CHAPTER 4: AFFECTED ENVIRONMENT · PDF fileChapter 4 - Affected Environment 4-1 CHAPTER 4. ... quality priorities.32 Spring flood elevations ... As the river cut through slide debris,

Chapter 4 - Affected Environment 4-1

CHAPTER 4. AFFECTED ENVIRONMENTLower Columbia River Ecosystem

The three Refuges addressed in this CCP arepositioned in the lower part of the ColumbiaRiver. The lower Columbia Riverecosystem extends 146 river miles, fromBonneville Dam to the Pacific Ocean(Figure 4-1). The basin of the lowerColumbia River includes the basins of lowertributary streams, the largest of which arethe Willamette, Cowlitz, Kalama, Sandy,and Lewis Rivers.

The Columbia River runs a varied coursefrom the Bonneville Dam to the PacificOcean. It is relatively narrow–925-feet-wide–directly below the dam. After itemerges from the Columbia River Gorge atSteigerwald Lake Refuge, about 20 mileseast of Portland, the river valley widens toinclude a broad floodplain. Elongatedislands divide the river and form sloughsand side-channels in the formerly marshylowlands. The floodplain expands aroundthe confluence of the Columbia andWillamette Rivers. Here, the sloughs andlakes of North Portland, the Vancouverlowlands, Sauvie Island, and RidgefieldRefuge contain the Portland metropolitanarea’s last major remnants of the wetlandand riparian system formerly nourished byannual flooding of the non-dammed rivers. Downstream from St. Helens, Oregon, theColumbia River cuts through the coastrange, a passage marked by steep-shouldered bluffs and broad alluvialfloodplains. The river channel, dotted withlow islands of deposited sedimentsthroughout its lower reaches, opens outbelow Skamokawa, Washington, into

several broad bays that extend more than 30miles to the Pacific Ocean. At its mouthbelow Astoria, Oregon, the river passesbetween two jetties approximately two milesapart as it enters the Pacific Ocean.

Historically, flooding within the ColumbiaRiver was the product of regionalprecipitation, the rate and volume ofsnowmelt, and synchronization of runoffbetween the Columbia and Snake Riverdrainages. Construction of over 200 damson the Columbia River and its tributaries hasdramatically altered the historic hydrology. Dams now impose additional water levelfluctuations to meet demands for hydro-electricity, agriculture, navigation, poolrecharge, recreation, fisheries, and waterquality priorities.32 Spring flood elevationson the lower Columbia River average 37percent lower today than prior to damconstruction.19 Regulated winter flows aretypically less than 200,000 cubic feet persecond (cfs). Peak flows in May and Junehave declined from about 600,000 cfs to350,000 cfs. Prior to dam construction,average spring floods regularly inundated170,000 acres of bottomland along the lowerColumbia River for periods of up to 60 days. Major spring flood events inundated up to300,000 acres of the lower Columbia Riverfloodplain.8

Over half of the historic riverine wetlands inthe lower Columbia River below BonnevilleDam have been lost or substantiallydegraded as a result of diking, draining,filling, dredging, and flow regulation.8 Since 1948, the most notable habitatchanges have occurred in the vicinity of the

Columbia Gorge Refuges Draft CCP/EA




Portland/Vancouver area.35 Urban and otherdeveloped habitat has increaseddramatically, with a corresponding decreasein wetland, riparian scrub-shrub, coniferousforest, broadleaf forest, and agriculturalhabitat.

Despite these dramatic habitat losses, numerous natural areas remain in the lowerColumbia River with high levels ofbiological significance (Figure 4-1). Eachof these sites contains important habitats forfish and wildlife. Collectively, the GorgeRefuges and the remaining biologicallyimportant areas contribute to themaintenance of biological diversity andintegrity and ecosystem health in the lowerColumbia River system.

Physical Environment

Geology and Geomorphology

From dramatic cliffs surrounding PierceRefuge to open prairies of Steigerwald LakeRefuge, the Columbia River Gorgeencapsulates much of the geological historyof the Pacific Northwest. Landforms,stratigraphy, and rocks found in the Gorgereflect the collision of crustal plates,eruptions of innumerable volcanoes,enormous landslides, and floods beyondhuman experience. Visitors to the Gorgecan see the Columbia River slicing throughthese landforms and visualize thisremarkable story.

Geology of the Columbia River Gorgerevolves around the collision of NorthAmerica with the oceanic crust under thePacific Ocean. This process has been

occurring for millions of years. TheCascade Range of today is only the mostrecent of a series of continental marginmountains that began forming about 17million years ago. Beacon Rock, west ofPierce Refuge, is the plug of an earliercontinental margin volcano. Many of whatare now the highest points in the Gorge,such as Hamilton Mountain above PierceRefuge, were once channels of the ColumbiaRiver that filled with lava (basalt) and weresubsequently uplifted by the rise of theCascade Range. The broad valley Portlandand Vancouver occupy was formed byspreading of the continental crust.

The complex nature of crustal collisions isreflected in the Gorge. Layers of rock inGorge walls that were once level, are tippedto the south by as much as 10 degrees. Anoverview of the Gorge and areas to the eastreveals that these tipped layers are on thesouthern flank of a huge wrinkle in thecontinental crust, one of several featuresknown as the Yakima Fold Belt. TheYakima fold has contributed to spectacularevents such as giant landslides. The mostfamous of the slides is the Bonneville,located just up the Columbia from PierceRefuge. The Bonneville Landslide occurredonly about 500 years ago, dammed theColumbia River, and inspired the NativeAmerican legend of the Bridge of the Gods. As the river cut through slide debris, hugefans of gravel and sand spread downstream. Remnants of these gravelly fans form Pierceand Ives Islands. The spawning gravelsused by chum salmon and cobble substratethat grows Columbia yellowcress at Piercewere originally deposited by the Columbiaas it cut through the landslide.



Over the last several million years, as themodern Cascade Range rose, the powerfulColumbia cut through the rising rock, andthe Gorge was born. Well after the Gorgebegan forming, the climate of the Earthchanged dramatically. Beginning about 2million years ago, winter snows that fell inthe mountains and plains of northernEurope and North America did not meltduring the unusually cool summers. Theaccumulating snow eventually formed glaciers. One such glacier dammed theClark Fork in northern Idaho to form GlacialLake Missoula. The ice dam broke andreformed repeatedly, each time releasingtremendous volumes of water. On reachingthe Columbia River Gorge, the flood watersattained elevations of at least 1,000 feet.When the floods reached the SteigerwaldLake Refuge area, they spread out across thePortland Basin. Much of Vancouver,Washington, and Portland, Oregon, are builton sand and gravel bars left by the floods. After the glaciers that once mantled theCascade Range melted, the once deeplyentrenched valley of the Columbia at andbelow Steigerwald Lake Refuge filled withsand and silt, forming the broad floodplainseen there today.

During the period of historic records,geological events in the Gorge have beenless dramatic, but not without reminders ofits unsettled past. Small landslides anddebris flows occur frequently, including oneat Dodson, Oregon, in 1996 that closedInterstate 84. Continued settling of theBonneville Landslide has twice fractured anatural gas pipeline that crosses it. Beforeconstruction of flood control dams in theupper Columbia, spring floods were muchlarger, including the flood of record in 1894.

This flood deposited a large mass ofdriftwood at Franz Lake Refuge, setting offthe sequence of events that formed the lake.

Soils

Over the ages, slides and washes havetransported soils and rock from the walls ofthe Gorge to the valley floor. Thiscolluvium comprises the higher terraces andsteeper slopes of the Gorge Refuges. Thesoils of the lower elevations of the GorgeRefuges are predominately alluvial in origin. Materials transported by the river settle outalong the river’s margin or into thefloodplain. Before the construction of themany Columbia River dams, most of theacreage encompassed on the Refuges wassubject to inundation by the seasonalfreshets. Remnant channels cut by floodwaters are still evident on the GorgeRefuges. Soil texture ranges from gentlysloping silty soils to steep gradient gravellysoils. These soil textures and characteristicshave been mapped and described by theNatural Resource Conservation Service intheir Soil Survey of Skamania County Area,Washington, and Soil Survey of ClarkCounty, Washington. The principle soiltype of the Gorge Refuges is loam (7-27%clay particles, 28-50% silt, and less than52% sand).

Climate

The predominant climate of westernWashington is mild and rainy. In fall andwinter, low pressure forms in the Gulf ofAlaska with high pressure centers shifting tothe south. Circulation of air around the lowpressure in the north Pacific Ocean bring aprevailing flow of warm, moist, marine air



into western Washington. The Coast Rangeprotects much of western Washington fromsevere winter storms moving inland from theocean. A colder and drier continental airmass is typical for winters in the easternportion of the State. The moist marine airmass of the west and cool continental airmass of the east are largely separated by theCascade Range. The Columbia River Gorgefunctions as a low-elevation pass throughthe Cascade Range, allowing air exchangebetween the inland and coastal areas of theState. The convergence of these air massesresult in highly variable and, at times,extreme weather. Winter winds generallyblow from east to west, bringing gale forcewinds to the Gorge. The funneling of airmasses through the Gorge has yielded windsof 80 miles per hour. The blend of moistmarine air and cold continental air in theGorge periodically produces snow and ice,even on the valley floor.

During the winter, clouds form over thePacific Ocean and move inland onprevailing westerly winds. As these cloudsencounter the Cascade Range, moisturecondenses and falls as precipitation. Annualprecipitation immediately west of theCascade Range, near Pierce Refuge, isapproximately 77.5 inches. In comparison,Portland located approximately 30 miles tothe west, receives 38 inches of annualprecipitation.

Late in spring, high pressure establishesover the northern Pacific Ocean bringing aprevailing flow of cool and comparativelydry air from a northwesterly direction. Asthe air moves inland, it becomes warmer anddrier. As a result, a dry season begins late inspring and reaches a peak in midsummer.

The drier air mass makes precipitation lesslikely, with only 20 percent of rainfall in theGorge occurring from April to September. Summer winds tend to be more moderateand directed up the Columbia River betweenMay and October.

Hydrology

The localized hydrology of the GorgeRefuges is dependent upon naturalinfluences including climatic conditions,seeps, springs, and drainage within localizedwatersheds. The Hardy, Grenia, IndianMary, and Gibbons Creeks watersheds alldrain onto the Gorge Refuges. Quantity,timing, and quality of water transported bythese watersheds are influenced by land usepractices and development within eachwatershed.

Water Quality

Fish and wildlife in the lower ColumbiaRiver are exposed to a range of pollutantsknown to cause adverse health effects viacontaminated water, sediments, and prey. InThe Health of the River, the Bi-State WaterQuality Program summarized results from asix-year study to assess the state of thelower Columbia River.35 It found that fish-eating wildlife, specifically river otter, mink,and bald eagle, are being contaminated byman-made organic pollutants. Thesepollutants, especially dioxins and furans,DDE (a metabolic byproduct of DDT), andPCBs are found in a number of locations inthe river at levels that may be harmful towildlife.

When Gibbons Creek (Steigerwald LakeRefuge) was rerouted in 1992 a remnant



channel formed in the abandoned channel. This remnant channel serves as the receivingwater body for wastewater from fiveindustrial facilities, in addition tostormwater runoff from many morefacilities. Since rerouting, the amount ofwater available for dilution of thesedischarges has been substantially reduced.

Water samples taken from the remnantchannel in 1994 and 1995 exceededWashington State’s water quality criteria forpH, temperature, fecal coliform, turbidity,and dissolved oxygen. Samples taken fromstormwater sewers feeding the remnantchannel violated criteria for pH, hexavalentchromium, total chromium, copper, zinc,and arsenic. Organic compounds weredetected at low levels in the remnantchannel; volatile compounds were similar tothose documented in groundwater beneaththe nearby Burlington Environmental (BE)Washougal facility. Pentachlorophenol andseveral other phenolic compounds,nitrosamines, and phthalates were detectedin trace amounts in the storm sewer,although no compounds exceeded EPAcriteria for aquatic life effects. Metalconcentrations in sediment samples takenfrom the lower channel were elevated forarsenic, chromium, copper, zinc, cadmium,and lead.45

The WDOE made several recommendationsin 1996 to address the contamination inGibbons Creek, including improving waterquality in the stormwater runoff from theindustrial park; monitoring to ensurecompliance with permit limits and identifysources of zinc and arsenic; evaluatingoptions for routing and treatment of thestorm sewer system; and addressing

contaminated groundwater beneath the BEsite through the Resources Conservation andRecovery Act permit for that facility.

