes cultural exchange and education, but 10 per cent disagrees with the

statement and the rest does not respond. The destination wise analysis also

shows no wide variation except Wayanad (Table 4.2). But, the chi-square test

finds a significant variation in the opinion among respondents (p<0.05).

Table 4.2: Tourism Promotes Cultural Exchange and Education

Perception Destinations Total Ponmudi Thekkady Munnar Neliampathy Wayanad

Agree 49(98) 49(98) 42(84) 50(100) 30(60) 220(88)

Disagree - 1(2) 5(10) - 19(38) 25(10)

No opinion 1(2) - 3(6) - 1(2) 5(2)

Total 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 250(100)Source: Primary data. Figures in parenthesis are percentages to respective totals. χ2 (df =8) = 64.900; p value = .000*. *Significant at 5 per cent level.

(c) Tourism Promotes Cultural Advancement

Tourism induces cultural exchange. Cultural exchange enriches our

own lives by inspiring new forms of artistic expression and providing fresh

insights that broaden our horizons. Cultural exchange and activities can

exercise a more powerful influence than military task forces or political

delegations, ultimately resulting in the cultural advancement of the community.

While assessing this aspect most of the respondents (82.4%) agree that tourism

promotes cultural advancement among the local community, but 15.2 per cent

disagrees with the statement and the remaining 2.4 per cent does not respond.


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The destination wise analysis also shows no wide variation (Table 4.3). But,

the chi-square test finds a significant variation in the opinion among

respondents (p<0.05).

Table 4.3: Tourism Promotes Cultural Advancement


Agree 37(74) 41(82) 47(94) 50(100) 31(62) 206(82.4)

Disagree 11(22) 8(16) 2(4) - 17(34) 38(15.2)

No opinion 2(4) 1(2) 1(2) - 2(4) 6(2.4)


(d) Tourism Preserves the Cultural Identity of the Area

Cultural identity is the identity of a group or culture of an individual as

far as one is influenced by one's belonging to a group or culture. Cultural

identity is similar to and has overlaps with, but is not synonymous with,

identity politics. Various cultural studies and social theories investigate the

cultural identity. In recent decades, a new form of identification has emerged.

This new form of identification breaks down the understanding of the

individual as a coherent whole subject to a collection of various cultural

identifiers. These cultural identifiers examine the condition of the subject from

a variety of aspects including: place, gender, race, history, nationality,

language, sexual orientation, religious beliefs, ethnicity and aesthetics. The

division lines between diverse cultures are very fine in some parts of the world,

especially in those places where there are people who are ethnically diverse

with completely different ancestry but similar upbringings. Preserving one’s

cultural identity is very difficult since the new generation is least bothered

about these factors and they like to live in a mixed culturization way. The


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perception of the host community of the selected hill destinations on this is

assessed as under:

Table 4.4: Tourism Preserves the Cultural Identity of the Destination


Agree 40(80) 49(98) 48(96) 50(100) 40(80) 227(90.8)

Disagree 9(18) 1(2) 1(2) - 10(20) 21(8.4)

No opinion 1(2) - 1(2) - - 2(0.8)


Majority of the respondents (90.8%) agrees that the tourism helps to

preserve the cultural identity of the destination since the tourists are coming for

experiencing the varied culture, but 8.4per cent disagrees with the statement

whereas 0.8 per cent did not response. The destination wise analysis also shows

no wide variation (Table 4.4). But, the chi-square test finds a significant

variation in the opinion among the host community (p<0.05).

(e) Tourism Supports Revival of Traditional Art, Craft and Culture

Experiencing different cultural practices enriches our experience,

broadens horizons and increases insight and appreciation for different

approaches to living. Increased interest in host cultures as a part of tourism,

increases demand for historical and cultural exhibits. This interest by tourists

in local art, craft and culture provides opportunities to support the revival of

such historical artefacts and architecture. While assessing this aspect most of

the respondents (96.4%) agree that tourism supports the revival of traditional

art, craft and culture, but 2.4 per cent disagree with the statement and 1.2 per

cent did not respond. The destination wise analysis also shows no wide

variation (Table 4.5). However, the chi-square test finds a significant variation

in the opinion among the host community (p<0.05).


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Table 4.5: Tourism Supports Revival of Traditional Art, Craft and Culture


Agree 41(82) 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 241(96.4)

Disagree 6(12) - - - - 6(2.4)

No opinion 3(6) - - - - 3(1.2)


(f) Tourism Ensures Restoration of Historical Sites

Traditional architecture and historical infrastructure can be an important

primary or secondary tourist attraction. Tourists can be housed in restored or

traditional buildings and led along ancient trails. Infrastructure restoration can

also revitalise other forms of economic activity. The restoration of traditional

infrastructure, particularly if the original construction techniques and design are

employed, is an excellent example of the link between conservation and

enterprise in community based tourism.

Table 4.6: Tourism Ensures Restoration of Historical Sites


Agree 15(30) 13(26) 49(98) 50(100) 47(94) 174(69.6)

Disagree 33(66) 36(72) - - 1(2) 70(28)

No opinion 2(4) 1(2) 1(2) - 2(4) 6(2.4)


As a result of their relative isolation, some hill cultures retain traditional

building skills which have been lost in more developed areas. The revenue


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generated from tourism activity can be utilised to restore historical sites. While

assessing this aspect majority of the respondents (69.6%) agree that tourism

ensures restoration of historical sites, but 28 per cent disagree with the

statement and 2.4 per cent did not respond. The destination wise analysis

shows no wide variation from the general opinion except Ponmudi and

Thekkady where majority of the respondents disagree with the statement (Table

4.6). The chi-square test also finds significant variation in the opinion of the

host community (p<0.05).

In order to satisfy the traditional needs at the mass tourists visiting

destinations, local cultural values have been used as a commodity and

marketing tool and have been over-commercialised as a result of using them at

the wrong place, at the wrong time, and with the wrong standards.

Consequently, a false and dubious image has emerged, deliberately or not,

about the local community. The perception of the host community at selected

destinations on this impact is assessed as under

Table 4.7: Tourism Commodifies Culture and Traditional Way of Life


Agree 42(84) 49(98) 42(84) 37(74) 46(92) 216(86.4)

Disagree 5(10) - 5(10) 10(20) 3(6) 23(9.2)

No opinion 3(6) 1(2) 3(6) 3(6) 1(2) 11(4.4)


Majority of the respondents (86.4%) agree that tourism commodifies

culture and traditional way of life, but 9.2 per cent respondents disagree with

the statement and 4.4 did not respond. The destination wise analysis also shows

4.2 Negative Impacts of Hill Tourism on the Socio-Cultural Aspects

(a) Tourism Commodifies Culture and Traditional Way of Life


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no wide variation. But, the chi-square test finds a significant variation in the

opinion of the host community (p<0.05).

