Chapter 4:Chapter 4:Designing for Collaboration Designing for Collaboration

and Communicationand Communication

Presented by Team 1:Presented by Team 1:Matt BergsteinMatt Bergstein

Kevin ClarkKevin ClarkCarol LawsonCarol Lawson

Angelo MitsopoulosAngelo MitsopoulosPhil TownsendPhil Townsend

IntroductionIntroduction

Humans are inherently socialHumans are inherently social

Naturally, we need to develop interactive systems that support Naturally, we need to develop interactive systems that support different kinds of socialitydifferent kinds of sociality

Main aims of the chapter:Main aims of the chapter: what is meant by communication and collaboration what is meant by communication and collaboration Describe the main kinds of social mechanisms that are used by Describe the main kinds of social mechanisms that are used by

people to communicate and collaborate people to communicate and collaborate Outline this range of collaborative systems that have been Outline this range of collaborative systems that have been

developed to support this kind of social behavior developed to support this kind of social behavior Consider how field studies and socially-based theories can Consider how field studies and socially-based theories can

inform the design of collaborative systems. inform the design of collaborative systems.

4.2 Social Mechanisms in 4.2 Social Mechanisms in Communication and CollaborationCommunication and Collaboration..Fundamental aspect of everyday life: TalkingFundamental aspect of everyday life: Talking

Passing of knowledge from one person to another.Passing of knowledge from one person to another.

Kinds of knowledge and frequency can and will vary. Kinds of knowledge and frequency can and will vary.

Types also varies: F2F, Phone, Videophone, messaging, email, fax, Types also varies: F2F, Phone, Videophone, messaging, email, fax, and letters. and letters.

In F2F, non-verbal clues play a big part in enhancing the In F2F, non-verbal clues play a big part in enhancing the communication mechanismcommunication mechanism

Also, social mechanisms and practices have evolved to maintain Also, social mechanisms and practices have evolved to maintain social order. social order.

4.2 Social Mechanisms in 4.2 Social Mechanisms in Communication and Collaboration.Communication and Collaboration.3 Main categories of social mechanisms and explore how 3 Main categories of social mechanisms and explore how technological systems have been and can be designed to technological systems have been and can be designed to facilitate these:facilitate these:

1. The use of conversational mechanisms to facilitate the flow of 1. The use of conversational mechanisms to facilitate the flow of talking and help overcome breakdowns during it.talking and help overcome breakdowns during it.

2. The use of coordination mechanisms to allow people to work 2. The use of coordination mechanisms to allow people to work and interact together.and interact together.

3. The use of awareness mechanisms to find out what is 3. The use of awareness mechanisms to find out what is happening, what others are doing and, conversely, to let other happening, what others are doing and, conversely, to let other know what is happening. know what is happening.

4.2.1 Conversational Mechanisms4.2.1 Conversational Mechanisms

Talking is effortless and comes naturally to most people, yet holding Talking is effortless and comes naturally to most people, yet holding a conversation is a highly skilled collaborative achievement.a conversation is a highly skilled collaborative achievement.

What makes up a conversation:What makes up a conversation:

Rules allow people to know how to start and stop. Rules allow people to know how to start and stop.

Throughout the conversation 3 “turn-taking” rules enable people to Throughout the conversation 3 “turn-taking” rules enable people to know when to listen, when to speak, and when to stop speaking.know when to listen, when to speak, and when to stop speaking.

Rule 1 – The current speaker chooses the next speaker by Rule 1 – The current speaker chooses the next speaker by asking an opinion, question, or request.asking an opinion, question, or request.

Rule 2 – Another person decides to start speaking.Rule 2 – Another person decides to start speaking. Rule 3 – The current speaker continues talking. Rule 3 – The current speaker continues talking.

The rules are assumed to be applied in the above order. The rules are assumed to be applied in the above order.

4.2.1 Conversational Mechanisms4.2.1 Conversational Mechanisms

Explicit statement or implicit clues can also be indication of change Explicit statement or implicit clues can also be indication of change of speaker. of speaker.

Adjacency PairsAdjacency Pairs: Utterances are assumed to come in pairs in which : Utterances are assumed to come in pairs in which the first part sets up an expectation of what is to come next and the first part sets up an expectation of what is to come next and directs the way it is heard. directs the way it is heard.