Although a significant amount ofcontaminated soil has been excavatedbeneath the BE site, groundwatermonitoring reveals continued contaminationfrom two industrial facilities dischargingoffsite.33 The majority of the uppergroundwater aquifer travels east and isintercepted by a utility trench wherecontaminated water can be collected andtreated. Water bypassing the trench movesinto the Steigerwald Lake Refuge, andcontamination on the Refuge was indicatedin one monitoring sample.

New discharge permit limits for chromiumand copper went into effect for two wood-preserving facilities within an industrialpark in 1996. To meet those limits, onewood-preserving company has rerouted itsdischarge from Gibbons Creek to theColumbia River and installed a high powerdiffuser, while the second wood treater hasput resources into a new treatment facilitywith storage capacity.2 Both facilities exceedpermit limits for copper on occasion but areworking with WDOE to prevent violations.

Gibbons Creek is currently on the CleanWater Act section 303(d) list as a waterquality limited waterbody for fecal coliformbacteria based on WDOE data.15 In additionto high fecal coliform bacteria counts,higher than normal levels of nutrients(phosphorus, nitrate), turbidity, andtemperature were recorded.15 The Servicerecorded similarly high water temperatures($60°F) in the watershed during the summerof 1998 and 1999.3 Non-point sources of



pollution in the watershed include urbanrunoff, leaking underground septic tanks,land development, and agricultural andsilvicultural practices.

Water quality data for the Indian Mary(Franz Lake Refuge) and Hardy Creek(Pierce Refuge) watersheds is limited. TheForest Service assessed attributes ofwatersheds within the Columbia RiverGorge National Scenic Area (Scenic Area)that can influence water quality. HardyCreek and Gibbons Creek are among thosewatersheds on the Washington side of theScenic Area with the highest road density,stream crossing density, and miles of roadwith slopes exceeding 50 percent. Incontrast, Indian Mary Creek has a low roadcrossing density and the lowest number ofmiles of road exceeding 50 percent slope ofWashington watersheds within the ScenicArea.43 Hardy Creek watershed containstrails originating from Beacon Rock StatePark. These trails may reduce water qualitywithin Hardy Creek through runoff, erosion,soil disturbance, and vegetative loss. Overthe past decade, Beacon Rock State Parkand the Chinook Trail Association haveimplemented measures to reduce trailimpacts within the Hardy Creek watershed.

Water quality in the Indian Mary Creek andHardy Creek watersheds is afforded someprotection through public ownership andland-use restrictions. The lower portion ofthe Indian Mary watershed is within theScenic Area. Land adjoining Indian MaryCreek is largely within federal ownership. The Hardy Creek watershed ispredominantly within the Scenic Area withonly the headwaters outside the Scenic Areaboundary. Approximately 92 percent of

land adjoining Hardy Creek is in publicownership. Nearly half of the GibbonsCreek watershed is within the city limits ofWashougal, Washington. Land ownershipadjoining Gibbons Creek is predominatelyprivate with the exception of Service lands,City of Washougal property, and severaltributary segments within the Scenic Area.3

Water from the Grenia Creek watershed(Pierce Refuge) is impounded behind awater control structure to form Pierce Lake. The water within Pierce Lake is periodicallyturbid, presumably the result of windinduced wave action stirring the finesediments captured within the basin. PierceLake water spilling through the watercontrol structure merges with Hardy Creekupstream of the majority of chum salmonspawning redds. At their confluence, wateroriginating from Pierce Lake is oftenvisually more turbid than water from theHardy Creek watershed. Fine sedimentsintroduced to the water column from PierceLake may be a threat to the viability ofdownstream chum redds.

Air Quality

The east winds that exemplify the Gorgewinter weather pattern seasonally minimizethe potential for reduced air qualitystandards at the Gorge Refuges. In summerand fall, air inversions and idle air massesare common to the valleys of southwestWashington and the Portland metropolitanarea. These stagnant air masses canaccumulate pollutants and emissions tounhealthy levels. These pollutants arelargely generated by motor vehicles andindustries in the Portland-Vancouver AirQuality Maintenance Area. During the



summer of 2002, Portland exceeded airquality standards considered safe for somegroups on three days. These patterns areoften improved by moderate westwardlybreezes which disperse pollutants from themetropolitan areas up the Gorge. Airquality monitoring stations in the ScenicArea have identified ozone concentrations ator above the injury threshold for sensitivelichens. The Scenic Area has relatively poorvisibility in comparison to 17 other locationsin the northwest where visual quality isimportant to scenic values. Crown Point,Oregon, consistently ranks near the bottomfor visibility. Refuge Habitats and AssociatedWildlife

Wetland Complex

Lower Columbia River wetlands are broadlycharacterized as tidally influenced riverinesystems and further defined as wetlandsystems dominated by flowing water anddynamic hydrological processes. The GorgeRefuges contain some of the last remainingexamples of riverine, lacustrine andpalustrine wetland types currently found onthe Columbia River (terms defined inAppendix A). These wetland complexes areinfluenced both by natural processes and byprocesses that have been highly altered byhumans. For management and planningpurposes, this CCP identifies four wetlandtypes: riverine, open water, emergent, andwet meadow. Open water are lacustrinesystems; emergent and wet meadow arepalustrine sytems.10 Wet meadow

communities currently do not exist on theGorge Refuges, as this community has beendisplaced by invasive reed canarygrass. Wetlands dominated by shrubs are classifiedas riparian scrub-shrub communities and areincluded in the description of ripariansystems. The following describes the fourwetland types at each of the Gorge Refuges.

Steigerwald Lake Refuge.Early explorers and fur traders who passedthrough the Steigerwald Lake area oftendescribed it as a prairie. In 1805 and1806,Lewis and Clark mapped the area as“prairie.” In his journal, Lewis describedthe diversity of trees and evergreen shrubs inthe bottomlands and the “sand rush whichare luxuriant and abundant in the riverbottoms.”

Over the following two decades, thebottomlands at Steigerwald Lake becameknown as the “Tea Prairie,” perhaps becauseof the abundance of wild mint growing inthe area. Land surveyor notes from 1856described the river bottom as “rich prairie”that was “unfit for cultivation due toinundation.” Early settlers attempted tofarm the area, but annual spring flooding bythe Columbia River and Gibbons Creekmade farming difficult, if not impossible. Annual freshets persisted until the majordam building projects of the 1950s. Thebottomlands were diked in 1966 andexpulsion pumps were installed inpreparation for the development of theWashougal Industrial Park at the westernmargin of Steigerwald Lake.



Looking east at the Steigerwald Lakebed. Photo USFWS.

A drainage ditch was dug through themiddle of the lake basin to further drain thearea, the cottonwood forest was reduced,and grazing reduced the shrub componentwithin remnant riparian areas. Most of thesechanges occurred only within the past 30 to40 years (Table 4-1).

In 1992, the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers(COE) constructed an elevated channel totransport the waters of Gibbons Creek fromits inflow to the Refuge over SteigerwaldLake out to the Columbia River. Thisrealignment reversed the natural westwardoutflow of Gibbons Creek to the east. Excavation of fill material for the dikeformed a lake (Scaup Pond) where therewere once several shallow seasonal ponds. The surface area of Scaup Pond isapproximately 13 acres. The elevatedchannel begins at a flow control structuresouth of State Route 14. At this point, allflows up to 70 cfs are routed into theelevated channel. Flows exceeding 70 cfsare diverted into the original Gibbons Creekchannel west of the elevated channel. At thetime of construction, winter storms in excess

of 100 cfs were calculated to be aninfrequent occurrence.

Table 4-1. Historic change in wetland andriparian cover, Steigerwald Lake Refuge

HabitatType

Acres (%)1

1956 1993 NetChange

EmergentWetland2

432(41%)

3203

(31%)-112 (-10%)

RiparianForest

129 (12%)

47(4%)

-82(-8%)

Scrub-Shrub

90(9%)

30(3%)

-60(-6%)

1Precent of Refuge area with this habitat type,excluding private lands within the approved Refugeboundary.2Includes emergent, wet meadow, and open waterareas.3At 16 feet mean sea level (maximum operation poolelevation).

The elevated channel, plus two other dikeswith water control structures on the Refuge,one west and one east of the channel, permitthe Refuge to manage water levels withinthree wetland impoundments. Forinformation on the location and operatio ofthese wetland impoundments, see thewetland management guidelines inAppendix M. Given the constraints imposedby adjacent private lands, the Refuge canmanipulate water levels on only a fraction ofthe former wetland basin. Water elevationin Steigerwald Lake fluctuate between aseasonal low of about 10 feet to a maximumelevation of about 16 feet, providingapproximately 322 acres of wetland habitat(Table 4-2). Because the topography of the



Steigerwald Lake basin is shallow, smallincreases in water elevation can producesubstantial increases in wetland habitat area. Prior to construction of the Columbia Riverdike, and after the Bonneville Dam wascompleted, the spring freshet likely formed a642-acre lake annually.

Table 4-2. Acres of potential wetlandhabitat at various elevations, SteigerwaldLake.

Water Elevation(feet)

Surface Area (acres)

9 0

10 3

12 67

14 224

16 322

18 401

20 489

22 642

Other wetlands at Steigerwald Lake Refugeinclude Redtail Lake and several isolated,perched wetlands (see Figure 4-2). RedtailLake is filled and maintained byprecipitation and potentially by groundwater seepage from the Gibbons Creekchannel. Water in the basin is typicallyperennial, however, during the summermonths the lake may retreat to a very smallpool (less than one acre). When fullyrecharged, the Redtail Lake basin covers upto 20 acres.

Franz Lake Refuge.The wetland complex at Franz Lake Refugeincludes permanently and seasonallyflooded tidal basins, riverine wetlands,seasonally flooded non-tidal wetlands, and anumber of permanent and seasonal springs. Franz Lake is fed by Indian Mary Creek andseveral springs, and empties into ArthurLake on the west end. Arthur Lake alsoreceives water from several springs andempties into the Columbia River to the west(Figure 4-3).

Water levels on Franz and Arthur Lakes inwinter and spring are primarily determinedby the elevation of the Columbia River,which is strongly influenced by releasesfrom the Bonneville Dam. Beaver damsthroughout the Refuge’s wetland complexmaintain water surface elevations in summerwhen Columbia River flows are at theirlowest. Water levels in Franz and ArthurLakes range from seven feet in Augustthrough October to 21 feet in April throughJune. Peak elevations are 30 feet. ArthurLake ranges in size from more than 50 acresduring high water to a small perennialstream in late summer. Franz Lake isrelatively stable in size due to a large beaverdam at its outlet. There are approximately130 acres of emergent wetland at thisRefuge. Wetland vegetation includeswillow, wapato (arrowhead), bulrush, otherrushes, sedges, plantain, smartweed, andseveral mints (Figure 4-3). Reedcanarygrass fields surrounding Franz andArthur Lakes were not grazed for four yearsprior to acquisition by the Service in 1990. In 1992 Refuge staff experimented with agrazing program to remove the thickcanarygrass growth to increase the plantdiversity of the area.



Figure 4-2. Base vegetation: Stiegerwald Lake Refuge



Figure 4-3. Base vegetation: Franz Lake Refuge



Figure 4-4. Base vegetation: Pierce Refuge



Electric fences were installed and 70 cowswere allowed to graze. The grazingprogram resulted in degradation of theriparian habitat, and grazing was eliminatedat Franz Lake Refuge in 1996. Since thattime, no active management of wet meadowvegetation has occurred at the Refuge.

The Refuge provides important winteringhabitat for tundra swans; as many as 1,000have been observed on Franz Lake.39 Othercommon waterfowl include western Canadagoose, mallard, northern pintail, gadwall,green-winged teal, northern shoveler,canvasback, ring-necked duck, andAmerican wigeon. Cavity-nesting ducks,including wood duck, bufflehead andcommon merganser, have also beenobserved. The Refuge provides abundanthabitat for wading birds such as great blueherons and rails, as well as songbirds thatmake use of grass/sedge meadows, cattailponds, willow thickets, and riparian forests.

Pierce Refuge.Wetlands at Pierce Refuge includepermanently flooded basins (Pierce Lakeand Lena’s Lake), riverine wetlands (HardyCreek, Columbia River), several seeps andsprings, and numerous small intermittentlyflooded basins (Figure 4-4). Pierce Lake isthe result of a dike and water controlstructure built across Grenia Creek in 1994to replace an earlier structure that had failed. Grenia Creek, springs, and precipitation feedthe lake, which is maintained as a semi-permanent wetland during summer. Periodically, the lake is drained in summer(1999, 2001, 2003) to remove invasivespecies, including carp, bullheads, andbullfrog tadpoles. Most of the lakebed whendrained consists of mudflats with very little

vegetation, possibly a result of the foragingactivity of the carp population. At full pool,the surface acreage of the lake is about 10acres.