(b) Tourism Causes Changes in the Art, Craft and Festival

Tourism sometimes leads to the destruction of the social fabric of a

community. The more the number of tourists comes to a place, the more is the

perceived risk of that place losing its cultural identity. It leads to changes in

the art, craft and festivals of the region. While assessing this aspect most of the

respondents (55.2%) disagree with the statement that tourism causes changes in

art, craft and festivals, but 39.6 per cent respondents agree that tourism causes

changes in art, craft and festival and 5.2 per cent did not respond to the

question. The destination wise analysis also shows no wide variation from

general opinion except Thekkady and Wayanad where majority agree with the

statement (Table 4.8). However, the chi-square test finds a significant variation

in the opinion of the host community (p<0.05).

Table 4.8: Tourism Causes Changes in the Art, Craft and Festival


Agree 11(22) 50(100) 8(16) - 30(60) 99(39.6)

Disagree 36(72) - 40(80) 46(92) 16(32) 138(55.2)

No opinion 3(6) - 2(4) 4(8) 4(8) 13(5.2)


(c) Tourism Leads to Demonstration Effect

One of the most detrimental impacts of tourism on the culture of the host

community is the demonstration effect. Influxes of tourists bring diverse values

to the community and influence behaviours and family life. Individuals and the

collective community might try to please tourists or adopt the tourist behaviour

and the adoption of tourist’s way of life may alter existing customs and usher in


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unhealthy practices such as dating habits( especially those of a more structured

or traditional culture). This demonstration effect may create family stress

among the host community. While assessing this aspect, majority of the

respondents (88.4%) agree that tourism leads to a demonstration effect in the

local community, but 10.4 disagree with the statement and 1.2 per cent did not

respond. The destination wise analysis also shows no wide variation (Table

4.9). But, the chi-square test finds a significant variation in the opinion of the


Table 4.9: Tourism Leads to Demonstration Effect

Perception Destinations Total Ponmudi Thekkady Munnar Neliampathy WayanadAgree 50(100) 50(100) 38(76) 50(100) 33(66) 221(88.4)

Disagree - - 10(20) - 16(32) 26(10.4)

No opinion - - 2(4) - 1(2) 3(1.2)


(d) Tourism Increases the Number of Crimes

Crime rates typically increase with the growth and urbanization of an

area, and growth of mass tourism is often accompanied by increased crime. The

presence of a large number of tourists with a lot of money to spend, and often

carrying valuables, increases the attraction for criminals and brings with it

activities like robbery and drug dealing. While analysing this aspect majority of

the respondents (67.6%) agree that tourism activities increase the number of

crimes in the destination, but 30.8 per cent disagree with the statement and 1.6

per cent did not respond. The destination wise analysis also shows no wide

variation from general opinion except Neliampathy and Wayanad where

majority of the respondents disagree with the statement (Table 4.10).

However, the chi-square test finds a significant variation in the opinion of the



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Table 4.10: Tourism Increases the Number of Crimes

Perception Destinations Total Ponmudi Thekkady Munnar Neliampathy Wayanad Agree 50(100) 49(98) 38(76) 9(18) 23(46) 169(67.6)

Disagree - 1(2) 11(22) 41(82) 24(48) 77(30.8)

No opinion - - 1(2) - 3(6) 4(1.6)


(e) Tourism Results in More Vandalism

Mass tourism leads to vandalism. Vandalism is the behaviour of

ruthless destruction or spoiling of anything beautiful or venerable and also

includes criminal damage to cultural monuments and things such as paintings,

buildings, and places etc., which will adversely affect the image of the

historically important place.

Table 4.11: Tourism Results in More Vandalism


Agree 17(34) 32(64) 44(88) 39(78) 34(68) 166(66.4)

Disagree 32(64) 16(32) - 9(18) 12(24) 69(27.6)

No opinion 1(2) 2(4) 6(12) 2(4) 4(8) 15(6)


While assessing this aspect among the host community of selected

destination majority of the respondents (66.4%) agree that tourism activities

results in more vandalism in the area, but 27.6 per cent respondents disagree

with the statement and 6 per cent did not respond. The destination wise analysis

shows no variations from general opinion except in Ponmudi where majority


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disagrees with the statement (Table 4.11). However, the chi-square test finds a

significant variation in the opinion of the host community (p<0.05).

(f) Tourism Exploits Host Community

What began long ago as a practice of travellers visiting and engaging

their hosts by residing with them and abiding by the customs and practices of

the place, tourism has transferred into an impersonal experience where intimate

contact and relationships with the host community are almost non-existent and

managed by a wall of commerce where the traveller no longer subscribes to the

customs of the place but has become “accustomed” to “customized”

experiences. This has turned a once welcoming hosting culture into a reluctant

service-oriented community where the host is treated like a servant – who in

turn is expected to deliver well-choreographed experiences that are more

contrived than genuine, and where sense-of-place is valued less than the

mechanics and standard operating procedures associated with brand

recognition. In short, the prevailing customer-focused paradigm has not only

fostered a dynamic tourism that compromises the identity of the place, but the

local communities are being exploited and their resources are taken over by

outside interests for tourism.

Table 4.12: Tourism Exploits Host Community

Perception Destinations Total Ponmudi Thekkady Munnar Neliampathy WayanadAgree 42(84) 33(66) 40(80) 50(100) 15(30) 180(72)

Disagree 8(16) 17(34) 9(18) - 35(70) 69(27.6)

No opinion - - 1(2) - - 1(0.4)


While analyzing this aspect most of the respondents (72%) agree that

tourism exploits the host community, but 27.6 per cent disagree with the

statement. The destination wise analysis also shows no wide variation, except


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Wayanad, where majority disagrees with the statement (Table 4.12). However,

the chi-square test finds a significant variation in the opinion of the host

community (p<0.05).

(g) Tourism Leads to Drug Use and Alcoholism

Increased tourism can push a community to adopt a different moral

conduct such as increased underage drinking especially in the areas with

festivals involving alcohol, increased illicit drug use etc. While analysing this

aspect among the host community of the selected hill destinations, majority of

the respondents (74.4%) agree that increased tourism activities leads to drug

use and alcoholism, 25.6 per cent disagree with the statement. The destination

wise analysis shows no wide variation from general opinion (Table 4.13).

However, the chi-square test finds a significant variation in the opinion of the


Table 4.13: Tourism Leads to Drug Use and Alcoholism


Disagree 21(42) 8(16) 15(30) 1(2) 19(38) 64(25.6)

No opinion - - - - - -


(h) Tourism Leads to Sexual Abuse and Prostitution

The commercial sexual exploitation of children and young women has

paralleled the growth of tourism in many parts of the world. Though tourism is

not the cause of sexual exploitation, it provides easy access to it. Tourism also

brings consumerism to many parts of the world previously denied access to

luxury commodities and services. The lure of this easy money has caused many

young people, including children, to trade their bodies in exchange for T-shirts,


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personal stereos, bikes and even air tickets out of the country. While analysing

this aspect among the respondents most of them (56.8%) disagree that mass

tourism leads to sexual abuse and prostitution, but 42.8per cent respondents

agree with the statement. The destination wise analysis also shows no wide

variation except Ponmudi and Wayanad, where majority agrees with the

statement (Table 4.14). However, the chi-square test finds a significant

variation in the opinion of the host community (p<0.05).