Conversation rules can be broken by interrupting, missed cues, etc.Conversation rules can be broken by interrupting, missed cues, etc.

Other types of breakdowns occur from ambiguous language or Other types of breakdowns occur from ambiguous language or misinterpretation.misinterpretation.

Detecting breakdowns requires the other person to be attentive to Detecting breakdowns requires the other person to be attentive to sat the other says.sat the other says. “What?” “Huh?” “What?” “Huh?”

Kinds of ConversationsKinds of Conversations

Conversation can take a variety of forms, such as argument, Conversation can take a variety of forms, such as argument, discussion, heated debate, chat, etc. discussion, heated debate, chat, etc.

Two main types are formal and informal. Two main types are formal and informal.

In formal conversation, people assign roles to each other before the In formal conversation, people assign roles to each other before the conversation begins. Informal is chatty and laid back. conversation begins. Informal is chatty and laid back.

Designing Collaborative Designing Collaborative Technologies to Support Technologies to Support

ConversationConversation

Challenge confronting designersChallenge confronting designers: how different kinds of : how different kinds of communication can be used in settings where obstacles communication can be used in settings where obstacles can prevent it from occurring “naturally”.can prevent it from occurring “naturally”.

Goal for designersGoal for designers: to develop a system to all people to : to develop a system to all people to communicate when they are in physically different communicate when they are in physically different locations. Make it so they can communicate as if the locations. Make it so they can communicate as if the where in the same place (even though they may be very where in the same place (even though they may be very far apart).far apart).

Collaborative TechnologiesCollaborative Technologies

Ex. -Email, video conferencing, videophones, computer Ex. -Email, video conferencing, videophones, computer conferencing, chatrooms, and messaging.conferencing, chatrooms, and messaging.

Collaborative Virtual Environments (CVE)Collaborative Virtual Environments (CVE) – less familiar – less familiar Virtual 3D graphical worlds where users can explore the created Virtual 3D graphical worlds where users can explore the created

world and communicate with others. (figure 4.1 color plate 5)world and communicate with others. (figure 4.1 color plate 5)

Media SpacesMedia Spaces – distributed systems comprised of audio, – distributed systems comprised of audio, video, and computer systems video, and computer systems that allow people that that allow people that are separated over space and time to communicate as if are separated over space and time to communicate as if they were physically present.they were physically present.

Computer Mediated Communication Computer Mediated Communication (CMC)(CMC)

Collaborative technologies designed to support Collaborative technologies designed to support informal/formal and one-to-one/many-to-many informal/formal and one-to-one/many-to-many types of communication.types of communication.

Three types:Three types: SynchronousSynchronous AsynchronousAsynchronous CMC combined with other activityCMC combined with other activity

Synchronous CommunicationSynchronous Communication

Conversation in real-time by voice or typing.Conversation in real-time by voice or typing. ExamplesExamples

voice: video phone, video conferencing, media spacesvoice: video phone, video conferencing, media spacestyping: text messaging in cell phone, instant messaging, chat rooms, CVEtyping: text messaging in cell phone, instant messaging, chat rooms, CVE

New FunctionalityNew Functionality Allow users to create themselves as virtual characters in any way (different Allow users to create themselves as virtual characters in any way (different

gender) and express themselves in a way not possible in face-to-face gender) and express themselves in a way not possible in face-to-face conversationconversation

Instant messaging allows multitaskingInstant messaging allows multitaskingBenefitsBenefits

Shy people converse moreShy people converse more In business it allows people to keep track of goings-on in organizationIn business it allows people to keep track of goings-on in organization Ask questions and get responses quickly (no phone-tag)Ask questions and get responses quickly (no phone-tag)

ProblemsProblems BandwidthBandwidth Eye ContactEye Contact Behavior differs when behind created personaBehavior differs when behind created persona

Asynchronous CommunicationAsynchronous Communication

communication that takes place remotely and at different timescommunication that takes place remotely and at different times

not time-dependent, participants initiate communication and respond to not time-dependent, participants initiate communication and respond to others when they want toothers when they want to

ExamplesExamplesEmail, bulletin boards, newsgroups, computer conferencingEmail, bulletin boards, newsgroups, computer conferencing

New FunctionalityNew FunctionalityAttachments (annotations, images, music) for emailAttachments (annotations, images, music) for emailMessages can be archivedMessages can be archived