Pierce Pond functions as a backwater toPierce Lake that also receives periodicinflow from Grenia Creek during high waterevents. A gravel service road transects thewetland near the Refuge’s east boundarywhere an open culvert allows Grenia Creekwater to drain under the road and into acottonwood-ash forest. From there, thedrainage empties into an elongateddepression that forms a seasonal wetlandwithin Pierce Pond. When water depths inPierce Lake exceed 4.5 feet, water canoverflow into Pierce Pond to fill orsupplement the basin. In June 2000, a watercontrol structure was installed for improvedwater management capability. Water levelsduring the winter are held at 5.5 to 6.0 feet. This basin is managed as a seasonal wetlandthat at full capacity attains a surface area oftwo acres.

In 1999, a dike and water control structurewere installed at the outlet of a small streamformed by precipitation and perennial flowfrom Domestic Springs. The structure iscurrently managed to maintain a semi-permanent wetland pond, which drains intoHardy Creek. Wetland benches aredominated by reed canarygrass; emergentvegetation grows along the shallow pondmargins. The center of this wetland is toodeep to support emergent vegetation. Atmanaged pool levels, this wetlandencompasses about 2 acres.



Lena’s Lake was created prior to Refuge establishment by damming an unnamedcreek entering a man-made basin through arailroad culvert. The dike was rebuilt and anew water control structure was installed in1999. The elevated water control structuredoes not allow complete draw-down of thelake, limiting options for wetlandmanagement. Currently, the 1.6-acre basinis managed as a semi-permanent wetland;however, water depths, carp, and heavysediment loads limit the growth of emergentand submergent vegetation.

Riparian Systems

Black cottonwood and Oregon ash arecharacteristic dominant tree species alongthe Columbia River, achieving maximumdevelopment west of the Columbia Gorge.16 Nearly pure stands of black cottonwoodoccur on many of the islands and line theshores in this area, often in association withtall willow (up to 32 feet). Oregon ashincreases in dominance on slightly highersites protected by natural levees. Alsoincluded in this system are riparian scrub-shrub wetlands. These wetlands includeareas dominated by woody vegetation lessthan 20 feet tall. The species include trueshrubs, young trees, and trees or shrubs thatare small or stunted because ofenvironmental conditions.10 The nativeunderstory of these forests can include redalder, snowberry, red-osier dogwood,blackberry, and nettles. The approximatenumber of acres of riparian forest andriparian scrub-shrub vegetation are shown inTable 4-3.

Table 4-3. Estimated acres of ripariancommunities on the Gorge Refuges.

Refuge Cottonwood- Ash Forest

Scrub-Shrub

Steigerwald Lake 47 30

Franz Lake 57 63

Pierce 115 7

Steigerwald Lake Refuge.Riparian forest consists primarily of twodisjunct stands: a 28-acre stand parallelingthe lower portion of Gibbons Creek, and a15-acre stand at Cottonwood Beach (Figure4-2). Additional cottonwood-ash forestexists at Cottonwood Beach contiguous withthe Refuge but not within Refugejurisdiction. Small, isolated patches ofcottonwood or willow comprise theremaining acres of riparian forest. No dataare available on the canopy cover, shrubcover, or age-class distribution of theseriparian stands.

Franz Lake Refuge.The composition of riparian vegetationbetween State Route 14 and the ColumbiaRiver varies with elevation (Figure 4-3). Willows dominate lower elevations adjacentto Franz and Arthur Lakes, while at higherelevations within the floodplain (up to 30feet) bottomland forests consist of Oregonash and black cottonwood. Fourcottonwoods average approximately 7 feetin diameter. These are near-record sizecottonwood trees for the region. Theunderstory is dominated by reed canarygrassin seasonally flooded sites and by nonnativeHimalayan blackberry at higher elevations.



Riparian forest upper canopy cover is 49percent, while the sub-canopy is 17 percent. Riparian scrub-shrub upper canopy cover is18 percent and the subcanopy is 23 percent. The shrub cover is 35 percent in riparianforest and 8 percent in riparian scrub-shrub. Saplings that will presumably replace lostcanopy trees only comprise 2 percent of theshrub layer. The paucity of saplings isprimarily a result of past grazing practicesand competitive exclusion by reed canarygrass and nonnative blackberry.

Mature cottonwoods and conifers along theforested margins of the lakes providenesting, perching, and roosting opportunitiesfor songbirds and raptors. Raptor speciesdocumented at Franz Lake include baldeagle, osprey, red-tailed hawk, andAmerican kestrel. A bald eagle nest waslocated along the Columbia River at FranzLake and was used annually from 1998 to2000.

Pierce Refuge.Land clearing and cattle grazing prior toRefuge establishment significantly reducedforest cover. Cattle grazing significantlyimpacted the subcanopy layer. Between1935 and 1993, approximately 80 acres ofcottonwood-ash forest were cleared. Landclearing prior to 1935 reduced bottomlandforest by at least this much again.

The majority of riparian forest on PierceRefuge occurs between Hardy Creek and theColumbia River (Figure 4-4). Riparianforest south and west of Pierce Lake is a mixof cottonwood and Oregon ash, withcottonwood saplings dominating theunderstory. East of Pierce Lake, the riparianforest is dominated by Oregon ash with an

understory of snowberry. Canopy cover isabout 68 percent. Cattle grazing wasremoved from the Refuge in 1996, andnative shrubs have increased in riparianareas. However, nonnative blackberry isbeginning to invade these areas.

Riparian scrub-shrub vegetation is largelylimited to streamsides. Supplementalplantings by the Service and the NaturalResource Conservation Service in 1986 and1993 augmented natural regeneration ofshrub cover along Hardy Creek. No data areavailable on the percent cover in riparianscrub-shrub vegetation.

Columbia River Shoreline Habitats

Steigerwald Lake.The Columbia River shoreline habitats ofSteigerwald Lake Refuge consist of areasthat slope to the water’s edge as well asareas of abrupt cutbanks. While erosionappears to be a problem along much of theshoreline, studies have not been conductedto evaluate the issue.

Franz Lake.Aerial photos taken in 1930, 1948, and 1997reveal deterioration of the riverbank at FranzLake Refuge. The average rate of shorelineerosion has been variable since 1930. However, erosion may be two to three feetduring some years. Bank erosion along theshoreline in this reach appears to be theresult of rapid changes in water surfaceelevation (due to operations of BonnevilleDam and tidal influences), rather thanerosional shear from high velocity flows inthe river. Plant cover in the area is does notappear to provide adequate protection fromerosion. If the rate of erosion continues to



exceed the rate of sediment deposition, theColumbia River may eventually overtop thebank creating a seasonally active sidechannel in the area occupied by Franz Lake. Presumably, hydrologic conditions in thisside channel would promote sedimentationresulting in eventual filling of the lakebed.

Pierce Refuge.Unlike the sandy, highly eroded shorelinefound at Franz Lake and Steigerwald LakeRefuges, the Columbia River shoreline atPierce Refuge is characterized by a coarsesubstrate of cobble and gravels. FromPierce Refuge, these rocky shores extendabout two miles east to Bonneville Dam andabout three miles west to the town ofSkamania. These five miles are all thatremain of what was a much more extensiveColumbia River cobble/gravel shoreline,now inundated by the Bonneville Dam. These sparsely vegetated, rocky shoresprovide habitat for a rare plant species, thepersistent sepal or Columbia yellowcress. The habitat requirements for this StateThreatened plant are described in thisCCP/EA in the section titled Special StatusSpecies. Cobble zones within remainingyellowcress habitat are further threatened byvegetation encroachment and the hydrologicalterations imposed by the operation ofColumbia River dams. Dams alter thefrequency, timing, severity, and duration ofannual flooding events. Spring floods arenow less severe with water released overlonger periods of time. This alteration of theflood regime has allowed sediments toaccumulate in cobble habitats. Thissedimentation and tempering of flood eventshas allowed vegetation to encroach andcompete with Columbia yellowcress forlight, nutrients, space, and water.

Grasslands

Grasslands on the Gorge Refuges consistprimarily of nonnative, introduced grassesinitially planted for agricultural purposes(e.g., cattle forage and hay crops). There areno known intact populations of nativegrasses or prairie forbs remaining on theseRefuges, although native forbs and grassesmay comprise a small component of thegrassland community. Refuge grasslandsconsist of “managed fields” and “oldfields.” The former are managed to providewinter browse for Canada geese. Old fieldsreceive only limited weed control. Weedcontrol also occurs within managed fields. Grassland management on each Refuge isdescribed below.

Steigerwald Lake Refuge.The Steigerwald Lake basin has a longhistory of grazing prior to Refugeestablishment. When acquired, grazingoccurred on most of the Refuge lands, with210 head of cattle grazing on approximately682 acres. Grazing was reduced to 150cattle by 1996 due to a variety of wildlifeand habitat concerns. In 1996, a ServiceHabitat Review Team recommendedadditional changes to the grazing program,which prompted the cooperator to withdrawhis grazing privileges.

The current cooperator operates under athree-year cooperative land managementagreement, which will expire in 2006. TheCCP/EA contains a CompatibilityDetermination which explains the hayingand grazing program in some detail(Appendix K). The Service controls weedsand mows fields not under the cooperativeagreement to provide winter forage for



Canada geese. In recent years, significantprogress has been made in controllingthistle. Winter surveys of Canada geesehave identified a number of fields withminimum foraging use; mowing of thosefields has been discontinued and thevegetation is left undisturbed to providehabitat for nesting birds and other wildlife. The Refuge currently consists of 293 acresof managed fields and 215 acres ofunmanaged fields (Figure 4-2).

Winter surveys conducted at SteigerwaldLake from 1975 to 1987, documented up to450 Canada geese in the area.6 Thepredominant subspecies of Canada geeseobserved in 1987, were western andTaverner’s, with noteworthy observations ofthree dusky Canada geese and 15 cacklingCanada geese. During the early 1990s,cackling Canada geese largely shiftedwintering range from California’s CentralValley to western Oregon and southwesternWashington.36 During this same period, thepopulation of cackling Canada geese wasalso increasing. Regionally, the culminationof these factors resulted in a significantincrease in wintering cackling Canadageese. At Steigerwald Lake Refuge theaverage number of wintering geese from1998 to 2003 was 857 with high counts ofover 3,000 (Table 4-4). The flocks werecomposed of approximately 77 percentcackling Canada geese.

From 1998 to 2003, dusky Canada geesewere observed on six different occasions atSteigerwald Lake Refuge. Most of theseobservations were in February and March,1999, and were 10 or fewer birds. Althoughdusky Canada geese have been sporadicallyobserved at Steigerwald Lake Refuge, this

area appears to be located outside thesubspecies’ primary wintering range.

Table 4-4. Canada geese surveys, 1998through 2003, Steigerwald Lake Refuge.

Year AveragePopulation

MaximumPopulation

1998/99 1485 4004

1999/00 706 1802

2000/01 491 2637

2001/02 584 3388

2002/03 1020 1943 Franz Lake Refuge.There are 54 acres of scattered old fields onthis Refuge and no managed fields (Figure4-3).

Pierce Refuge.Prior to and after acquisition, much of thePierce Refuge was grazed by a lessee with along term agreement and an additional 10-year option. The lessee chose not to renewthe option. Due to severe overgrazing inwoodlands and the fact that grazing was notconsistent with the goals and objectives ofthe Refuge, the program was terminated in1996.

There are approximately 36 acres ofmanaged field on Pierce Refuge (Figure 4-4). Grassland management currentlyconsists of mowing and weed control, usingchemical, mechanical, and biologicalmethods. Winter goose use has declinedfrom about 300 geese in the 1990s to only afew sightings of small (less than 25 geese)flocks. This decline coincided with a



reduction in the amount of grassland habitatmaintained in goose browse. The NorthBonneville field has not been mowed since2000 due to a lack of staff.

Oak Woodland and Oak Savanna

Although oak habitats can be broadlydefined as oak woodland and oak savanna,considerable gradation occurs naturallybetween these two types. Oak savannas areoak-dominated stands described structurallyas oak or mixed oak stands with totalcanopy coverage less than 25 percent withoaks contributing 50 percent of the canopycoverage present.26 Conifers may compriseless than 25 percent of the crown cover. Other broadleaf trees (e.g., ash, maple, andmadrone) may be co-dominant with oak. Typical native grass and forb speciesassociated with oak savanna includeRoemer’s fescue, red fescue, Californiaoatgrass, western bittercress, Americanvetch, western wood strawberry, springbeauty, chickweed , balsamroot, and lupine. Oak savanna does not currently exist on theGorge Refuges.