Table 4.14: Tourism Leads to Sexual Abuse and Prostitution


Disagree 23(46) 34(68) 39(78) 24(48) 22(44) 142(56.8)

No opinion - - - 1(2) - 1(0.4)


(i) Tourism Spreads the Intensity of Disease

Because of our global interconnectedness through transportation,

tourism and trade, infectious diseases emerge more frequently; spread greater

distances; pass more easily between humans and animals; and evolve into new

and more virulent strains. International travel is often cited as a major factor in

the global spread of disease. From the annoying common cold to more serious

SARS infections, travellers are exposed to more germs and disease than ever

before. While analysing this aspect majority of the respondents (72%) disagree

on the statement that tourism spreads the intensity of diseases, but 26.8 per cent

agrees with the statement and 1.2 per cent did not response. The destination

wise analysis also shows no wide variation (Table 4.15). The chi-square test

also shows no significant variation in the opinion of the respondents (p>0.05).


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Table 4.15: Tourism Spreads the Intensity of Disease


Disagree 32(64) 39(78) 31(62) 36(72) 42(84) 180(72)

No opinion - - 2(4) - 1(2) 3(1.2)

Total 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 250(100) Source: Primary data. Figures in parenthesis are percentages to respective totals. χ2 (df =8) = 13.782; p value = .088**. **Not Significant at 5% level

(j) Tourism Leads to the Degradation of Local Language

Tourism means more transportation networks and links, which can

blight the hill environment, disrupt traditional ways of life and threaten the

existence of local languages. If the hill regions become the world’s

playgrounds, there is a risk that mountain people will lose their own cultural

identity.

Table 4.16: Tourism Leads to the Degradation of Local Language

Perception Destinations Total Ponmudi Thekkady Munnar Neliampathy WayanadAgree 21(42) 2(4) 21(42) - 16(32) 60(24)

Disagree 29(58) 47(94) 28(56) 50(100) 30(60) 184(73.6)

No opinion - 1(2) 1(2) - 4(8) 6(2.4)

Total 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 250(100)Source: Primary data. Figures in parenthesis are percentages to respective totals. χ2 (df =8) = 56.743; p value = .000*. * Significant at 5 per cent level.

While analyzing this aspect among the selected respondents most of

them (73.6%) disagrees with the statement that tourism leads to degradation of

local language, but 24per cent agrees with the statement and 2.4 per cent did

not respond. The destination wise analysis also shows no wide variation (Table

4.16). However, the chi-square test reveals a significant variation in the opinion

of the host community (p<0.05).


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(k) Tourism Leads to Friction between Host Community and Tourists

Tourism can increase tension, hostility, and suspicion between the

tourists and the local communities when there is no respect and understanding

for each other’s culture and way of life. This may further lead to violence and

other crimes committed against the tourists. While analysing this aspect

majority of the respondents (77.2%) agrees that increased tourism activities

create a friction between the host community and the tourists on the utilisation

of resources, but 21.2 per cent disagree with the statement and 1.6 per cent did

not respond. The destination wise analysis also shows no wide variation (Table

4.17). However, the chi-square test reveals significant variation in the opinion


Table 4.17: Tourism Leads to Friction between Host Community and Tourists


Disagree 15(30) - 22(44) - 16(32) 53(21.2)

No opinion - 1(2) 1(2) - 2(4) 4(1.6)

Total 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 250(100) Source: Primary data. Figures in parenthesis are percentages to respective totals. χ2 (df =8) = 52.657; p value = .000*. * Significant at 5 per cent level.

(l) Tourism Adversely Affect on the Community’s Way of Life

Tourism development projects propagated as eco-friendly and

employment generating often adversely affect the local community's rights,

livelihood and access to resource and thus adversely affect the host community

as a whole. While analysing this aspect among the selected respondents most

of them (70.4 %) agree that increased tourism had adverse effect on the

community’s way of life but, 26.4 per cent disagrees with the statement and 3.2

per cent did not respond. The destination wise analysis also shows no wide


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variation from general opinion (Table 4.18). However, the chi-square test

reveals significant variation in the opinion of the host community (p<0.05).

Table 4.18: Tourism Adversely Affect on the Community’s Way of Life


Disagree 24(48) 2(4) 12(24) 13(26) 15(30) 66(26.4)

No opinion - - 2(4) 3(6) 3(6) 8(3.2)


(m) Tourism Leads to Displacement of Community

Displaced communities are groups of people who have literally been

uprooted and forced to migrate from their homelands in search of new

livelihoods. This can be the result of any number of factors, which affect

different groups in different ways. One of the undesirable impacts of tourism is

that of the extent of land lost from the local community. Despite loss of their

land, employment favours only better educated workers. Furthermore, the

investors in this area are not local and do not put profits back into local

economy. In some cases new projects are launched without informing or

consulting local people, who come to know about the situation only when an

eviction notice is delivered.

Table 4.19: Tourism Leads to Displacement of Community


Disagree - 2(4) 11(22) 21(42) 18(36) 52(20.8)

No opinion - - 1(2) - 4(8) 5(2)



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While analysing this majority of the respondents (77.2%) agree that

increased tourism activity leads to the displacement of community, but 20.8 per

cent respondents disagree with the statement and 2 per cent did not respond.

The destination wise analysis also shows no wide variation from general

opinion (Table 4.19). However, the chi-square test finds a significant variation

in the opinion of the host community (p<0.05).

For assessing the overall opinion of host community as regards socio-

cultural impacts of tourism at the hill destinations of Kerala, the opinion of the

hosts on all the 19 variables are consolidated. The response was recorded on a

three-point scale with a maximum value of three for ‘agree’ two for ‘no

opinion’ and a minimum value of one for ‘disagree’, for the positive variables

and a reverse ranking was applied for the negative variables. The compiled data

is depicted in Table 4.20.

Table 4.20: Socio-Cultural Impact of Tourism at the Hill Destinations of Kerala (Opinion of Host Community)

Opinion Destinations Total Ponmudi Thekkady Munnar Neliampathy WayanadPositive impact

25(50) 14(28) 26(52) 42(84) 35(70) 142(56.8)

No impact 1(2) - 4(8) 1(2) 1(2) 7(2.8)

Negative impact

24(48) 36(72) 20(40) 7(14) 14(28) 101(40.4)

Total 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 250(100)Source: Compiled data. Figures in parenthesis are percentages to respective totals.

Regarding socio-cultural impact of tourism at the hill destinations of

Kerala, majority (56.8) of the respondents viewed that tourism has positive

socio-cultural impact at the hill destinations of Kerala, but 40.4 per cent stated

that tourism has negative socio-cultural impact at the hill destinations of

Kerala.

4.3 Socio-Cultural Impacts of Tourism at the Hill Destinations of Kerala-

Consolidated Opinion of the Host Community


162

TESTING THE FIFTH HYPOTHESIS

The opinion of host community regarding the socio-cultural impact of

tourism on the hill destinations of Kerala is also put to hypothesis testing.