BenefitsBenefitsCan read (communicate) any place, any timeCan read (communicate) any place, any timeCan send same message to many peopleCan send same message to many peopleMakes some things easier to sayMakes some things easier to say

ProblemsProblemsAngry emails can include language that would not occur in face-to-face conversationAngry emails can include language that would not occur in face-to-face conversationToo many messagesToo many messagesReplying whenever they feel like it or have timeReplying whenever they feel like it or have time

CMC Combined With Other ActivityCMC Combined With Other Activity

Talking while performing some other activity Talking while performing some other activity (Ex. Teacher speaks to student but also writes problems on board for notes and (Ex. Teacher speaks to student but also writes problems on board for notes and

to solve collaboratively)to solve collaboratively)

ExamplesExamples Customized electronic meeting rooms – face-to-face meetings via workstations, Customized electronic meeting rooms – face-to-face meetings via workstations,

large displays.large displays. Networked classroomsNetworked classrooms Shared authoring and drawing toolsShared authoring and drawing tools

New FunctionalityNew Functionality New ways of collaboratively creating and editing documentsNew ways of collaboratively creating and editing documents

BenefitsBenefits MultitaskingMultitasking Speed and EfficiencySpeed and Efficiency Greater AwarenessGreater Awareness

ProblemsProblems Can be difficult to see what other people are referring to in remote locationsCan be difficult to see what other people are referring to in remote locations File conflicts by working on same text or designFile conflicts by working on same text or design

New Kinds of InteractionNew Kinds of Interaction

ClearBoardClearBoard developed to show facial expressions to othersdeveloped to show facial expressions to others

HyperMirrorHyperMirror designed to make participants feel as though they designed to make participants feel as though they

were in the same placewere in the same place

Coordination MechanismsCoordination Mechanisms

Coordination takes place when a group of Coordination takes place when a group of people act or interact together to achieve people act or interact together to achieve something.something. (ex. Team game, moving a piano, etc.)(ex. Team game, moving a piano, etc.)

People need to figure out how to interact with People need to figure out how to interact with one another to achieve a goalone another to achieve a goal Some examples would be:Some examples would be:

Verbal and non-verbal communicationVerbal and non-verbal communicationSchedules, rules and conventionsSchedules, rules and conventionsShared external representationsShared external representations

Verbal and Non-Verbal Verbal and Non-Verbal CommunicationCommunication

When people are working closely together they talk to When people are working closely together they talk to each other by:each other by:

Informal:Informal:Issuing commandsIssuing commandsLetting others know how they are progressing (e.g. piano example)Letting others know how they are progressing (e.g. piano example)

Formal:Formal:AgendasAgendasMemosMemosMinutesMinutes

Time Critical and Difficult to hear:Time Critical and Difficult to hear: GesturesGestures Hand Signals (e.g. conductors, ground marshals)Hand Signals (e.g. conductors, ground marshals)

Rules, Schedules, and ConventionsRules, Schedules, and Conventions

How can we organize?How can we organize?

A schedule is an excellent way however they A schedule is an excellent way however they must adhere to certain rules and regulation in must adhere to certain rules and regulation in order for them to exist efficiently.order for them to exist efficiently.

These rules and conventions allow schedules to These rules and conventions allow schedules to exist in an orderly manner (e.g. keeping quiet in exist in an orderly manner (e.g. keeping quiet in the library, raising your hand in class)the library, raising your hand in class)

Shared External RepresentationsShared External Representations

Used in coordinating groups Used in coordinating groups (e.g. graphical charts, email reminders, dialog boxes)(e.g. graphical charts, email reminders, dialog boxes)

How can this be used in the workplace:How can this be used in the workplace: Shared tables can plot who has completed what, to Shared tables can plot who has completed what, to

whom, and when it was completedwhom, and when it was completed

This helps everyone visually acknowledge where This helps everyone visually acknowledge where everyone is at in a projecteveryone is at in a project

Awareness MechanismsAwareness Mechanisms

Peripheral Awareness:Peripheral Awareness: Human’s ability to maintain and update their sense of Human’s ability to maintain and update their sense of

physical and social awareness physical and social awareness

How you act at a party:How you act at a party: Are people in a good or bad moodAre people in a good or bad mood How fast food and drinks are digestedHow fast food and drinks are digested Who enters and exits the roomWho enters and exits the room Is the lonely guy in the corner finally talkingIs the lonely guy in the corner finally talking