Oak woodlands are defined as pure oak or amix of oak and conifer associations with oakconstituting at least 25 percent of the crowncover. Stands may be co-dominated byother broadleaf trees, as well. Theunderstory is characteristically dominatedby native shrubs such as ocean spray, oval-leafed viburnum, California hazelnut,serviceberry, common snowberry, trailingblackberry, Indian plum, poison oak, nootkarose, and tall Oregon grape. Many speciesof flora and fauna associated with thisunique system are of conservation concerndue to declines in population, local

extirpation, or close associations with thisdeclining habitat.26 Three key conservationtargets for the Gorge Refuges that requireoak habitats are Bewick’s wren, westernpond turtle, and white-breasted nuthatch.

Oak woodlands and oak savannas are amongthe most imperiled ecosystems in westernWashington.34 The lack of a natural fireregime has allowed conifers to dominate inOregon white oak communities. Oakregeneration seems to be limited by the lackof a fire regime and the presence of a densemonotypic understory of nonnativeHimalayan blackberry which occasionallyexceed seven feet tall. Oaks are slowgrowing, have a long maturation time, andcannot outgrow nonnative blackberry orcompete for light from within a denseunderstory of this species.

Steigerwald Lake Refuge.A small, isolated patch of oaks with a denseunderstory of nonnative Himalayanblackberry exists near the former Stevensonhomestead. This one-acre stand is a relictfrom a larger woodland that was cleared forconstruction of State Route 14.6 Approximately 14 acres of scattered oaksexist south of the railroad (Figure 4-2). North of the railroad, approximately 26acres of mixed oak, maple, and conifersexists.

In 2003, the Washington State Departmentof Natural Resources designated the 976-acre Washougal Oaks Natural ResourceConservation Area and Natural AreaPreserve. Oak woodlands at SteigerwaldLake Refuge represent the southwest edgeof the designated area. This woodland is thelargest occurrence of the Oregon white



oak/oval-leaved viburnum - poison oakcommunity in western Washington. This isa globally critically imperiled communitytype because of the small number ofoccurrences, small global range, and highthreats.

All existing oak habitat at Steigerwald LakeRefuge occurs on Hillsboro silt loams andLauren gravelly loams. These soils, whichare ideal for Oregon white oak, are thepredominant soil type within a 125-acre areabetween Steigerwald Lake and theEvergreen Highway.36 Oaks likelydominated this area prior to development. Franz Lake Refuge.Several acres of mixed oak/conifers occur ina very narrow band above the floodplain andbelow the railroad tracks (Figure 4-3). Soilsconducive for oaks within the Refugeboundary are currently wooded andrelatively steep, limiting opportunities forthe expansion of oak habitat.

Pierce Refuge.Starting in 1955, the Pierce family clearedtrees and brush to increase the amount ofpasture available for cattle on their ranch.38 The amount of oak habitat that was clearedcannot be accurately determined; however,evidence from the remaining oak habitat andinterpretation of 1935 aerial photos suggestthat at least 26 acres of oak woodlandsformerly existed in the north-central portionof the Refuge. Oak regeneration in this areawas presumably limited by grazing practicesfrom 1955 to 1996.

Prior to extensive damming of the ColumbiaRiver, the preference for grazing areasabove the floodplain may have inadvertently

targeted oak habitats for pasture conversion. The remaining oak habitat at Pierce Refugetotals approximately 27 acres (Figure 4-4)and occurs in both Bonneville stony sandyloam and Pilchuck very sandy loam soils. The Bonneville series is suitable soil forOregon white oak production.37 Thesuitability of the Pilchuck for oaks isunknown.

Invasive Species

A wide-variety of nonnative plants andanimals infest the Gorge Refuges. Giventheir location on a major river corridor,these Refuges are at tremendous risk foradditional invasions by potentiallydamaging nonnative species, such as mittencrabs, zebra mussels, and hydrilla. Thefollowing describes the existing invasivespecies of primary concern to the Refuges.

Birds

Nonnative bird species occurring on theGorge Refuges include house sparrow, rockdove, and European starling. Housesparrows and starlings displace nativecavity-nesting birds.

House sparrows are associated with thespread of human diseases and may be avector in the transmission of West NileVirus.30 Control of nonnative birds has notbeen conducted on the Gorge Refuges.

Mammals

Nutria are rarely seen at Pierce and FranzLake Refuges and occasionally seen atSteigerwald Lake Refuge. Nutria can



The light tops of the invasive reed canarygrass dominate this view ofvegetation around Domestic Pond. Photo USFWS.

negatively impact wetland impoundments bydigging tunnels into levees. However,nutria do not currently pose a managementproblem for the Gorge Refuges.

Reptiles and Amphibians

Bullfrogs were introduced to the PacificNorthwest in the 1920s or 1930s to be raisedas food. Bullfrogs prey on nativeamphibians, turtle hatchlings, and evenducklings. Bullfrogs are removed fromPierce Lake to support the establishment ofa western pond turtle population at PierceRefuge. The lake is lowered to minimumpool on alternate years and bullfrog tadpolesare gathered and removed from the basin.

Fish

Nonnative fish are abundant within somewaterways of the Gorge Refuges. Carp,which are widespread in the lower ColumbiaRiver, consume vegetation andinvertebrates, compete with native wildlifefor food, and degrade water quality byincreasing turbidity.46 To counteract these

impacts, fish screens have been placed onthe Pierce Lake water control structure andthe lake is periodically drawn down toremove carp and other nonnatives from thelakebed.

Plants

The most abundant invasive plant found onthe Gorge Refuges is reed canarygrass. Based on interpretation of aerialphotography, it covers approximately 406acres of the Refuges (see Figures 4-2, 4-3,and 4-4). Efforts to reduce its dominance inwetlands using flooding and tillage havebeen largely ineffective.

Himalayan blackberry is another pervasivenonnative plant found on the GorgeRefuges. Control efforts have focused onpreventing nonnative blackberry frominfesting grasslands that are managed forCanada geese. In 2003, Himalayanblackberry was mechanically cut along asection of lower Gibbons Creek. The sitewas sprayed with herbicides to preventreinfestation, the ground was tilled, and thesite was seeded to native grasses.

Japanese knotweed was recently (2000)found growing along Hardy Creek at PierceRefuge. Starting in 2001, knotweedsdownstream of State Route 14 were injectedwith herbicide and left standing. Follow-uptreatments reduced knotweed from numerous dense patches to isolatedindividual plants or clusters.

Indigo bush appears to be increasing alongthe Columbia River shoreline. The NatureConservancy,s efforts to manually removeindigo bush plants within areas supporting



Columbia yellowcress have not beeneffective. They plan to experiment withherbicide treatments on property next toPierce Refuge.

Several noxious weeds occur on the GorgeRefuges. Canada thistle is common inmanaged fields at Steigerwald Lake andPierce Refuges. Suppression has involvedmowing, herbicide application, andbiological controls. Poison hemlock andtansy ragwort are relatively uncommonnoxious weeds on the Refuges.

Federally- and State-Listed Species Birds

The bald eagle is the only federally listedbird known to occur on the Refuges. Additional special status bird species arelisted in Table 4-6. Birds of ConservationConcern (BCC) have been identified by theService as species likely to becomecandidates for listing under the EndangeredSpecies Act.41

Peregrine Falcon.Peregrine falcons nest in the ColumbiaRiver Gorge. An active aerie is locatedadjacent to Pierce Refuge. Peregrine falconsmay utilize the Refuges throughout the yearbut occur more frequently from fall throughspring, as migrants move into the area tohunt for waterfowl and other prey.

Sandhill Crane.Nine cranes were observed landing alongthe Columbia River adjacent to PierceRefuge on 19 September 2001. It isbelieved that these individuals belonged tothe Washington breeding population. There

are no other recent documented occurrencesof sandhill cranes in this part of the Gorge. Migrant and wintering sandhill cranes areoccasionally observed foraging in fields andwetland edges of Steigerwald Lake Refuge.

Bald Eagle.Approximately eight to ten non-nesting baldeagles have been documented utilizing areasadjacent to Franz Lake Refuge in winter.39 Cottonwoods and Douglas-firs provideperch sites on the Refuges. One active baldeagle nest was present between theColumbia River and Franz Lake from 1998to 2000, but nesting activity has not beenobserved since the summer of 2000. Thepair relocated to Skamania Island andcontinue to forage at the Refuge. Baldeagles are observed occasionally year-roundat Pierce and Steigerwald Lake Refuges. Shoreline trees provide perches for huntingand roosting. Summer populations arecomprised of nearby nesting pairs and a fewnon-breeding subadults. Numbers mayincrease in the fall and winter as migrantbirds congregate to feed on salmon andwaterfowl.

Northern Spotted Owl.Spotted owls have not been documented onthe Refuges; however, apparently suitablehabitat occurs within the Indian Mary Creekwatershed. Critical Habitat for the speciesoccurs in Oregon directly across theColumbia River from Franz Lake and PierceRefuges.



Table 4-5. Special status species of birds, Gorge Refuges.Name Federal

StatusStateStatus

Related Habitats Refuge WherePresent (if any)

Comments

Accipiter gentilis(northern goshawk)

BCC C mature coniferousforests

ALL Clark andSkamania Countyrecords

Chaetura vauxi (Vaux’s swift)

C grassland andsavanna

ALL seasonal migranton all Refuges

Coccyzus americanus(yellow-billed cuckoo)

BCC, C C large deciduouswoodlands

formerly nested in westernWashington

Contopus cooperi (olive-sided flycatcher)

BCC conifer forest FLR seasonal migrant

Dryocopus pileatus(pileated woodpecker)

C riparian and coniferforest

ALL probable nester onall Refuges

Falco peregrinus(peregrine falcon)

BCC E wetland and cliffs ALL nesting adjacent toPR

Grus canadensis(sandhill crane)

E wetland, agriculturalfields and grasslands

PR, SLR seasonal migrant

Haliaeetus leucocephalus (bald eagle)

T T wetland, grassland,and forest borderingrivers

ALL wintering ALL,FLR nest 1998-2000

Melanerpes lewis(Lewis’s woodpecker)

BCC mixed savanna, largeconifers, and snags

SLR recently observednear SLR

Progne subis (purple martin)

C open water, snag,and cavities

ALL FLR and SLRnesting, observedon PR

Selasphorus rufus(rufous hummingbird)

BCC conifer anddeciduous forests

ALL nesting on allRefuges

Sitta carolinensisaculeata (slender billed,white-breasted nuthatch)

C oak savanna SLR, PR Heard on PR,subspeciesunknown

Strix occidentalis(spotted owl)

T E mature conifer FLR FLR may havesuitable habitat

Key to Codes: E = Endangered, T = Threatened, C = Candidate, S = Sensitive, BCC = Birds of ConservationConcern, FLR = Franz Lake Refuge, PR = Pierce Refuge, SLR = Steigerwald Lake Refuge, ALL = All GorgeRefuges, Refuge Where Present: Bold Text = known to occur, plain text = potential to occur

Mammals

No federal or state listed mammals areknown to occur on the Refuges. However,these Refuges have not been fullyinventoried, particularly for bats or batroosts. The Refuges provide potentially

suitable habitat for several species of statelisted mammals (Table 4-7). Western Gray Squirrel.The western gray squirrel occurs primarilyeast of Pierce Refuge in disjunct populationsalong the eastern slope of the Cascade



Range. This species is found in stands ofOregon white oak or mixed stands of oakand ponderosa pine (east side of CascadeRange) and Douglas-fir (west side of

Cascade Range).24 Steigerwald Lake andPierce Refuges may provide suitable habitatfor this species.

Table 4-6. Special status species of mammals, Gorge Refuges.

NameFederalStatus

StateStatus

Related Habitat Refuge WherePresent (if any)

Comments

Corynorhinuys townsendii townsendii(Pacific Townsend’sbig-eared bat)

C low to mid-elevationforest types

ALL Refuges are withinknown range

Sciurus griseus (western gray squirrel)

T low elevation purebroadleaf deciduousor mixed with coniferous

All Refuges are inhistoric range, withPR nearest to currentrange

Thomomys talpoidesdouglasii (brush prairiepocket gopher)

C pasture, grasslandand cultivated fields

SLR

Microtus canicaudus(gray-tailed vole)

C pasture, agriculturalfields, grasslands

SLR

Key to Codes: E = Endangered, T = Threatened, C = Candidate, S = Sensitive, SC = Species of Concern, FLR =Franz Lake Refuge, PR = Pierce Refuge, SLR = Steigerwald Lake Refuge, ALL = All Gorge RefugesRefuge Where Present: Bold Text = known to occur, plain text = potential to occur

Reptiles and Amphibians

Several state listed species of reptiles andamphibians are known to occur on theRefuges (Table 4-8).