Binomial test is used for testing the hypothesis with hypothetical mean value as

cut off point (38.00). While applying the test, respondents having the

perception of ≤ mean value are grouped as ‘no positive impact’ and the rest are

grouped as ‘positive impact’. The binomial test result (given in Table 4.21)

depicts the observed proportion as 0.57, which is more than the test proportion

of 0.50, and the p-value is significant at 5 per cent level of significance. Hence,

the null hypothesis stating that not more than one half of the host community

observed that tourism has positive socio-cultural impact on the hill

destinations of Kerala stands rejected.

Table 4.21: Socio Cultural Impact of Tourism at the Hill Destinations of Kerala (Binomial Test)

Category Observed Proportion Test Proportion p Value

Group 1(≤ 38.00) 0.43 0.50 0.037*

Group 2 (>38.00) 0.57 Source: Compiled data.

The distribution of host community on the basis of socio-cultural factors

(19 variables consolidated) by their socio-economic and demographic

characteristics is depicted in Table 4.22.

H0: Not more than one half of the host community viewed that tourism has

positive socio-cultural impact on the hill destinations of Kerala

(P≤0.50).

H1: More than one half of the host community viewed that tourism has

positive socio-cultural impact on the hill destinations of Kerala

(P>0.50).

4.4 Relationship between Socio Cultural Impact and Personal Traits of

Host Community


163

Table 4.22: Relationship between Socio Cultural Factors and Personal Traits of the Host Community

Variables Category N Mean S.D F Sign. Total 250 39.1320 4.63037

Sex Male 192 39.4375 4.86426 3.641 0.058**Female 58 38.1207 3.60836

Age

≤25 48 39.4375 4.54250

0.117 0.950**26-35 101 39.0396 4.7873236-45 66 39.1818 4.30709>45 35 38.8857 5.03967

Educational Qualification

SSLC 53 39.6891 4.77004

0.446 0.720**Plus Two 106 38.8019 4.06007Graduate 84 39.1786 5.19768Post Graduate 7 39.2857 5.05682

Occupation

Salaried 152 39.2829 4.40412

0.459 0.711**Business 46 38.7391 4.77230Agriculture 13 38.0000 6.12372Others 39 39.3846 4.88076

Monthly Salary

Upto Rs.5,000 66 39.2424 4.35735

0.865 0.505**

5,001 – 10,000 99 39.3636 4.5679810,001 – 15,000 37 38.0000 5.1607415,001 – 25,000 34 39.8235 4.6284425,001 – 40,000 6 37.1667 4.21505Above Rs.40,000 8 39.1250 5.96268

Place of birth Born 209 39.2057 4.40943

0.322 0.571**Migrated 41 38.7561 5.67354

Relation with tourism

Employed 73 39.7260 4.66744

1.329 0.266**

Family member employed

57 38.1404 3.89798

Tourism Entrepreneur

37 39.0541 4.87024

No relation 83 39.3253 4.91416Source: Compiled data. **Not Significant.

ANOVA was applied to find out whether there is any significant

variation in the perception of host community on socio-cultural impact. No

significant variation is seen in any of the seven variables viz. sex, age,

educational qualification, occupation, monthly income, place of birth and

relation with tourism.


164

Section B

ECONOMIC IMPACTS OF HILL TOURISM IN KERALA

Tourism is a major social phenomenon of the modern society with

enormous economic consequences. Its importance as an instrument for

economic development and employment generation particularly in remote and

backward areas and a positive step for poverty elimination has been accepted

all over the world. One of the chief reasons that governments support and

promote tourism is that it has a positive impact upon economic growth and

development. Tourism increases employment opportunities, generate income

and raise standards of living. As tourism grows, additional opportunities are

created for investment, development and infrastructure spending. Tourism

often induces improvements in public utilities such as water, sewer, sidewalks,

lighting, parking, public restrooms, litter control and landscaping and such

improvements benefit tourists and residents alike. Tourism also stimulates the

supplying sectors of tourism, and lead to a generally increased level of

economic activities in the country. Thus tourism should have an impact on the

frequently used quantitative measure of the economic development and GDP.

On the other side the tourism has negatives also - it will increase the price level

of products; increase the price of land, lead to increased tax burden to the host

community and will also indirectly prevent the development of other industries.

Thus, hill tourism has both positive and negative economic impacts. The

perception of the host community about the positive and negative impacts of

hill tourism in Kerala is assessed as under:

The rapid expansion of tourism has led to significant employment

creation. Tourism generates jobs directly through hotels, restaurants, taxis,

souvenir sales, and indirectly through the supply of goods and services needed

by tourism-related businesses. While analysing this factor among the selected

4.5 Positive Impacts of Hill Tourism on the Economic

Aspects (a) Tourism Provides Job Opportunities


165

respondents all of them agree that tourism provides job opportunities to the

local people (Table 4.23).

Table 4.23: Tourism Provides Job Opportunities

Perception Destination Total Ponmudi Thekkady Munnar Neliampathy WayanadAgree 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 250(100)

Disagree - - - - - -


Total 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 250(100) Source: Primary data. Figures in parenthesis are percentages to respective totals.

(b) Tourism Motivates New Business Units and Expansion of Existing

Units

Tourism businesses and tourists purchase goods and services directly

from the enterprises situated in the tourism spots. This creates opportunities for

the setting up of new micro, small and medium-sized enterprises and the

expansion of existing enterprises especially those situated in the tourism

destinations by which they can satisfy the demand of tourism industry.

Table 4.24: Tourism Motivates New Business Units and Expansion of Existing Units



No opinion - - - - 1(2) 1(0.4)

Total 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 250(100) Source: Primary data. Figures in parenthesis are percentages to respective totals. χ2 (df =4) = 4.016; p value = .404**. ** Not Significant at 5 per cent level.

While analysing this aspect majority (99.6%) of the host community

agree that tourism motivates new business units and motivates the expansion of

existing units, 0.4 per cent did not respond. The destination wise analysis also


166

shows no wide variation (Table 4.24). The chi-square test also shows no

significant variation in the opinion of the host community (p>0.05).

(c) Tourism Increases Income of the Local Economy

Tourism can be a significant, even essential, part of the local economy.

There are revenues that are not easily quantified, as not all tourist expenditures

are formally registered in the macro-economic statistics. Money is earned from

tourism through formal employment like shops, hotels, taxis, registered guides

etc., and informal employment such as street vendors, informal guides,

rickshaw drivers, etc., and the income of the local bodies also increases from

additional revenues in the form of taxes, license fees etc. In addition to this,

revenue is also collected from tourists visiting protected areas in the form of

user fees. The economic contribution of the tourism sector to the local

economy shows that the sector provides the potential for diversifying the local

economy and also reduces its dependence in other sectors. The perception of

the host community regarding this is depicted as under (Table 4.25).

Table 4.25: Tourism Increases Income of the Local Economy





All respondents are of the opinion that tourism increases the income of

the community.