Study or work environment:Study or work environment: If boss is slamming doors: not a good time for a raiseIf boss is slamming doors: not a good time for a raise People allow others to monitor them: People allow others to monitor them:

Back in ? SignsBack in ? SignsOpen dorm room doorsOpen dorm room doors

Designing Collaborative Designing Collaborative Technologies to Support Technologies to Support

Coordination and AwarenessCoordination and Awareness

Coordination:Coordination: Too little control and the system breaks downToo little control and the system breaks down Too much control and the users rebelToo much control and the users rebel

e.g. File lockinge.g. File locking

Awareness:Awareness: Audio-Video linksAudio-Video links PortholesPortholes

4.3 Ethnographic Studies of 4.3 Ethnographic Studies of Collaboration and CommunicationCollaboration and CommunicationApproach to determine how the design of collaborative technologies Approach to determine how the design of collaborative technologies take into account social concernstake into account social concerns

Make observations of the setting, examining the current work and Make observations of the setting, examining the current work and other collaborative practices people engage inother collaborative practices people engage in

Analyze the way existing technologies and everyday artifacts are Analyze the way existing technologies and everyday artifacts are usedused

Observations provide a basis from which to consider how such Observations provide a basis from which to consider how such existing settings might be improved or enhanced with new existing settings might be improved or enhanced with new technologiestechnologies

Expose problematic assumptions about how collaborative Expose problematic assumptions about how collaborative technologies will or should be used in a settingtechnologies will or should be used in a setting

Two Studies by Lucy SuchmanTwo Studies by Lucy Suchman

Early study by Lucy Suchman (1983) looked at the way existing Early study by Lucy Suchman (1983) looked at the way existing office technologies were being designed in relation to how people office technologies were being designed in relation to how people actually workedactually worked

She argued that designers should consider the actual details of She argued that designers should consider the actual details of work practicework practice

Later study by Suchman (1987) on pairs of users interacting with an Later study by Suchman (1987) on pairs of users interacting with an interactive help systeminteractive help system

She stressed the need for analysis that focused on the unique She stressed the need for analysis that focused on the unique details of the user’s particular situation to improve the design of details of the user’s particular situation to improve the design of interactive systemsinteractive systems

http://www.comp.lancs.ac.uk/sociology/lsuchman.htmlhttp://www.comp.lancs.ac.uk/sociology/lsuchman.html

4.4 Conceptual Frameworks4.4 Conceptual Frameworks

Analytic frameworks and concepts that are more Analytic frameworks and concepts that are more amenable to design concernsamenable to design concerns

1) Language/Action Framework1) Language/Action Frameworkdescribes how a model of the way people communicate was describes how a model of the way people communicate was used to inform the design of a collaborative technologyused to inform the design of a collaborative technology

2) Distributed Cognition2) Distributed Cognitiondescribes a theory that is used primarily to analyze how describes a theory that is used primarily to analyze how people carry out their work, using a variety of technologiespeople carry out their work, using a variety of technologies

4.4.1 The Language/Action 4.4.1 The Language/Action FrameworkFramework

Basic premise: people act through languageBasic premise: people act through language

Developed to inform the design of systems to help Developed to inform the design of systems to help people work more effectively through improving the way people work more effectively through improving the way they communicate with one anotherthey communicate with one another

Based on various theories of how people use language Based on various theories of how people use language in their everyday activitiesin their everyday activities

Speech Act TheorySpeech Act Theory concerned with the functions utterances have in conversationsconcerned with the functions utterances have in conversations common function is request that is asked indirectlycommon function is request that is asked indirectly

Five Categories of Speech ActsFive Categories of Speech Acts

AssertivesAssertives commit the speaker to something being the casecommit the speaker to something being the case

CommissivesCommissives commit the speaker to some future actioncommit the speaker to some future action

DeclarationsDeclarations pronounce something has happenedpronounce something has happened

DirectivesDirectives get the listener to do somethingget the listener to do something

ExpressivesExpressives express a state of affairs, such as apologizing or praising someone express a state of affairs, such as apologizing or praising someone