Western Pond Turtle.The western pond turtle has been extirpatedfrom most of its range within Washington,and it currently exists in only threepopulations within the Columbia RiverGorge. One of these populations is locatedon Pierce Refuge. This population was re-established through the release of 189juvenile turtles between 2000 and 2003. Additional releases are anticipated until thespecies recovery goal is met.

Western pond turtles are mostly aquaticfrom April through September. The turtlesforage in freshwater ponds, and aresometimes found in rivers and lakes. Theyfeed on small invertebrates, aquaticvegetation, and sometimes scavenge carrion. Turtles usually begin to move out of theponds to overwinter in upland habitats inAugust and September, although movementupland may occur as late as earlyNovember. Turtles that overwinter in thewater are stationary for extended periods. Upland turtles begin moving back to pondsin March as weather warms up, with mostturtles arriving in wetlands by the end ofMay.20,21



Pond turtle trapping shows a survival rate of90.7 percent at Pierce Refuge. The meanweight gain for Pierce pond turtles overthree years was 80% with an average annualweight gain of 20.4 grams per year during

the first three years of the release.44 Thiscompares favorably with juvenile pondturtle growth at other sites, suggesting thehead-start turtles released at Pierce are doingwell.

Table 4-7. Special status reptiles and amphibians species, Gorge Refuges.Name Federal

StatusStateStatus

Related Habitat Refuge WherePresent (if any)

Comments

Bufo boreas (western toad)

C lakes, ponds, and riverbackwater for breeding,otherwise, largely terrestrial

PR, FLR

Clemmys marmorata(western pond turtle)

E marshes, sloughs, slow-moving creeks or rivers andadjacent uplands

PR reintroducedpopulation

Plethodon larselli (Larch Mountainsalamander)

S talus slopes with denseoverstory of trees

ALL knownoccurrences invicinity

Rhyacotritoncascadae (Cascade torrentsalamander)

SC springs, seeps, headwaterstreams

FLR


Fishes

The Refuges provide spawning and rearinghabitat for federal and state listed species offish (Table 4-9). Because the three Refugesare located along the lower Columbia River,individuals of additional listed andcandidate anadromous fish populations andevolutionary significant units (ESUs) fromupstream areas of the Columbia River basinmay be present in the Columbia Riveradjacent to the Refuges or in waters of theRefuges at certain times of the year. AnESU is a distinct population segment whichis substantially reproductively isolated andrepresents an important component in theevolutionary legacy of the biological

species. Prompted by recent courtdecisions, the National Oceanic andAtmospheric Administration-Fisheries(NOAA-Fisheries) announced that it wouldreconsider its designation of critical habitatfor 19 ESUs of west coast salmon andsteelhead. The final ruling is expected byJanuary 2005. If any of the Refuges’salmon bearing streams are again designatedas critical habitat, the Service does notanticipate that this designation wouldnegatively effect any actions proposed inthis CCP. However, the listing wouldrequire additional regulatory review of theproposed activities.



Chum Salmon. Formerly, the annual chum salmoncommercial catch exceeded eight millionpounds in the lower Columbia River. Today, Hardy Creek on Pierce Refuge hostsone of the last chum salmon runs stillexisting within the Columbia River ESU. All available chum salmon spawning habitatin Hardy Creek is within the Refugeboundary. Most chum salmon spawningoccurs below the bridge (constructed from arailroad flat car) on Hardy Creek within thelower reach of the watershed and isassociated with spring seeps along theshoreline. The highest number of spawningchum recorded between 1997 and 2003 was835 in 2001. The lowest number ofspawning chum (37) was recorded in 2000.

In response to the limited chum spawninghabitat, the Service’s Columbia RiverFisheries Program Office (CRFPO)constructed an artificial spawning channel. To date, chum salmon have not used thespawning channel. Future designmodifications may be implemented toimprove channel ingress, upwelling currentcharacteristics, channel gradient, and tosecure supplemental water sources.

At Steigerwald Lake, chum salmon weredocumented within the Gibbons Creekwatershed prior to Refuge establishment. With construction of the Columbia Riverflood protection levee in 1966, chum wereexcluded from the watershed. Chum salmonapparently are unable to negotiate the fishladder constructed to facilitate fish passageinto Gibbons Creek. Chum salmon are notcurrently known to utilize Franz LakeRefuge. Chum salmon are expected to occur

in the vicinity of Franz Lake andSteigerwald Lake Refuges within themainstem Columbia River.

Coho Salmon.Spawning adult and migrating smolt cohosalmon have been found in small numbers inGibbons Creek on Steigerwald Lake Refugein surveys conducted between 1996 and2003. Surveys of Franz and Arthur Lakesand their tributaries in 1996 and 1997 foundjuvenile coho salmon to be the mostabundant salmonid in the wetland system. The adults likely spawn in nearby Goodbearand Archer Creeks, then juveniles move intoFranz Lake during high water events. Thejuvenile coho smolts rear in the coolerwaters in the Poacher Springs area of FranzLake during the warm summer months. Small numbers of coho spawn in HardyCreek. Coho produced on the Refugeswould belong to the Lower ColumbiaRiver/Southwest Washington ESU.

Steelhead.Steelhead spawning within the Gorge andobserved during Refuge surveys aredesignated as the Lower Columbia RiverESU. All naturally spawned steelhead areprotected in the lower Columbia River andits tributaries upstream to Hood River,Oregon. The Upper Columbia River,Middle Columbia River, and Snake RiverBasin ESUs are known to migrate in theColumbia River past the Refuges, but havenot been collected during on Refuge fishsurveys. Surveys in 1996 and 1997 onArthur and Franz Lakes and their tributariesidentified the presence of steelhead smolts. Studies have not been conducted to discern



the origins of these smolts. Surveys atPierce Refuge have documented steelheadspawning within the Hardy Creekwatershed. At Steigerwald Lake Refuge,steelhead spawn within Gibbons Creek andits tributaries. On all the Refuges, bothadult and juvenile steelhead may be presentyear-round within the Columbia River, itstributaries, and adjoining aquatic habitats.

Chinook Salmon. Lower Columbia River chinook salmon isthe only ESU likely to be found using refugewaters. Other ESUs migrate in theColumbia River with some potential tooccur within Refuge waters including SnakeRiver fall-run, Snake River spring/summer-run, and Upper Columbia River spring-runESUs. Monitoring has not confirmed thepresence of these mainstem ESUs within theRefuges. All naturally spawned chinook areprotected in the lower Columbia River andits tributaries to Hood River, Oregon. Surveys of Arthur and Franz Lakes and theirtributaries conducted in 1996 and 1997,found juvenile fall chinook in the spring andearly summer months utilizing these areasfor off-channel rearing. Surveys at PierceRefuge have identified chinook salmonwithin the lower Hardy Creek watershed. At Franz Lake and Pierce Refuges bothadult and juvenile chinook may be present atvarious times along the Columbia River, itstributaries, and adjoining aquatic habitats. At Steigerwald Lake, chinook salmon weredocumented within the Gibbons Creekwatershed prior to the establishment of theRefuge. With the construction of theColumbia River flood protection levee in1966, salmonids were largely excluded fromthe watershed by the dike and associated

water control infrastructure. Despitesubsequent modifications to facilitate fishpassage, chinook salmon remain absent fromthe Gibbons Creek watershed. Chinookhabitat at Steigerwald Lake is currentlylimited to portions of the Columbia Riveradjacent to the Refuge.

Sockeye Salmon.The Snake River ESU is known to migratein the Columbia River past the GorgeRefuges, but surveys have not indicated anyuse in Refuge waters.

Bull Trout.No bull trout have been identified withinRefuge watersheds; however, proposedcritical habitat is found on each Refuge. Migratory bull trout moving within theColumbia River, have been identified in thearea of Bonneville Dam; therefore, bull troutcould be present in the vicinity of Pierce andFranz Lake Refuges throughout the year.

Pacific, River, and Western Brook Lamprey.Pacific, river, and western brook lampreymay be found in the lower Columbia Riverat different times throughout the year. Theriver lamprey is parasitic as an adult butvirtually identical to the non-parasiticwestern brook lamprey as a juvenile. Theriver lamprey has not been identified in theColumbia River system since 1980 and isnot known to occur on the Refuges. Pacificand western brook lamprey have beenidentified on Steigerwald Lake Refuge,while the latter has also been identified onPierce Refuge. The Service has received apetition (January 2003) to protect the fourwest coast lamprey species under the ESA.29



Table 4-8. Special status species of fish, Gorge Refuges.Name Federal

StatusStateStatus

Refuge WherePresent (if any)

Comments

Oncorhynchus keta (chum salmon - ColumbiaRiver ESU)

T C PR SLR used prior to 1965

Oncorhynchus kisutch(coho salmon - LowerColumbia River/SouthwestWashington ESU)

C ALL

Oncorhynchus mykiss(steelhead trout - LowerColumbia River ESU)

T C ALL

Oncorhynchus tshawytscha (chinook salmon - LowerColumbia River ESU)

T C FLR, PR SLR used prior to 1965

Salvelinus confluentus(bull trout)

T SC ALL Clark and Skamania Countyrecords, use of Refuges unlikely


Plants

Columbia yellowcress is the only listedplant known to occur on the Gorge Refuges(Table 4-10). The Gorge Refuges are withinthe historic range of six other special statusplants, and potentially suitable habitat forthese species may occur on one or more ofthe Refuges.

Water Howellia. Several remnant populations of waterhowellia occur in the Columbia Basin andPuget lowlands. There are no knownoccurrences of water howellia on the GorgeRefuges; however, current plant inventoriesare insufficient to confirm its absence. Thenearest known population is at theRidgefield National Wildlife Refuge inClark County.

Bradshaw’s Lomatium.This perennial forb was formerly common innative prairies of the Willamette Valley andPuget Trough and likely occurred on or inthe vicinity of Steigerwald Lake. Bradshaw’s lomatium reproduces only byseed which germinates soon after fallingfrom the flower; therefore, seed persistencein the soil is low. Restoration of historicwet meadow or prairie habitat should benefitthis species.

Barrett’s Beardtongue.This perennial plant is an endemic plant tothe Columbia River Gorge. Most recordsare from Klickitat County, Washington. InWashington, the species typically grows increvices in basalt cliff faces, on ledges ofrock outcrops, and within open talus. Occurrences are often low elevation withinrocky well drained substrate of basaltic



origin, with little soil development. Thereare no known occurrences of Barrett'sbeardtongue on the Gorge Refuges.

Threats to Barrett’s beardtongue includequarrying, timber harvest, and hydrologicalchanges that may alter the microclimatesthat support this species. Road maintenanceand herbicide pose a threat to severalpopulations occurring along well drainedroad sides. Recreational uses such as hikingand rock climbing may pose localizedthreats to populations.

Columbia Yellowcress.Columbia yellowcress in the lowerColumbia River occupies cobblestoneshorelines where vegetation is sparse.18 Populations below Bonneville Dam occur onor near Pierce Island, Ives Island, HamiltonIsland, Pierce Refuge, Beacon Rock, themouth of McCord Creek, and the confluenceof the Sandy River. Most of thesepopulations are relatively small, typicallywith fewer than 500 individuals andsometimes only one or two plants.17 Asurvey of suitable habitat at Pierce Refugeconducted in 1992 found 300 to 500 stems.

Since 1996, the population at Pierce Refugehas expanded from Hamilton Creek to muchof the Columbia River shoreline of theRefuge and is currently the heartiest andmost abundant known population in theColumbia River watershed.14

Volunteers with The Nature Conservancy(TNC) have conducted surveys at PierceRefuge, Ives Island, and Pierce Islandannually since 1991. In addition, TNC hasprovided weed control by pulling andcutting indigo-bush, an aggressive shrubwhich grows in the same gravelly substrateused by Columbia yellowcress.

Pale Blue-eyed Grass.This endemic perennial plant is only knownin Klickitat, Skamania, and Yakimacounties. There are no known occurrencesof pale blue-eyed grass on the GorgeRefuges; however, current plant inventoriesare insufficient to confirm its absence. Thespecies occurs in low to mid-elevationmeadows and small openings. Suitable sitestypically retain snow or water in winter andspring.