(d) Tourism Improves Educational Infrastructure

The construction of roads and tracks to remote areas for tourists also

improves access for school-age children and for teachers. Tourism also help

local resource mobilisation, part of which can be spent on improvement of


167

education facilities in the region. While assessing this among the selected

respondents, majority of them (87.6%) agree that tourism induces the authority

and other agencies to set new and advanced educational institutions where the

locals can provide better education to their children, but 11.6 per cent disagrees

with the statement. The destination wise analysis also shows no wide variation

from the general opinion (Table 4.26). However, the chi-square test finds a


Table 4.26: Tourism Improves Educational Infrastructure


Disagree 17(34) - - - 12(24) 29(11.6)

No opinion - - - - 2(4) 2(0.8)


(e) Tourism Improves the Standard of Living

As tourism supports the creation of community facilities and services

that otherwise might not have been developed, it can bring higher living

standards to a destination. Benefits can include upgraded infrastructure, health

and transport improvements, new sport and recreational facilities, restaurants,

and public spaces as well as an influx of better-quality commodities and food,

which can also be assessed by the local community. While assessing this

majority of the respondents (99.6%) agrees that tourism development provides

better opportunity to the locals there by increasing the standard of living of the

host community. The destination wise analysis also shows no wide variation

(table 4.27). The chi-square test also shows no significant variation in the

opinion of the host community (p>0.05).


168

Table 4.27: Tourism Improves the Standard of Living



No opinion - - - - 1(2) 1(0.4)

Total 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 250(100) Source: Primary data. Figures in parenthesis are percentages to respective totals. χ2 (df =4) = 4.016; p value = .404**. **Not Significant at 5 per cent level.

(f) Tourism Promotes Gender Equality and Empower Women

The tourism industry employs a high proportion of women and creates

micro enterprise opportunities for them. It promotes women’s mobility and

provides opportunities for social networking thus helping to reduce inequality

in gender.

Table 4.28: Tourism Promotes Gender Equality and Empower Women


Disagree 11(22) - - - - 11(4.4)



While assessing this among the selected respondents most of them

(95.6%) agree that tourism promotes gender equality and empower the women

in the area. The destination wise analysis also shows no wide variation from

general opinion (Table 4.28). However, the chi-square test finds a significant



169

(g) Tourism Improves the Infrastructure

Tourism provides funds and, can induce the local government to make

infrastructure improvements such as better water and sewage systems, roads,

electricity, telephone and public transport networks, all of which can improve

the quality of life of the local community as well as facilitate tourism. The

perception of the host community regarding this aspect is depicted as under

(Table 4.29).

Table 4.29: Tourism Improves the Infrastructure





All the respondents agree that the tourism provides funds for the

improvement of the infrastructure in the region.

(h) Tourism Leads to Increased Shopping Opportunities

The increased demand for various products from the tourists and tourism

related business organisations leads to the setup of new shops and even super

stores in the area. This will ultimately help the local community by providing

them with new and developed shopping opportunities in the area. While

assessing this majority of the respondents (99.6%) agrees that tourism

development provides better opportunity to the locals there by increasing the

standard of living of the host community. The destination wise analysis also

shows no wide variation (table 4.27). The chi-square test also shows no

significant variation in the opinion of the host community (p>0.05).


170

Table 4.30: Tourism Leads to Increased Shopping Opportunities


Disagree 6(12) - - - - 6(2.4)

No opinion 1(2) - - - - 1(0.4)


(i) Tourism Leads to the Development of Nearby Areas

The increased demand for the accommodation facilities and tourism

related goods forced the entrepreneurs to set up new lodges, resorts and other

business units producing tourism related goods. But because of the lack of

enough space for the setting up of such structures in the spots due to congestion

or some other reason; they are forced to set up such units related to tourism in

the nearby areas. This ultimately helps the nearby areas of a destination to

develop. The perception of the host community on the selected destination is

depicted as under (Table 4.31).

Table 4.31: Tourism Leads to the Development of Nearby Areas


Agree 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 250(100)




All the respondents are of the opinion that tourism also leads to the

development of nearby areas.


171

(j) Tourism Leads to an Increase in Foreign Exchange

Tourism expenditures, the export and import of tourism related goods

and services generate income to the host economy. The increased flow of

international tourists to the region helps the economy to improve the foreign

exchange earnings. While assessing this aspect among the selected

respondents, majority of the respondents (72.8%) agrees that tourism increases

the foreign exchange earnings in the region, but 25.6 per cent disagrees with

the statement and 1.6 per cent did not respond. The destination wise analysis

also shows no wide variation from general opinion except Neliampathy, where

the majority disagrees with the statement (Table 4.32). However, the chi-

square test finds a significant variation in the opinion of the host community

(p<0.05).

Table 4.32: Tourism Leads to an Increase in Foreign Exchange


Disagree 11(22) 7(14) 9(18) 36(72) 1(2) 64(25.6)

No opinion - 1(2) 2(4) - 1(2) 4(1.6)

Total 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 250(100)Source: Primary data. Figures in parenthesis are percentages to respective totals. χ2 (df =8) = 79.152; p value = .000*. * Significant at 5 per cent level.

Essential Commodities

Increasing demand for basic services and goods from tourists will often

cause price hikes that negatively affect local residents whose income does not

increase proportionately. Tourism development and the related rise in real

estate demand may dramatically increase building costs and land values. Not

only does this make it more difficult for local people to meet their basic daily

needs, it can also result in dominance by outsiders in land markets and in

4.6 Negative Impact of Hill Tourism on the Economic Aspects

(a) Tourism Leads to an Increase in the Price of Land, Houses and


172

migration that erodes economic opportunities for the locals, eventually

disempowering residents. While analysing this among the host community all

of them agree that tourism leads to increase in price of land, houses and

essential commodities (Table 4.33).

Table 4.33: Tourism Leads to an Increase in the Price of Land, Houses and Essential Commodities


Agree 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 250(100)



Total 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 250(100)Source: Primary data. Figures in parenthesis are percentages to respective totals.

(b) Tourism leads to Shortage of Consumables

Increased tourism activity in the area leads to an increased demand for

the consumables from the hotels and other tourism related industries in the

region. This will ultimately lead to increase in the price of the products and

shortage of products in the market and make it difficult for the host community

to get the essential products from the market.

Table 4.34: Tourism Leads to Shortage of Consumables


Disagree 17(34) 21(42) 17(34) 7(14) 16(32) 78(31.2)

No opinion - - - 1(2) - 1(0.4)



173

While assessing this aspect among the selected respondents, majority of

them (68.4 %) agrees that tourism leads to shortage of consumables in the local

market, but 31.2 per cent disagrees with the statement. The destination wise

analysis also shows no wide variation (Table 4.34). The chi-square test also

confirms the findings at 5 per cent lever (p>0.05).

(c) Tourism Prevents Set-up of Other Productive Industry

Due to increased pressure from the tourism related industries for the

setting up of new units and also due to the attraction and quantity of income

generated by the tourism industry, the local community as well as the local

authorities think in favour of tourism industry. This will discourage those who

are basically interested in setting up other industries, and force them to set up

some tourism related industry. This will ultimately prevent other industries to

function in the tourism destination.