CfA - Conversations for ActionCfA - Conversations for Action

Language/Action approach was developed further into a Language/Action approach was developed further into a framework called conversations for actions (CfA)framework called conversations for actions (CfA)

CfA describes the sequence of actions that can follow CfA describes the sequence of actions that can follow from a speaker making a request of someone elsefrom a speaker making a request of someone else

Conversation is a kind of “dance”Conversation is a kind of “dance”

Most straightforward dance involves linear progression Most straightforward dance involves linear progression (step 1 through step 5)(step 1 through step 5)

Conversation, in reality, is more complex where steps Conversation, in reality, is more complex where steps may be repeated or branch offmay be repeated or branch off

The CoordinatorThe Coordinator

CfA framework was used as the basis of a conceptual model for the CfA framework was used as the basis of a conceptual model for the CoordinatorCoordinator

Was designed to enable electronic messages to be sent between people in Was designed to enable electronic messages to be sent between people in the form of explicit speech actsthe form of explicit speech acts

If the sender wanted to ask someone for something, the tag “request” was If the sender wanted to ask someone for something, the tag “request” was placed in the message subject headerplaced in the message subject header

Sender speech act options included: request, offer, promise, inform, and Sender speech act options included: request, offer, promise, inform, and question.question.

Receivers that wished to respond with another labeled speech act could Receivers that wished to respond with another labeled speech act could choose from: acknowledge, promise, counter-offer, decline, or free formchoose from: acknowledge, promise, counter-offer, decline, or free form

Coordinator was designed to provide a straightforward conversational Coordinator was designed to provide a straightforward conversational structurestructure

How was the Coordinator Received How was the Coordinator Received by Users?by Users?

Forcing users to explicitly specify the nature of Forcing users to explicitly specify the nature of their implicit speech acts was contrary to what their implicit speech acts was contrary to what they normally do in conversation and was they normally do in conversation and was therefore undesirabletherefore undesirable

Many people who tried the Coordinator System Many people who tried the Coordinator System either abandoned it or resorted to using the free-either abandoned it or resorted to using the free-form format (defeating the purpose of the form format (defeating the purpose of the system!)system!)

4.4.2 Distributed Cognition4.4.2 Distributed Cognition

Ed Hutchins and his colleagues developed the distributed cognition Ed Hutchins and his colleagues developed the distributed cognition approach as a new paradigm for conceptualizing human work approach as a new paradigm for conceptualizing human work activitiesactivities

(see Figure 4.15 on page 133)(see Figure 4.15 on page 133)

Describes what happens in a cognitive systemDescribes what happens in a cognitive system how people interact with one another and their use of artifacts and how people interact with one another and their use of artifacts and

external representations in their everyday and working activitiesexternal representations in their everyday and working activities

An example of a cognitive system is an airline cockpit where a An example of a cognitive system is an airline cockpit where a number of people (pilot, co-pilot, air traffic controller), artifacts number of people (pilot, co-pilot, air traffic controller), artifacts (multiple instruments) and environments (sky, runway) are involved (multiple instruments) and environments (sky, runway) are involved in the activity of flying to a higher altitudein the activity of flying to a higher altitude

http://http://hci.ucsd.eduhci.ucsd.edu/lab/lab

Distributed Cognition Analysis Distributed Cognition Analysis Involves Examining:Involves Examining:

The distributed problem solving that takes place (including the way people work The distributed problem solving that takes place (including the way people work together to solve a problem)together to solve a problem)

The role of verbal and non-verbal behavior (including what is said, what is implied The role of verbal and non-verbal behavior (including what is said, what is implied by glances, winks, etc., and what is not said)by glances, winks, etc., and what is not said)

The various coordinating mechanisms that are used (e.g., rules, procedures)The various coordinating mechanisms that are used (e.g., rules, procedures)

The various communicative pathways that take place as a collaborative activity The various communicative pathways that take place as a collaborative activity progressesprogresses

How knowledge is shared and accessedHow knowledge is shared and accessed

Also important in the analysis is: identifying the problems, breakdowns, and Also important in the analysis is: identifying the problems, breakdowns, and concomitant problem-solving processes that emerge to deal with them.concomitant problem-solving processes that emerge to deal with them.

Uses: to aid in designing and evaluating new collaborative technologiesUses: to aid in designing and evaluating new collaborative technologies