Table 4-9. Special status species of plants, Gorge Refuges.Name Federal

StatusStateStatus

HabitatRequirements

Refuge WherePresent (if any)

Comments

Aster curtus (white-top aster)

S valley grassland Known only fromhistoric SkamaniaCounty records

Cimicifuga elata (tall bugbane)

S moist shady forestsat lower elevations

ALL Occurs in Clark and Skamania Counties

Howellia aquatica water howellia

T T vernal pools andseasonal ponds

All Occurs in ClarkCounty

Lomatium bradshawii(Bradshaw’s lomatium)

E E moist meadows andwet prairie

SLR Occurs in ClarkCounty

Penstemon barrettiae(Barrett’s beardtongue)

T talus, cliff faces,ledges, outcrops

FLR, PR Occurs in SkamaniaCounty

Rorippa columbiae(Columbiayellowcress)

T Columbia Rivershoreline

PR Occurs in SkamaniaCounty

Sisyrinchiumsarmentosum (pale blue-eyed grass)

T low to mid-elevation moistforest and meadows

FLR, PR Occurs in SkamaniaCounty


Refuge Public Use Facilities,Activities And Programs

The Refuges are not officially open to publicuse, although occasional special events andeducational activities occur at SteigerwaldLake and Pierce Refuges. Additionally, theColumbia River Dike Trail (Dike Trail)provides access to Steigerwald Lake Refugealong its southern boundary.

Steigerwald Lake Refuge

The Service has focused public use planningfor the Gorge Refuges at Steigerwald LakeRefuge due to its location at the gateway tothe Columbia River Gorge National ScenicArea (Scenic Area) and its close proximityto major urban centers. Steigerwald Lake

Refuge is the future site for the GatewayCenter to the western entrance of the ScenicArea on the Washington State side.40,42 Ahighway turnout with acceleration anddeceleration lanes has been constructed topermit future access to the Gateway Center. Projected annual use of the Gateway Centeris 125,000 visitors. Construction of theGateway Center and interpretive trail areawaiting funding and completion of a COEfeasibility study. As designed, the GatewayCenter will be situated immediately east ofGibbons Creek and south of State Route 14. The facility will integrate exhibit galleries,elevated viewing decks, interpretativedisplays, classrooms, and administrativespace, fitted tightly into the landscape. Compatibility determinations for wildlife-dependent uses of the Gateway Center andinterpretive trail were completed in 1999.



Although Steigerwald Lake Refuge isofficially closed to the public, the Dike Trailprovides access from trailheads located offthe Refuge. The Dike Trail trailhead startsat Steamboat Landing Park and extends 3.63miles east along the dike to end at a lockedgate on private land located within theapproved acquisition boundary ofSteigerwald Lake Refuge. The Port ofCamas/Washougal owns a right-of-way tooperate and maintain the dike for floodcontrol purposes. The Service hasmanagement responsibility for other uses ofthe dike, including public uses where thedike crosses Refuge land. The Dike Trail isa multiple-use trail, used for bicycling,horseback riding, jogging, birdwatching, andhiking. In 1999, the Service issued adecision to close 0.6 miles of it to horses,dogs, and bicycles. This closure wasdeemed necessary to provide the public witha high-quality, wildlife-dependentrecreational experience. The closure has notbeen implemented and the Dike Trailremains unofficially open to the public forall uses.

The Service has not conducted a systematicsurvey of recreational use of the Dike Trail. However, informal surveys of public use canprovide a “snap-shot” of the types of usescurrently occurring on the trail. Dugger 12

recorded public use on the Dike Trail during72 visits spanning March 2002 to March2003. Table 4-11 summarizes the averagenumber of Dike Trail users per mile,including trail segments located on and off

the Refuge. Most observations were madein the afternoon or evening. Of the 705users observed, 66 percent were hiking,while 17 percent each were bicycling orjogging. There was an average of 3 dogs forevery 10 users with 40 percent of the dogsbeing off leash. No horseback riding wasobserved during this survey, however,Dugger13 estimated that equestrians used thetrail about twice a month based on thedroppings he saw. Horses utilizing the DikeTrail must be transported by trailer. Equestrian parking lot capacity is a goodmeasure of the maximum number of horsesat any given time. Currently, the parkingarea can accommodate four vehicles withhorse trailers. This regulates maximumhorse utilization along the Dike Trail toapproximately eight horses.

Franz Lake Refuge

The only developed access to Franz LakeRefuge crosses private property by way of aroad easement. The Service-ownedeasement can only be used foradministrative purposes; therefore, publicuse does not currently occur at this Refuge. In 1997, the Washington Department ofTransportation partnered with the Service bywidening Washington State Route 14 andinstalling a walkway and Franz Lakeoverlook in the right-of-way. Interpretivepanels funded by the U.S. Forest Servicewere installed and now offer information onthe Refuge and its habitats and wildlife.



Table 4-10. Average number of visitors per mile of Dike Trail observed during an informalwalking survey, conducted from March 2002 to March 2004.

Trail User Average Number of Visitors per Mile of Trail

Spring Summer Fall Winter

weekday weekend weekday weekend weekday weekend weekend

Humans 3.88 6.00 4.02 3.10 2.34 2.00 4.52

Hikers 2.16 4.12 2.70 1.94 2.00 1.22 3.94

Joggers 0.80 0.62 0.66 0.86 0.34 0.58 0.50

Bikers 0.92 1.26 0.66 0.30 0.00 0.20 0.08

Dogs 1.68 0.96 1.0 0.92 0.66 0.78 2.50

Pierce Refuge

The only developed entrance to the Refugecrosses an unprotected railroad crossing(i.e., no lights or barriers). For safetyreasons and due to insufficient staffing andbudget, few special events or publicrecreational activities have taken placethere. In 1997, the Service conducted afishing derby at Pierce Refuge; this activityhas not since been held. In recent years, thefocus has been on providing environmentaleducation. In 2000, Wolftree Inc., a non-profit science education group, applied for aspecial use permit to conduct outdoorscience classroom activities. Students(mostly high school level) were provided anopportunity to apply scientific methods andperform field study applications. WolftreeInc. targets students in rural or inner-cityschools that cannot usually afford toparticipate in these kinds of activities. Two-hundred seventeen students participated inWolftree activities on Pierce Refuge inspring 2000.

During the past three years, Service staffhave conducted two to three annual fieldtrips relating to salmonid research withinHardy Creek. Participants have included theOregon Museum of Science and IndustryScience Camp, Mt. Hood CommunityCollege, Americorps, Vancouver area highschools, and scientific professionals. Fieldtrip stops are tailored to the interests of theindividual group, however, typically includeportions of Hardy Creek and visits to thespawning channel. The number of field tripparticipants is typically less than 40 per visitand averaged 100 participants annually. Additional public use of Pierce Refuge hasincluded staff guided tours and one to twofield trips per year, with up to 50participants per trip.

Refuge Access and AdministrativeFacilities


There is only one current access point toSteigerwald Lake Refuge by the general



public, the Dike Trail. Since theconstruction of the dike in 1965, the one-lane graveled road on the top of theColumbia River dike provides service accessto the Port of Camas/Washougal formaintenance of the dike. The road is opento a variety of non-vehicle uses, includinghikers, cyclists, horseback riders, and dogwalkers; and provides views of the Refugeto the north, and the Columbia River to thesouth. Access to the Dike Trail is from aPort of Camas/Washougal Industrial Parkowned entry point. The Refuge entrance ismarked with boundary signs but there are nointerpretive or informational signs at thisentry point.

A paved vehicle exit from State Route 14into the area of the proposed GatewayCenter facility is located just east of theGibbons Creek diversion structure. Thisarea is currently used by occasional visitorsto park and take a break from driving. Aview of the Refuge wetlands, the ColumbiaRiver Gorge, and Mount Hood is provided,but a locked gate prevents access into theRefuge. The gate is used by Refuge staff todrive to the Gibbons Creek diversionstructure and elevated channel formaintenance and habitat management.

Near the intersection of Evergreen Highwayand State Route 14 in the northeast sectionof the Refuge, a service road is accessible toRefuge staff through a locked gate fromEvergreen Highway. This road providesservice access to Refuge staff, a Refugefarming cooperator, and other personnelperforming Refuge permitted activities.

The administrative office for the GorgeRefuges recently moved from Pierce Refuge

to Steigerwald Lake Refuge, located offEvergreen Highway. This office is currentlyaccessible across a railroad crossing, butrailroad personnel have expressed interest ineliminating the crossing and constructing anaccess road for Refuge staff from StateRoute 14. This road would be gated andlocked, and closed to the general public.

The Refuge office is located in a two storyfarmhouse built in 1950 that isapproximately 1800 square feet. Theremnants of a dairy barn still stand just eastof the office, including what appears to be asmall shop area and milking parlor. A smallwell house with a working pump andpressure tank is located in the northeastcorner of the Stevenson Unit. Another wellhouse is located near the site of the previousfarm buildings on the Straub Unit, but thewell has been capped, and there is no pumpor pressure tank.

Franz Lake Refuge

There is a public viewing deck on StateRoute 14 at milepost 31.5. There is nopublic access to Franz Lake Refuge. Agravel road from the highway provides theonly vehicle access onto the Refuge. Onesection of the road is privately-owned. TheService has an easement agreement with theproperty owner to use the road foradministrative purposes. Under thisagreement, the Service cannot permit publicuse of the road across private property.

A manufactured home is located along theentrance road to the Franz Lake dike, alongwith a well house, small livestock corral,and shed. The home was used by the refugemaintenance worker until he left the Service



in 2001, and has since been rented by aprivate tenant. The Service no longer needsthis residence, therefore, the tenant has beeninformed that we will be disposing of themobile home and restoring the grounds afterJune 2004. Pierce Refuge

There is no general public access into PierceRefuge. There are three entrances/exitsfrom State Route 14. The first, just east ofmilepost 36, is a gated, graveled, seldomused one-lane service entrance to a homeowned by the Service.

The second entrance, just east of the first,leads into a resident’s driveway, allowingaccess into the Refuge. Formerly, the 2300square-foot downstairs of this building wasused as the Refuge office. The 1900 square-foot upstairs is now rented to a privatetenant and the downstairs is currently usedas an office by Service Fire Managementpersonnel.

The third entrance to Pierce Refuge isapproximately 0.1 mile east of the secondentrance. It has a paved exit off thehighway which leads into a one-lane gravelroad. It is gated, then crosses a one-lanebridge over Hardy Creek, then a set ofrailroad tracks owned by the BurlingtonNorthern and Santa Fe Railway. Becausethe crossing is privately owned, it is notprotected with warning lights or gates. Thisentrance is primarily used by the Serviceand the WDFW when conducting fish andturtle research. Refuge maintenance andbiological staff also periodically use thisentrance to Pierce Refuge. The railroadcrossing currently receives an average of

five trips or less daily. The BurlingtonNorthern and Santa Fe Railway recommendsthe addition of safety lights and gates on thecrossing if vehicle crossings increase.

The highway widens at the entrance toPierce Refuge, which makes a relatively safeexit from the highway onto the Refuge. Entering the highway, however, requiresextreme caution due to a blind corner on thehighway east of the entrance point. Datafrom Washington State Department ofTransportation (WDOT) shows one accidentin the past decade; a vehicular collision withan animal, in the vicinity of the Refugeentrance. The safety of the entrance may belimiting factor to the expansion ofinterpretation, education, and researchprograms. Future significant change totraffic at this intersection will requireadditional analysis by the Federal HighwayAdministration and WDOT to determinesuitability of this access point.

Other facilities on Pierce Refuge include a14- by 66-foot manufactured home used tohouse temporary employees and volunteersworking on Refuge projects. Near theresidence is well house, storage building,and shop. This shop is currently being usedby the Service. A second shop located southof the railroad tracks was the formermaintenance facility for the Gorge Refuges.