Table 4.35: Tourism Prevents Set-up of Other Productive Industry


Disagree 14(28) 36(72) 8(16) 21(42) 27(54) 106(42.4)

No opinion - 3(6) 1(2) - 2(4) 6(2.4)


While assessing this aspect most of the respondents (68.4%) agree that

tourism prevents setting up of other productive industries in the region, but

42.4 per cent disagrees with the statement. The destination wise analysis also

shows no wide variation except Thekkady and Wayanad where the majority

disagrees with the statement (Table 4.35). The chi-square test finds a



174

(d) Tourism Leads to Increased Tax Burden

One of the negative effects of tourism is an increased tax burden on

the local taxpayers to finance tourism. To the extent that local governments

are financed predominantly by property taxes, increased real estate values

induced by the development of tourism related properties, and other costs

associated with tourism development will be borne, at least in part, by local

residents. While assessing this aspect most of the respondents (64.4%) agree

that increased tourism activity in the region has led to increased tax burden for

the host community since the local bodies increase the tax rates in order to find

funds to provide better infrastructure in the region, but 32.8 per cent disagrees

with the statement and 2.8 per cent did not respond. The destination wise

analysis shows wide variation among the destinations from general opinion

(Table 4.36). The chi-square test also reveals significant variation in the


Table 4.36: Tourism Leads to Increased Tax Burden


Disagree 28(56) 4(8) 5(10) 27(54) 18(36) 82(32.8)

No opinion 1(2) 2(4) 3(6) 1(2) - 7(2.8)


(e) Tourism Leads to Increased Cost of Living

Diversion of people's essential needs like agricultural land and access

to natural and common resources like forests, water bodies etc. as well as

diversion of water and electricity to hotels, lodges and amusement parks in the

tourism sector ultimately leads to an increase in the cost of living for the entire

community. While assessing this aspect, majority of the respondents (92.4%)

agree that tourism leads to increased cost of living in the region, but 7.6 per


175

cent disagree with the statement. The destination wise analysis also shows no

wide variation from general opinion (Table 4.37). However, the chi-square test

finds a significant variation on the opinion of the host community (p<0.05).

Table 4.37: Tourism Leads to Increased Cost of Living


Disagree - 1(2) - - 18(36) 19(7.6)


Total 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 250(100) Source: Primary Data. Figures in parenthesis are percentages to respective totals. χ2 (df =4) = 71.998; p value = .000*. * Significant at 5 per cent level.

For assessing the overall opinion of host community as regards

economic impacts of tourism at the hill destinations of Kerala, the opinion of

the hosts on all the 15 variables are consolidated. The response was recorded

on a three-point scale with a maximum value of three for ‘agree’ two for ‘no

opinion’ and a minimum value of one for ‘disagree’, for the positive variables

and a reverse ranking was applied for the negative variables.

Table 4.38: Economic Impact of Tourism at the Hill Destinations of Kerala (Opinion of Host Community)


45(90) 49(98) 44(88) 35(70) 42(84) 215(86)

No impact - - - - - -

Negative impact

5(10) 1(2) 6(12) 15(30) 8(16) 35(14)

Total 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 250(100) Source: Compiled data. Figures in parenthesis are percentages to respective totals.

4.7. Economic Impacts of Tourism at the Hill Destinations of Kerala – Consolidated Opinion of the Host Community


176

While analysing the compiled data regarding economic impact of

tourism at the hill destinations in Kerala, most (86%) of the respondents

viewed that tourism has positive economic impact at the hill destinations of

Kerala, but 14 per cent stated that tourism has negative economic impact at the

hill destinations of Kerala.

TESTING THE SIXTH HYPOTHESIS

The opinion of host community regarding the economic impact of






depicts the observed proportion as 0.57, which is more than the test proportion

of 0.50, and the p value is significant at 5 per cent level of significance. Hence,


observed that tourism has positive economic impact on the hill destinations of

Kerala stands rejected.

Table 4.39: Economic Impacts of Tourism at the Hill Destinations of Kerala (Binomial Test)


Group 1(≤ 30.00) 0.14 0.50 0.000*

Group 2 (>30.00) 0.86 Source: Compiled Data.


positive economic impact on the hill destinations of Kerala (P≤0.50).


positive economic impact on the hill destinations of Kerala (P>0.50).


177

The distribution of host community on the basis of economic factors (15

variables consolidated) by their socio-economic and demographic

characteristics is depicted in table 4.40.

Table 4.40: Relationship between Economic Factors and Personal Traits of the Host Community


Sex Male 192 35.7500 3.32687

0.333 0.565**Female 58 36.0345 3.17316

Age

≤25 48 34.9583 3.32597

1.441 0.231**26-35 101 36.0099 2.9376736-45 66 35.9091 3.30839>45 35 36.2571 4.02450


SSLC 53 36.1509 3.25456


Occupation

Salaried 152 35.8882 3.30672


Monthly Income

Upto Rs.5,000 66 35.2424 3.26313

2.326 0.043*

5,001 – 10,000 99 35.4242 3.1105210,001 – 15,000 37 36.7297 2.8347915,001 – 25,000 34 36.3529 3.8915825,001 – 40,000 6 37.1667 1.83485Above Rs.40,000 8 37.8750 4.18970


1.254 0.264**Migrated 41 36.3415 2.84262


Employed 73 35.9178 2.94747

2.258 0.082**


57 35.9649 2.87827


37 36.8108 2.60169

No relation 83 35.1807 3.96061Source: Compiled data **Not Significant


variation in the perception of host community on economic impact. Out of

4.8 Relationship between Economic Impact and the Personal Traits of

Host Community


178

seven variables, significant variation is seen only in respect of one variable viz

monthly income. However, no significant variation is seen in other six

variables viz. sex, age, educational qualification, occupation, place of birth and

relation with tourism.

Section C

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS OF HILL TOURISM IN KERALA

The hills of Kerala are among the leading tourism destinations, mainly

because of the rich wildlife resources they sustain and their mesmerizing scenic

beauty. Flora and Fauna of Kerala are notable for their diversity and high rates

of endemism, with 900 species of highly sought medicinal plants. The quality

of the environment, both natural and man-made, is essential to tourism.

However, the relationship of tourism with the environment is complex. It

involves many activities that can have adverse environmental effects. Many of

these impacts are linked with the construction of general infrastructure such as

roads, tourism facilities including resorts, hotels, restaurants, shops, golf

courses etc. The negative impacts of tourism development can gradually

destroy the environmental resources on which it depends. On the other hand,

tourism has the potential to create beneficial effects on the environment by

contributing to environmental protection and conservation. It is a way to raise

awareness about environmental values and it can also serve as a tool to finance

protection of natural areas and to increase their economic importance.

Uncontrolled conventional tourism poses potential threats to many natural

areas as it puts enormous pressure on an area and leads to soil erosion,

increased pollution, natural habitat loss, pressure on endangered species and

heightened vulnerability to forest fires. It often puts a strain on some of the

resources like water, and it can force local populations to compete for the use

of critical resources. The present study makes an attempt to analyse the opinion

of the host community on various positive and negative environmental impacts

of tourism in the hills of Kerala.


