Chapter 4 Basic Probability Explaination(4.1, 4.2, and 4.3) 2021. 1. 7. · Title: Chapter 4 Basic Probability Explaination(4.1, 4.2, and 4.3) Created Date: 11/8/2016 4:56:07 PM

Copyright © 2015, 2012, 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. Chapter 04, Slide 1

Basic Probability

Chapter 4


Learning Objectives

In this chapter, you learn:

n Basic probability conceptsn About conditional probability n To use Bayes’ Theorem to revise probabilities


Basic Probability Concepts

n Probability – the chance that an uncertain event will occur (always between 0 and 1)

n Impossible Event – an event that has no chance of occurring (probability = 0)

n Certain Event – an event that is sure to occur (probability = 1)


Assessing Probability

There are three approaches to assessing the probability of an uncertain event:

1. a priori -- based on prior knowledge of the process

2. empirical probability

3. subjective probability

outcomespossibleofnumbertotaloccurseventthein which waysofnumber

TX

==

based on a combination of an individual’s past experience, personal opinion, and analysis of a particular situation

outcomespossibleofnumbertotaloccurseventthein which waysofnumber

=

Assuming all outcomes are equally likely

probability of occurrence

probability of occurrence


Example of a priori probability

When randomly selecting a day from the year 2014 what is the probability the day is in January?

2014 in days ofnumber totalJanuary in days ofnumber January In Day of yProbabilit ==

TX

36531

2013 in days 365January in days 31 ==

TX


Example of empirical probability

Taking Stats Not Taking Stats

Total

Male 84 145 229Female 76 134 210Total 160 279 439

Find the probability of selecting a male taking statistics from the population described in the following table:

191.043984

people ofnumber totalstats takingmales ofnumber

===Probability of male taking stats


Subjective probability

n Subjective probability may differ from person to personn A media development team assigns a 60%

probability of success to its new ad campaign.n The chief media officer of the company is less

optimistic and assigns a 40% of success to the same campaign

n The assignment of a subjective probability is based on a person’s experiences, opinions, and analysis of a particular situation

n Subjective probability is useful in situations when an empirical or a priori probability cannot be computed


Events

Each possible outcome of a variable is an event.

n Simple eventn An event described by a single characteristicn e.g., A day in January from all days in 2014

n Joint eventn An event described by two or more characteristicsn e.g. A day in January that is also a Wednesday from all days in 2014

n Complement of an event A (denoted A’)n All events that are not part of event An e.g., All days from 2014 that are not in January


Sample Space

The Sample Space is the collection of all possible events

e.g. All 6 faces of a die:

e.g. All 52 cards of a bridge deck:


Organizing & Visualizing Events

n Venn Diagram For All Days In 2014

Sample Space (All Days In 2014)

January Days

Wednesdays

Days That Are In January and Are Wednesdays


Organizing & Visualizing Events

n Contingency Tables -- For All Days in 2014

n Decision Trees

All Days In 2014

Sample Space

TotalNumberOfSampleSpaceOutcomes

Not Wed. 26 286 312Wed. 5 48 53

Total 31 334 365

Jan. Not Jan. Total

5

26

48

286

(continued)


Definition: Simple Probability

n Simple Probability refers to the probability of a simple event.n ex. P(Jan.)n ex. P(Wed.)

P(Jan.) = 31 / 365

P(Wed.) = 53 / 365

Not Wed. 26 286 312Wed. 5 48 53

Total 31 334 365

Jan. Not Jan. Total


Definition: Joint Probability

n Joint Probability refers to the probability of an occurrence of two or more events (joint event).n ex. P(Jan. and Wed.)n ex. P(Not Jan. and Not Wed.)

P(Jan. and Wed.) = 5 / 365

P(Not Jan. and Not Wed.)= 286 / 365

Not Wed. 26 286 312Wed. 5 48 53

Total 31 334 365

Jan. Not Jan. Total


Mutually Exclusive Events

n Mutually exclusive eventsn Events that cannot occur with each other

Example: Randomly choosing a day from 2014

A = day in January; B = day in February

n Events A and B are mutually exclusive


n Collectively exhaustive eventsn One of the events must occur n The set of events covers the entire sample space

Example: Randomly choose a day from 2014

A = Weekday; B = Weekend; C = January; D = Spring;

n Events A, B, C and D are collectively exhaustive (but not mutually exclusive – a weekday can be in January or in Spring)

n Events A and B are collectively exhaustive and also mutually exclusive


Computing Joint and Marginal Probabilities

n The probability of a joint event, A and B:

n Computing a marginal (or simple) probability:

n Where B1, B2, …, Bk are k mutually exclusive and collectively exhaustive events

outcomeselementaryofnumbertotalBandAsatisfyingoutcomesofnumber)BandA(P =

)BdanP(A)BandP(A)BandP(AP(A) k21 +++= !


Joint Probability Example

P(Jan. and Wed.)

3655

2013in days ofnumber total Wed.are and Jan.in are that days ofnumber

==

Not Wed. 26 286 312Wed. 5 48 53

Total 31 334 365

Jan. Not Jan. Total


Marginal Probability Example

P(Wed.)