Cultural Resources

Native Americans Overview

Excavations at the upstream entrance to theGorge have documented the presence ofNative Americans along the Columbia River



for at least the last 10,000 years.5 Studies atother sites and oral traditions of NativeAmericans establish that the Columbia Riverhas been a focal point for Native Americansever since. At the time of European American contact, the Native AmericanIndians who became known as the Chinooklived along the lower Columbia River,including areas that are now the GorgeRefuges. They shared many traits with theNorthwest Coast Indians, including artforms, house styles, mortuary practices, andreliance on establishing trade relationships.5 The distribution of Chinook peoples in thelower Columbia River may have been arelatively recent development, however, asthe earliest houses found in the PortlandBasin, dating to just over 2,000 years old,are similar to those built by groups living inthe Plateau at the time of EuropeanAmerican contact. After that time, Plateautype houses were replaced by Chinook styleplank houses, which were noted by earlyexplorers as far east as The Dalles.28

Because of the mild climate and abundantnatural food resources including wapato,camas, salmon, elk, deer, and acorns alongthe lower Columbia River, the Chinookwere able to invest time and labor in theacquisition and production of trade goods. The Columbia River also provided themeans for the Chinook to transport andcontrol the exchange of these trade goods. From further down river and the PacificCoast, the Chinook acquired and processedmarine mammal furs, ivory and bone, shell,fish oil, native copper, cedar, and art objects. At the important trading center of TheDalles, the Chinook exchanged these foritems from the continental interior. Thesuccess of the Chinookan economy is

reflected in the number of people itsupported, perhaps 12,000 to 14,000 peoplein the early 1800s.1

The Chinookan Indians were divided into alarge number of local groups called tribes,bands or nations. Those occupying theSkamania/Cascades area, near the presentday Franz Lake and Pierce Refuges, wereseveral groups identified by Lewis andClark as belonging to the Shahala Nation. These people lived in large villagesincluding Wah-Cleh-Lah below BeaconRock and Clah-Cleh-Lah between BeaconRock and the Cascades.27 The nearestidentified Chinookan group to SteigerwaldLake Refuge was known as theWashoughally.28 Because of their densepopulation and close contact in trading with,and assisting early European Americanstraveling along the Columbia River and atFort Vancouver, the Chinook of the lowerColumbia were frequently exposed tointroduced diseases that spread rapidly andkilled a large percentage of their people.4,28 Small, autonomous groups gradually losttheir identity and by the 1850s, the survivingpeoples were generally referred to simply asChinook.28 The Chinook watched whilepioneers settled among them, appropriatingtheir traditional lands and resources. Unableto endure the turn of events any longer, inMarch of 1856 a few Chinook participatedin an unsuccessful campaign against theiroppressors. Nine of their leaders werehanged. The Chinook survived into thetwentieth century as a small but distinctcommunity on the margins of the ColumbiaRiver.4

The descendants of the early Chinookanpeople today live primarily in Washington



and Oregon. The Chinook are currentlypursuing Federal tribal recognition. Thetribe could potentially have at least 800members, some of whom are currentlyenrolled in other Northwestern tribes.

Immigrant American Overview

The earliest exploration of the western endof the Columbia River Gorge by Europeansoccurred in October of 1792, whenLieutenant William Broughton of theVancouver Expedition, landed at “pointpossession” (now Point Vancouver) near theeast end of Steigerwald Lake and claimedpossession of the Pacific Northwest forGreat Britain.28 Thirteen years later, thefamous Lewis and Clark expedition passedby the area when traveling down theColumbia River in November of 1805. They recorded the small prairie above themouth of the Washougal River at what isnow Steigerwald Lake Refuge. They visitedthe area again on their return trip duringApril 1806, when they established a foodgathering and processing camp justsouthwest of Steigerwald Lake Refuge atwhat is now Cottonwood Beach beforecontinuing their return journey. Many otherexplorers and fur seekers came through thelower Columbia River to hunt and camp inthe vicinity of the Gorge Refuges during thefirst four decades of the nineteenthcentury.28

In the 1840s, thousands of land seekerscoming through the Columbia Gorge ontheir way to the Willamette Valley, viewedthe Cascades Portage as the last greatobstacle before arriving in the promisedland. At first, they used the Indian’s well-established path on the north bank to get

around the Upper Cascades. Later thebuilding of the portage tramway (1850), theMilitary Portage Road (1855), and theOregon Steam Navigation CompanyRailroad (1860), took much of the dangerout of this portage.4 The roads along thenorth bank of the river were eventuallylinked and became Washington State Route14 in the 1930s. A major railroad line wasbuilt along the Washington shore in 1906.4 It is still in use as part of the BurlingtonNorthern and Santa Fe Railway east-westmainline and crosses portions of all threeGorge Refuges.

It was not until the early 1850s when manyof the best agricultural lands in theWillamette Valley had already been claimedby settlers that the first Columbia Gorgeland claimants settled along the north shoreof the Columbia River. They made a livingby developing services for travelersincluding improving transportation systems,operating stores and hotels, hauling freight,and developing small farms.4 In the 1850sJoseph Gibbons operated a sawmill on theeast bank of Gibbons Creek, probably onland now part of Steigerwald LakeRefuge.28 Due to the lack of mention ofFranz Lake and nearby Arthur Lake by earlyexplorers and settlers it is believed that thelakes were formed sometime between 1850and 1908 when the land was acquired byJacob Franz. The lakes may have beenformed during one of three major floods thatoccurred in 1862, 1876, and 1894; with thelast one being the largest recorded flood onthe Columbia River. During the heyday ofsteamboats (1880s to 1920s), many peopleearned a living by cutting and sellingcordwood to fuel boilers which propelledthe steamboats. Louis and Kenzy Marr ran a



small woodcutting operation in the FranzLake area and developed a wood loadingfacility at Marrs landing, a rocky area at theeast end of what is now Franz Lake Refuge. The bottomlands around Steigerwald Lakewere primarily used for pasture in support ofthe emerging dairy industry.28 The land thatis now Pierce and Franz Lake Refuges hadsome pastures that supported cattlegrazing.38,39 Other related industries in thelocal area included a woolen mill that beganoperation in Washougal in the early 1900s,which became the Pendelton Woolen Mills,and a small orchard industry that wasunderway by 1910.28

Water-driven fishwheels, whose rotatingbaskets were used to harvest fish, wereintroduced to the Columbia River in 1879. The Skamania/Cascades area contained thesecond largest concentration of fishwheelson the Columbia River, with 28 wheels and2 canneries between North Bonneville andSkamania Landing. These machines werecapable of harvesting thousands of poundsof fish per day. This made salmon fishing ahighly efficient and profitable venture.11 Three fishwheels were located on the shoreof what is now the Pierce Refuge. Due tosevere declines in fish populations,fishwheels were outlawed in Oregon in1926, and in Washington in 1934.11

Beginning in the 1930s, with BonnevilleDam, the Columbia River dam system wasdeveloped for hydropower, flood control,irrigation, and river transportation. In 1966,the bottomlands of the present daySteigerwald Lake Refuge were diked, inpreparation for the development of theWashougal Industrial Park to the west ofSteigerwald Lake.28 In the late 1970s, the

Second Powerhouse of Bonneville Dam wasconstructed.

Cultural Resource Surveys

About 70 percent of Service-owned land at Steigerwald Lake Refuge has been surveyedfor cultural resources. In 1985, HeritageResearch Associates surveyed 682 acres ofland that eventually became SteigerwaldLake Refuge. Only minimal evidence ofNative American and Immigrant Americanoccupation and use of the area was found. Itis almost certain, however, that the Chinookgathered wapato, camas, and other marshplants at Steigerwald Lake, but theseactivities do not leave much of anarcheological record and no evidence of anyprehistoric camps or villages has been foundto date. While a few objects dating to theearly twentieth century were found on theproperty (Table 4-12), most historicstructures appeared to post date the 1966diking of the area and no evidence of earlyImmigrant American occupation wasencountered.28 Additional surveys atSteigerwald Refuge on about 40 acres foundno identifiable cultural resources.7,31

Only about one percent of the 489.5 acresthat currently make up Franz Lake Refugehave been surveyed for cultural resources. A five-acre reconnaissance survey wasconducted along the Columbia Rivershoreline in 1998 in association with aproposed bank stabilization project. Nocultural resources were found during thesurvey and there are no other known surveyson Franz Lake Refuge lands.

Less than one percent of Pierce Refuge hasbeen surveyed for cultural resources.



Several historic sites were identified (Table4-12) in two surveys covering about 28acres.25,31

While not discussed in detail here,additional surveys have identified

archeological and historical sites on landsadjacent to the Refuges. Because of this it ishighly likely that there are additional siteson the three Refuges that have not yet beenlocated due to a lack of surveys.

Table 4-11. Known cultural sites and National Register of Historic Places status (PR: PierceRefuge; SLR: Steigerwald Lake Refuge).

Refuge Description NRHP status ReferencesSLR Joseph Gibbons farmstead and sawmill

sites (1850-1870s)undetermined Minor and Beckham 1985

SLR 1920s farm buildings not eligible Minor and Beckham 1985

PR Castle Rock Fishwheel remains offshoreline

undetermined FWS 1991b; Donaldson & Cramer1971

PR 1880s and more recent buildings andfoundations

undetermined Keeler 1985; Raymond 1994

PR Remains of late 19th or early 20th centuryrailroad grade at mouth of Hardy Creek

undetermined Keeler 1985; Raymond 1994

Socioeconomic Environment

Demographics

The Portland-Vancouver metropolitan areais the largest human population center inOregon and the second largest populationcenter in the State of Washington. Themetropolitan area has grown from apopulation of 100,000 in 1890 to more than1.9 million in 2000. That figure is estimatedto increase to more than 3.4 million by2025. Clark County (Steigerwald LakeRefuge) is within the metropolitan area.

The population in Clark County has grown45 percent from 1990 to 2000, and mostresidents live in rapidly growing suburban

communities. In 1990, 36 percent ofworkers commuted outside the County towork primarily in the greater Portland,Oregon, area. Primary occupations areproviding services, manufacturing, andsales. Household income levels are higherrelative to the State average. Table 4-13compares County and State socioeconomicdata. Skamania County (Pierce and FranzLake Refuges) is outside the Portland-Vancouver metropolitan area. Between1990 and 2000, Skamania County’spopulation grew 19.1 percent. In 1990, 46percent of workers commuted outside theCounty to work. The Federal Governmentis the largest employer in the County. Income levels have been below the Stateaverage since the early 1980s (Table 4-13).



The population of both Counties has becomemore diverse since 1990 with the proportionof whites decreasing, while the Hispanic andAsian populations are growing (Table 4-13). The population age structure of bothcounties has a higher proportion of personsunder the age of 18 compared withWashington State. This suggests that theCounties have a higher than average needfor educational opportunities and facilities. Education and income levels are higher inClark County compared to SkamaniaCounty, as depicted in Table 4-13.

Land Use

Historically, forested bottomlands along thelower Columbia River, including theSteigerwald Lake basin, were cleared tomake room for pastures, crops, and dairy

farms. After World War II, as thepopulations of Clark County grew, a largeportion of the agricultural lands were andcontinue to be lost to urbanization. Datafrom 1992 showed one-fifth of Clark Countywas farmland, with crops comprising thelargest area; however, livestock, nurseries,and greenhouses provided the greatest farmincome. Half of the land area in ClarkCounty is non-Federal timberland, while Federal timberlands account for less thanone percent of the land area (Table 4-14). InClark County, the predominant land usealong the Columbia River is industrial andcommercial shipping. The Vancouver urbanarea and communities of Camas andWashougal have large residential andcommercial areas. Steigerwald Lake Refugeis adjacent to Washougal and provides openspace in this area.

Table 4-12. Socioeconomic profile of Clark and Skamania Counties and Washington StateParameter Clark County Skamania County Washington

Population 345,238 9,872 5,894,121Density (# people per mile2) 549.7 6.0 88.6Race/ethnicity (% of population)

White 88.8 92.1 81.8Black 1.7 0.3 3.2

Asian 3.2 0.5 5.5Native Hawaiian and Other Pacific Is. 0.4 0.2 1.3

Native American and Alaskan 0.8 2.2 1.6Other Race 2.0 2.4 3.9

Two or more races 3.1 2.2 3.6Hispanic Origin (any race) 4.7 4.0 7.5

Education % Population over 25 with high school degree 87.8 85.9 87.1% Population over 25 with Bachelor’s degree 22.1 16.8 27.7

Income and Poverty (1999)Median household income $48,376 $39,317 $45,776

% Persons below poverty level 9.1 13.1 10.6



Skamania County is adjacent to ClarkCounty, but is less influenced by themetropolitan area and has very differentpatterns of land use compared to ClarkCounty. The County is dominated byGifford Pinchot National Forest, and theMount Saint Helens National VolcanicMonument is in the northwest corner. Lands administered by the U.S. ForestService account for 80 percent of the land inthe County, while non-Federal timberlandscomprise an additional 19 percent of theCounty’s land area (Table 4-14). Farmlanddecreased in Skamania County by more than50 percent between 1982 and 1992.

Table 4-13. Land use profile for Clark andSkamania Counties. Most values are fromthe 1990s.

Land Use Proportion of Total Land Area

Clark Co. Skamania Co.