179

Tourism has the potential to increase public appreciation of the

environment and to spread awareness about environmental problems by

bringing people into closer contact with nature and the environment. This

consciousness heightens awareness about the value of nature among the

community and leads to environmentally conscious behaviour and activities to

preserve the environment. While assessing this aspect among the selected

respondents, majority of the respondents (95.6%) agrees that tourism activities

increase environmental consciousness among the host community. The

destination wise analysis shows no wide variation from general opinion (Table

4.41). However, the chi-square test finds a significant variation in the opinion


Table 4.41: Tourism Creates Increased Environmental Consciousness


Disagree 6(12) - - - 5(10) 11(4.4)



(b) Tourism Leads to Improved Quality of Public Services

Tourism often induces improvements in public utilities such as water,

sewer, sidewalks, lighting, parking, public restrooms, litter control, and

landscaping. Such improvements benefit tourists and residents alike. While

assessing this aspect majority of the respondents (96%) agrees that the

increased tourism activities in the region improve the quality of public services

available at the destination. The destination wise analysis shows no wide

4.9 Positive Impact of Hill Tourism on the Environmental Aspects

(a) Tourism Leads to Increased Environmental Consciousness


180

variation from general opinion (Table 4.42). However, the chi-square test finds

a significant variation in the opinion of the host community (p<0.05).

Table 4.42: Tourism Leads to Improved Quality of Public Services


Agree 43(86) 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 47(94) 240(96)

Disagree 7(14) - - - 3(6) 10(4)



(c) Tourism Leads to Improved Waste Management

Waste management is a critical aspect of tourist management that affects

health and the aesthetic value of a destination. Cooperative action and

appropriate infrastructure are helpful in waste management efforts. Waste

deteriorates very slowly at high altitudes, and therefore much of the waste

generated in the hills should simply be carried out. Waste management can

range from information distribution on litter and waste, to litter removal

projects, to the construction of local incinerators and dumping pits, along with

septic, pit or composting toilets. These methods have proven useful in almost

all mountains. Since the Kerala hills, treated as one of most sensitive biosphere,

waste management is a challenge to the authorities. While analysing this

aspect among the selected respondents most of them (91.6%) agree that the

tourism leads to an improvement in the waste management in the region, but 8

per cent disagrees with the statement and 0.4 per cent did not respond (Table

4.43). The destination wise analysis shows no wide variation from general

opinion. However, the chi-square test finds a significant variation in the



181

Table 4.43: Tourism Leads to Improved Waste Management


Agree 45(90) 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 34(68) 229(91.6)

Disagree 5(10) - - - 15(30) 20(8)

No opinion - - - - 1(2) 1(0.4)

Total 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 250(100)

Source: Primary data. Figures in parenthesis are percentages to respective totals. χ2 (df =8) = 50.710; p value = .000*. * Significant at 5 per cent level.

(d) Tourism Generates Income for the Preservation of Nature

Tourism can contribute directly to the conservation of sensitive areas

and habitat. Revenue from park entrance fees and similar sources can be

allocated specifically to pay for the protection and management of

environmentally sensitive areas. Special fees for park operation or

conservation activities can be collected from tourists or tour operators. Such

funds can be used for the overall preservation programs and activities.

Table 4.44: Tourism Generates Income for the Preservation of Nature


Agree 15(30) 40(80) 44(88) 50(100) 39(78) 188(75.2)

Disagree 35(70) 8(16) 6(12) - 9(18) 58(23.2)

No opinion - 2(4) - - 2(4) 4(1.6)


While analysing this aspect majority of the respondents (75.2%) agree

that the major share of the income generated from tourism activity is spent on


182

the preservation of nature, but 23.2 per cent disagree with the statement and 1.6

per cent respondents did not respond. The destination wise analysis shows no

wide variation from general opinion except Ponmudi, where majority disagrees

with the statement (Table 4.44). However, the chi-square test finds a significant


Tourism can cause the same forms of pollution as any other industry: air

emissions, noise, solid waste and littering, releases of sewage, oil and

chemicals, even architectural/visual pollution. In the serene hill areas,

increased influx of tourists and the increased tourism related activities can

pollute the entire environment. While analysing this most of the respondents

(99.2%) agree that increased tourism activities in the region leads to increased

pollution. The destination wise analysis shows no wide variation from general

opinion (Table 4.45). The chi-square test also shows no significant variation in

the opinion of the host community (p>0.05).

Table 4.45: Tourism Leads to Increased Pollution


Agree 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 48(100) 248(99.2)

Disagree - - - - 2(4) 2(0.8)



(b) Tourism Leads to Scarcity of Water and Electricity

Increased demand from hotels and resorts for water and electricity leads

to the shortage of the already scarce resources in the locality. This will

4.10 Negative Impacts of Hill Tourism on the Environmental Aspects

(a) Tourism Leads to Increased Pollution


183

ultimately affect the host community, who will protest against this with the

local authority and this may lead to tension in the region.

Table 4.46: Tourism Leads to Scarcity of Water and Electricity


Agree 35(70) 23(46) 47(94) 50(100) 45(90) 200(80)

Disagree 15(30) 27(54) 3(6) - 5(10) 50(20)


Total 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 250(100)

Source: Primary data. Figures in parenthesis are percentages to respective totals. χ2 (df =4) = 61.000; p value = .000*. * Significant at 5 per cent level.

While analysing this among the selected respondents most of them

(80%) agree that increased inflow of tourism leads to increased investment in

tourism and this ultimately leads to scarcity of resources like water and

electricity to the local community, but 20 per cent disagrees with the statement.

The destination wise analysis shows no wide variation from the general opinion

except Thekkady where majority disagrees with the statement (Table 4.46).

However, chi-square test also finds a significant variation in the opinion of the


(c) Tourism Leads to Drainage and Sanitation Problem

Construction of hotels, recreation and other facilities often leads to

increased pressure on sewage disposal facilities, in particular because many

destinations have several times more inhabitants in the high season than in the

low season. Waste water treatment facilities are often not built to cope with the

dramatic rise in the volume of waste water during the peak. Waste water has

polluted the water bodies surrounding tourist attractions, damaging the flora

and fauna. This drainage and sanitation problem can also threaten the health of

human beings and animals become unpleasant for local residents and can harm


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local tourism. While analysing this among the selected respondents most of

them (92%) agrees that the tourism activities create drainage and sanitation

problems in the area. The destination wise analysis shows no wide variation

from general opinion (Table 4.47). However, the chi-square test finds a


Table 4.47: Tourism Leads to Drainage and Sanitation Problem


Disagree - 13(26) - - 7(14) 20(8)



(d) Tourism Leads to Climate Change

Vehicles are the major contributor of the so called greenhouse gases to

the atmosphere, which are the major reason for the climate change. Tourism

involves the movement of people from their homes to other destinations and

accounts for about 50 per cent of traffic movements. Tourism is thus a

significant contributor to the increasing concentrations of greenhouse gases in

the atmosphere. In addition to these, increased clearing of forest for the

development of infrastructure also induces climate change in a destination.