36553

36548

3655)Wed.andJan.P(Not Wed.)andJan.( =+=+= P

Not Wed. 26 286 312Wed. 5 48 53

Total 31 334 365

Jan. Not Jan. Total


P(A1 and B2) P(A1)

TotalEvent

Marginal & Joint Probabilities In A Contingency Table

P(A2 and B1)

P(A1 and B1)

Event

Total 1

Joint Probabilities Marginal (Simple) Probabilities

A1

A2

B1 B2

P(B1) P(B2)

P(A2 and B2) P(A2)


Probability Summary So Farn Probability is the numerical measure

of the likelihood that an event will occur

n The probability of any event must be between 0 and 1, inclusively

n The sum of the probabilities of all mutually exclusive and collectively exhaustive events is 1

Certain

Impossible

0.5

1

0

0 ≤ P(A) ≤ 1 For any event A

1P(C)P(B)P(A) =++If A, B, and C are mutually exclusive and collectively exhaustive


General Addition Rule

P(A or B) = P(A) + P(B) - P(A and B)

General Addition Rule:

If A and B are mutually exclusive, then P(A and B) = 0, so the rule can be simplified:

P(A or B) = P(A) + P(B)

For mutually exclusive events A and B


General Addition Rule Example

P(Jan. or Wed.) = P(Jan.) + P(Wed.) - P(Jan. and Wed.)

= 31/365 + 53/365 - 5/365 = 79/365Don’t count the five Wednesdays in January twice!

Not Wed. 26 286 312Wed. 5 48 53

Total 31 334 365

Jan. Not Jan. Total


Computing Conditional Probabilities

n A conditional probability is the probability of one event, given that another event has occurred:

P(B)B)andP(AB)|P(A =

P(A)B)andP(AA)|P(B =

Where P(A and B) = joint probability of A and BP(A) = marginal or simple probability of AP(B) = marginal or simple probability of B

The conditional probability of A given that B has occurred

The conditional probability of B given that A has occurred


n What is the probability that a car has a GPS, given that it has AC ?

i.e., we want to find P(GPS | AC)

Conditional Probability Example

n Of the cars on a used car lot, 70% have air conditioning (AC) and 40% have a GPS. 20% of the cars have both.



No GPSGPS TotalAC 0.2 0.5 0.7No AC 0.2 0.1 0.3Total 0.4 0.6 1.0

n Of the cars on a used car lot, 70% have air conditioning (AC) and 40% have a GPS and 20% of the cars have both.

0.28570.70.2

P(AC)AC)andP(GPSAC)|P(GPS ===

(continued)



No GPSGPS TotalAC 0.2 0.5 0.7No AC 0.2 0.1 0.3Total 0.4 0.6 1.0

n Given AC, we only consider the top row (70% of the cars). Of these, 20% have a GPS. 20% of 70% is about 28.57%.

0.28570.70.2

P(AC)AC)andP(GPSAC)|P(GPS ===

(continued)


Using Decision Trees

P(AC and GPS) = 0.2

P(AC and GPS’) = 0.5

P(AC’ and GPS’) = 0.1

P(AC’ and GPS) = 0.2

AllCars

Given AC or no AC:

ConditionalProbabilities


Using Decision Trees

P(GPS and AC) = 0.2

P(GPS and AC’) = 0.2

P(GPS’ and AC’) = 0.1

P(GPS’ and AC) = 0.5

AllCars

Given GPS or no GPS:

(continued)

ConditionalProbabilities


Independence

n Two events are independent if and only if:

n Events A and B are independent when the probability of one event is not affected by the fact that the other event has occurred

P(A)B)|P(A =


Multiplication Rules

n Multiplication rule for two events A and B:

P(B)B)|P(AB)andP(A =

P(A)B)|P(A =Note: If A and B are independent, thenand the multiplication rule simplifies to

P(B)P(A)B)andP(A =


Marginal Probability

n Marginal probability for event A:

n Where B1, B2, …, Bk are k mutually exclusive and collectively exhaustive events

)P(B)B|P(A)P(B)B|P(A)P(B)B|P(A P(A) kk2211 +++= !


Bayes’ Theorem

n Bayes’ Theorem is used to revise previously calculated probabilities based on new information.

n Developed by Thomas Bayes in the 18th

Century.

n It is an extension of conditional probability.


Bayes’ Theorem

n where:Bi = ith event of k mutually exclusive and collectively

exhaustive eventsA = new event that might impact P(Bi)

))P(BB|P(A))P(BB|P(A))P(BB|P(A))P(BB|P(AA)|P(B

k k 2 2 1 1

i i i +⋅⋅⋅++

=


Bayes’ Theorem Example

n A drilling company has estimated a 40% chance of striking oil for their new well.

n A detailed test has been scheduled for more information. Historically, 60% of successful wells have had detailed tests, and 20% of unsuccessful wells have had detailed tests.

n Given that this well has been scheduled for a detailed test, what is the probability that the well will be successful?


n Let S = successful wellU = unsuccessful well

n P(S) = 0.4 , P(U) = 0.6 (prior probabilities)

n Define the detailed test event as Dn Conditional probabilities:

P(D|S) = 0.6 P(D|U) = 0.2n Goal is to find P(S|D)

Bayes’ Theorem Example(continued)


0.6670.120.24

0.24(0.2)(0.6)(0.6)(0.4)

(0.6)(0.4)U)P(U)|P(DS)P(S)|P(D

S)P(S)|P(DD)|P(S

=+

=

+=

+=

Bayes’ Theorem Example(continued)

Apply Bayes’ Theorem:

So the revised probability of success, given that this well has been scheduled for a detailed test, is 0.667


n Given the detailed test, the revised probability of a successful well has risen to 0.667 from the original estimate of 0.4

Bayes’ Theorem Example

Event PriorProb.

Conditional Prob.

JointProb.

RevisedProb.

S (successful) 0.4 0.6 (0.4)(0.6) = 0.24 0.24/0.36 = 0.667

U (unsuccessful) 0.6 0.2 (0.6)(0.2) = 0.12 0.12/0.36 = 0.333

Sum = 0.36

(continued)

Documents

Chapter 4 Basic Probability Explaination(4.1, 4.2, and 4.3) 2021. 1. 7. · Title: Chapter 4 Basic Probability Explaination(4.1, 4.2, and 4.3) Created Date: 11/8/2016 4:56:07 PM