FederalTimberlands

less than 1% 80%

Non-FederalTimberlands

50% 19%

Agriculture 21% less than 1%

Residential 11% less than 1%

Industrial andCommercial

2% less than 1%

Recreation

Washington State’s outdoor recreationalpriorities are water access, trails, naturalareas, and fish and wildlife habitat.22 Thepublic wants facilities in settings thatinclude water access more than any other

type of setting. State and local governmentsshare the bulk of the responsibility ofproviding water access. Since 1990 localboating facilities and ramps have increasedor improved. A 146 mile lower ColumbiaRiver Water Trail from Bonneville Dam tothe Pacific Ocean is proposed so that peoplein non-motorized boats can travel for dayand overnight trips. The Water Trail isdivided into seven two-day paddles ofapproximately 20 miles each. The benefitsof this identified Water Trail system aresafety, stewardship, and regional recognition(Lower Columbia River EstuaryPartnership). The most popular and mostrapidly-growing outdoor activities are thosethat include the use of trails. Walking andhiking have emerged as major andrapidly-growing recreational activities. Estimates of outdoor recreation activitiesproject a 34 percent increase in walking anda 20 percent increase in hiking over the next20 years. Bicycling is a growing activitywith a projected 29 percent increase duringthe next 20 years.23 Regionally, there is alack of long trails that connect multiplelands. The U.S. Forest Service and theChinook Trail Association are interested indeveloping a trail through the Scenic Areaby linking existing trails, including the DikeTrail, with new trails.

The public desires mostly natural or naturalappearing outdoor recreation settings thatare safe from accidents and crime.9 Thereis a growing public appreciation and desireto protect the environment, especially sitesthat contain significant conservationresources such as rare flora, fauna, geologicfeatures, natural history, and other naturalresources of scientific or educational



interest. People want to enjoy nature andobserve wildlife.

During the next 20 years, the demand fornature activities is estimated to increase by37 percent in Washington.23 Local schooldistricts and the public would like to seemore environmental education opportunitieson public lands.9 Projections for selectconsumptive outdoor activities identify adecline in participation in Washington. Hunting is anticipated to decline by 21percent, while fishing activities areanticipated to decline by 10 percent over thenext 20 years.23 These traditionalconsumptive activities are being surpassedby nonconsumptive activities such aswildlife observation and photography.

The three Refuges are located in theColumbia River Gorge National ScenicArea. Established in 1986 to protect an areaof world renowned scenery and diverserecreation opportunities, the Scenic Area isalso a major tourist destination, an area ofeconomic importance, and home to over44,000 people. While public access to, anduse of, the Refuges is currently limited, thepotential users include people from the localcommunities adjacent to the Refuges,recreationists from the greater Portland-Vancouver metropolitan area, and nationaland international tourists seeking to enjoyand learn about the Columbia River Gorge.

The Refuges are located within a 60-minutedrive of the Portland/Vancouvermetropolitan area. State Route 14 (SR14)connects the Refuges to urban centers,providing a highly scenic travel and

recreation corridor through the Scenic Area. Opportunities for outdoor recreation alongSR14 abound, including several public areasclose to the Refuges (Table 4-15). Despitethese many opportunities, demand foroutdoor recreation exceeds supply and ispredicted to continue to grow as nearbyurban areas expand.9

In anticipation of increasing public demandfor outdoor recreation in Washington, twoadditional major recreational areaimprovements are proposed in the vicinityof the Refuges: Captain William Clark Parkat Cottonwood Beach, and Doetsch Ranch. Captain William Clark Park at CottonwoodBeach is located immediately west ofSteigerwald Lake Refuge. This 75-acre siteis owned and maintained by the Port ofCamas/Washougal. The sand beach, openmeadow, and riparian woodland are popularduring the summer for swimming, wading,and picnicking. The Dike Trail passes alongthe north boundary of the property andprovides a year-round trail for hiking,bicycling, jogging, and horseback riding. Camping and horseback riding also occur onthe beach. A master plan has beendeveloped and grants sought for recreationimprovements at William Clark Park.Construction is expected to begin in 2004,with completion planned the end of summer2005. When completed, there will be tentand RV camping sites, horseshoe pits,volleyball courts, picnic tables, restrooms,and historical interpretation displays. Expansion of the day dock at SteamboatLanding and a new dock are also proposed. Historical interpretation and living historyevents will focus on: Lewis and Clark’s six-day provision camp established here in



1806; Native Americans of the lowerColumbia River; and Washougal’s earlyhistory and settlement. Proposedenvironmental education facilities includetwo boardwalks with interpretation of IceAge floods, resident wildlife, nativeshoreline plants, and forested wetlands.

Doetsch Ranch is located about midwaybetween Franz Lake Refuge and PierceRefuge. Owned by Washington State Parks,this 160-acre site offers scenic views of theGorge and Beacon Rock, as well as a broadsandy beach. Currently, some hiking occurson the property but there are no signs to

identify the area and parking is limited. Future plans for the property include a largemulti-purpose, resource-based publicrecreation area.42 Opportunities andfacilities would be developed to providebeach access for swimming and bankfishing; trails for walking and hiking;interpretation of wildlife and other naturalresources; and interpretation of culturalresources and historical events. DoetschRanch could become the primary developedrecreation opportunity on the Washingtonside of the Columbia River, accommodating600 to 900 people at one time.42

Table 4-14. Public use opportunities available in Washington near the Gorge Refuges.

SiteInterpretation

Wildlife V

iewing

Hiking Trail

Biking

Dog W

alking

Picnicking

Fishing

Cam

ping

Horseback R

iding

Boat Launch

Steamboat Landing X X X X X X X

Clark Park at Cottonwood Beach X X X X A X

Steigerwald Lake Overlook X X

Mount Pleasant Grange X

Saint Cloud Recreation Area X X X X X A

Sams-Walker Recreation Area X X X X X A

Beacon Rock State Park X X X X X X X X X X

Town of North Bonneville X X X X

Hamilton Island Recreation Area X X X X X X

Fort Cascade Recreation Area X X X X X X

Bonneville Dam and Visitor Center X X X

Pacific Crest Trail Head at Bonneville(some uses occurring along trail)

X X X A X

X = Existing; A=Allowed but no developed facilities



Research and Monitoring


Air Quality Monitoring.Air quality data collected through a networkof monitoring stations in the ColumbiaRiver Gorge Scenic Area will be used todevelop a regional air quality strategy. Thenetwork was recently expanded to evaluatespatial and temporal patterns of haze. Amonitoring station was added at SteigerwaldLake Refuge in 2002. Surface climatic data(temperature, humidity, wind speed anddirection), coupled with localized air qualityparameters, will assist in analysis of regionalhaze gradients, daily haze patterns, andseasonal relationships to air quality.

Lamprey Study.The U.S. Geological Survey is evaluating lamprey use in Gibbons Creek. Lampreycollected will be used to determine responseof juveniles to temperature changes andolfactory stimuli, and to improveidentification techniques.

Franz Lake Refuge

Impacts of Mosquito Control Treatments.The Washington Cooperative Fish andWildlife Research Unit will examine theimpacts of Bacillus thuringiensis israelensis(B.t.i.). on non-target invertebrate species atFranz Lake Refuge. Invertebrate speciescomposition and abundance were sampledduring 2003 within B.t.i treatment plots anduntreated control plots to determine thepotential non-target effects of B.t.i. on the

aquatic food web and the potential forindirect impacts on wildlife. A final reportis expected to be completed by October2004.

Fish Distribution and Diet Study.Objectives of this study are to: (1) documentthe species of fish occurring at Franz LakeRefuge; (2) evaluate fish distributionrelative to habitat features; and (3) describethe diets of fish inhabiting Franz LakeRefuge, particularly juvenile salmonids. Results will be coupled with the Impacts ofB.t.i. Treatment of Mosquito Control studyto aid in evaluating effects of mosquitocontrol treatments to juvenile salmonids.

Pierce Refuge

Chum Salmon Monitoring.The Service monitors chum salmonspawning and reproduction in Hardy Creek. Adults are trapped and tagged to evaluatetheir movements within the watershed, andto determine the reproductive populationutilizing the Refuge. Redds (spawningbeds) are monitored for hatching success, aswell as for a variety of water qualityparameters. Out-migrating smolt aretrapped and marked to evaluate passage andcount smolt for reproduction estimates.

Assessment of Springs and Seeps.The U.S. Army Corp of Engineers initiated astudy in 2002 to assess the spring and seepsystems on Pierce Refuge. Sixteen summerand 39 winter springs and seeps have beenidentified along or adjacent to Hardy Creek. These sites are being evaluated on an annualcycle to determine flow volumes, flow



duration, and water quality. This data willbe analyzed to determine the potential forcreating additional salmonid spawninghabitat along Hardy Creek.

Water Pressure and TemperatureMonitoring.Pacific Northwest National Laboratorybiologists installed remote monitoringequipment at Pierce Refuge to monitor in-stream conditions associated with a chumsalmon spawning area that occurs adjacentto the Refuge. This area is heavilyinfluenced by the Bonneville Dam. Resultswill be used to evaluate the effects of waterlevel fluctuations and temperature changeson chum salmon spawning and incubation.

Western Pond Turtle Project.The WDFW is monitoring movements andsurvival of western pond turtles equippedwith radio transmitters and released atPierce Refuge. Under an existing agreementbetween WDFW and the Service, additionalturtles will be released and monitored until aself-sustaining population of western pondturtles is established at Pierce Refuge.

Columbia Yellowcress Monitoring.The Nature Conservancy and volunteersconduct annual surveys along the shorelinesof the Refuge to evaluate the status ofColumbia yellowcress, a plant species listedas threatened by the State of Washington. These surveys have been conducted since1991, and include a population assessment,as well as a habitat assessment that includesgrowing conditions and invasive speciesencroachment.

Refuge Management Economics

The Refuge staff consists of one full timeRefuge Manager for the Steigerwald Lake,Franz Lake, and Pierce National WildlifeRefuges. The office for the Gorge Refuges islocated at the Steigerwald Lake Refuge onthe Columbia Land Trust Unit adjacent tothe city of Washougal. Management of theGorge Refuges is routinely dependant uponthe availability of Ridgefield RefugeComplex support staff for various Refugeprojects and services. Support staff for fieldoperations includes a maintenance worker,outdoor recreation planner, biologicaltechnician and a wildlife biologist. Thesepositions are utilized throughout thecomplex of Refuges and travel to the area towork on various specific projects isrequired. During the summer months aYouth Conservation Corps crew of 5members and a crew leader generallyprovide limited project support to theRefuges for 5 to 10 days each year. In 2002,the Service provided approximately$103,000 in staff salaries and benefits to theadministration, resource management, andmaintenance of the Gorge Refuges.In addition to providing salaries andbenefits, goods and services were purchasedby the Service in the local communitiestotaling approximately $463,000 in 2002;approximately 75 percent was spent in ClarkCounty. Nearly all of the expenditures for2002 were for one-time only flood damagerestoration, maintenance managementsystem, and Federal roads projects.

Refuge management baseline costs notincluding salaries are estimated to be$74,000 per year for operations, resource



management, and maintenance activities.Approximately 70 percent of these fundswill be utilized for wildlife and habitatprojects, and the remaining 30 percent willbe utilized for public use projects.

National Wildlife Refuges contribute fundsto local counties through two revenuesharing programs, one that applies to Refugelands reserved from the public domain, andone that applies to lands purchased in feetitle. The Refuge Revenue Sharing Act of1998 authorizes payments to the county inwhich Service owned lands are located. TheRefuge lands within the Columbia RiverGorge are comprised of lands owned in fee-title. For lands owned in fee-title, theService is required to pay counties up to0.075 percent of the land’s appraised valueeach year, out of the Refuge Revenue

Sharing Fund. From 1998 to 2002, theFederal government paid an average of $12,000 for Franz Lake Refuge and PierceRefuge to Skamania County; and $19,000 toClark County for Steigerwald Lake Refuge.

In addition to expenses incurred duringRefuge staff operations, the Service’s LowerColumbia River Fisheries Program conductsannual salmon research activities and habitatdevelopment at all three Refuges. From twoto four staff biologists work on theseactivities, primarily from November throughMay. During the research period over thewinter of 2002 to 2003 and into the summerof 2003, the Service spent an additional$135,000 for staff salaries and benefits,travel expenses, supplies and equipment inClark and Skamania Counties.



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CHAPTER 4: AFFECTED ENVIRONMENT · PDF fileChapter 4 - Affected Environment 4-1 CHAPTER 4. ... quality priorities.32 Spring flood elevations ... As the river cut through slide debris,