While assessing this among the selected respondents most of them (92.8%)

agree that the increased tourism activities is one of the major reason for climate

change in the region, but 7.2 per cent disagrees with the statement. The


4.48). However, the chi-square test finds a significant variation in the opinion



185

Table 4.48: Tourism Leads to Climate Change


Agree 50(100) 37(74) 50(100) 50(100) 45(90) 232(92.8)

Disagree - 13(26) - - 5(10) 18(7.2)



(e) Tourism Leads to Degradation of Natural Resources

Tourism development can put pressure on the natural resources when it

increases consumption in areas where resources are already scarce. Though a

bare minimum disturbance to nature is inevitable and justifiable for the

promotion of tourism considering its socio-economic benefits, the increased

and blindfolded construction of facilities has caused damage to these resources

and on scenic landscapes. Direct impact on natural resources, both renewable

and non-renewable, is often caused by the acquisition of land and the excessive

use of building materials necessitated by tourism infrastructure development.

Table 4.49: Tourism Leads to Degradation of Natural Resources


Agree 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 43(86) 243(97.2)

Disagree - - - - 7(14) 7(2.8)




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While assessing this factor majority of the respondents (97.2%) agree

that increased tourist traffic lead to degradation of forest in the region. The


4.49). However, the chi-square test finds a significant variation on the opinion


(f) Tourism Leads to Deforestation

Kerala hills are home to rare and magnificent species of flora and fauna,

which attracts thousands of tourists. The paths constructed for the jungle trails,

construction of watch towers etc. leads to the felling. In addition the tourists

themselves often pose significant problems with regard to conservation and

sustainability. In their desire for familiar but unrealistic luxuries, tourists will

place a demand on the host community to improve local conditions at the

expense of the environment. For example, tourists who desire multiple-course

meals or hot bathing water while trekking in fragile hills increase the need for

fuel and water, and may contribute directly to deforestation.

Table 4.50: Tourism Leads to Deforestation


Agree 42(84) 49(98) 50(100) 50(100) 43(86) 234(93.6)

Disagree 8(16) 1(2) - - 7(14) 16(6.4)



While assessing this factor majority of the respondents (93.6%) agree

that tourism development in the region is the major reason for deforestation.

The destination wise analysis shows no wide variation from general opinion

(Table 4.50). However, the chi-square test finds a significant variation in the



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(g) Tourism Damages Bio-diversity and Quality of Landscape

Kerala hills are considered as one of the 34 biodiversity hot spots in the

world. Tourism, especially nature tourism, is closely linked to bio-diversity and

the attractions created by a rich and varied environment. It can also cause loss

of biodiversity and result in the depletion of the quality of landscape when land

and resources are strained by excessive use, and when impacts on vegetation,

wildlife, hill environments and water resources exceed the carrying capacity.

This loss of bio diversity in fact means loss of resources of the locality and

ultimately affects the tourism potential of that region. While assessing this

factor among the selected respondents most of them (99.2%) agree that

increased tourism activities damage bio-diversity and quality of the landscape.

The destination wise analysis shows no wide variation from general opinion

(Table 4.51). The chi-square test also shows no significant variation in the

opinion of the host community (p>0.05).

Table 4.51: Tourism Damages Bio-diversity and Quality of Landscape

Perception Destination Total Ponmudi Thekkady Munnar Neliampathy Wayanad

Agree 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 48(96) 248(99.2)

Disagree - - - - 2(4) 2(0.8)



For assessing the overall opinion of host community as regards

environmental impacts of tourism at the hill destinations of Kerala, the opinion

of the host community on all the 11 variables are consolidated. The response

was recorded on a three-point scale with a maximum value of three for ‘agree’

4.11 Environmental Impacts of Tourism at the Hill Destinations of Kerala – Consolidated Opinion of the Host Community


188

two for ‘no opinion’ and a minimum value of one for ‘disagree’, for the

positive variables and a reverse ranking was applied for the negative variables.

The compiled data is depicted in Table 4.52. Regarding environmental impact

of tourism at the hill destinations of Kerala, most (91.6%) of the respondents

viewed that tourism has negative environmental impact at the hill destinations

of Kerala, only 8.4 per cent stated that tourism has positive environmental

impact at the hill destinations of Kerala.

Table 4.52: Environmental Impact of Tourism at the Hill Destinations of Kerala (Opinion of Host Community)


3(6) 14(28) 4(100) 21(8.4)

No impact - - - - - -

Negative impact

47(94) 36(72) 50(100) 50(100) 46(100) 229(91.6)

Total 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 250(100)

Source: Compiled data. Figures in parenthesis are percentages to respective totals.

TESTING THE FIFTH HYPOTHESIS

The opinion of host community regarding the environmental impact of






positive environmental impact on the hill destinations of Kerala

(P≤0.50).


positive environmental impact on the hill destinations of Kerala

(P>0.50).


189


depicts the observed proportion as 0.08, which is less than the test proportion

of 0.50, and the p-value is significant at 5 per cent level of significance. Hence,


observed that tourism has positive environmental impact on the hill

destinations of Kerala stands accepted.

Table 4.53: Environmental Impact of Tourism at the Hill Destinations of Kerala (Binomial Test)


Group 1(≤ 22.00) 0.92 0.50 0.000*

Group 2 (>22.00) 0.08

Source: Compiled data.

The distribution of host community on the basis of environmental

factors (11 variables consolidated) by their socio-economic and demographic

characteristics is depicted in Table 4.54.


variation in the perception of host community by their socio-economic and

demographic characteristics on environmental factors. No significant variation

is seen in any of the seven variables viz. sex, age, educational qualification,

occupation, monthly income, place of birth and relation with tourism.

4.12 Relationship between Environmental Impact and Personal Traits of

Host Community


190

Table 4.54: Relationship between Environmental Factors and Personal Traits of the Host Community


Sex Male 192 19.1458 2.43869 0.215 0.644**Female 58 18.9828 2.02174

Age

≤25 48 18.6458 1.95143

1.739 0.160**26-35 101 19.4059 2.5344836-45 66 19.2424 2.54232>45 35 18.6286 1.71646


SSLC 53 18.6981 2.72866


Occupation

Salaried 152 19.1842 2.57193


Monthly Salary

Upto Rs.5,000 66 18.6818 2.05433

0.730 0.620**

5,001 – 10,000 99 19.1313 1.8162910,001 – 15,000 37 19.4595 3.0055015,001 – 25,000 34 19.3529 3.4190425,001 – 40,000 6 19.3333 2.33809Above Rs.40,000 8 19.5000 1.41421


0.485 0.487**Migrated 41 19.3415 1.25717


Employed 73 18.8767 2.05443

0.482 0.695**


57 19.3333 1.70434


37 19.0000 2.05480

No relation 83 19.2048 3.01119Source: Compiled data. **Not Significant.

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